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Validation Guide
1 Theory 1
5 S825 airfoil 27
6 Vortex cell 35
7 Automotive aerodynamics 39
8 Multi-phase flows 45
ii
1
Theory
In the literature there are several particle-based numerical approaches to solve the
computational fluid dynamics. They can be classified in three main categories:
(i) algorithms modeling the behavior of the fluid at molecular level (e.g. Direct
Simulation Montecarlo); (ii) algorithms which solve the equations at a macroscopic
level, such as Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) or Vortex Particle Method
(VPM), and finally, (iii) methods based on a mesoscopic framework, such as the
Lattice Gas Automata (LGA) and Lattice Boltzmann Method (LBM).
The algorithms that work at molecular level have a limited application, and they
are used in theoretical analysis. The methods that solve macroscopic continuum
equations are employed most frequently, but they also present several problems.
SPH-like schemes are computationally expensive and in their less sophisticated
implementations show lack of consistency and have problems imposing accurate
boundary conditions. VPM schemes have also a high computational cost and
besides, they require additional solvers (e.g. schemes based on boundary element
method) to solve the pressure field, since they only model the rotational part of the
flow.
Finally, LGA and LBM schemes have been intensively studied in the last years
being their affinity to the computational calculation their main advantage. Their
main disadvantage is the complexity to analyze theoretically the emergent behavior
of the system at macroscopic level from the laws imposed at mesoscopic level.
XFlow’s approach to the fluid physics takes the main ideas behind these schemes
and extends them to overcome most of the limitations present on these schemes.
LGA schemes are simple models that allow to solve the behavior of gases. The
main idea is that the particles move discretely in a d-dimensional lattice in one of
2 Theory
where Ωi is the collision operator, which for each previous state (n1 , ..., nb ) computes
a post-collision state (nC C
1 , ..., nb ) conserving the mass, linear momentum and energy;
r is a position in the lattice and ci a velocity.
From a statistical point of view, a system is constituted by a large number
of elements which are macroscopically equivalent to the system under study. The
macroscopic density and linear momentum are:
b b
1X 1X
ρ= ni , ρv = n i ci (1.2)
b b
i=1 i=1
expansion shows that it is possible to design LGA schemes that recover the
hydrodynamic macroscopic behavior at low Mach numbers.
The main advantage of these methods is their great affinity with computers.
They are easily programmed and very efficient. Some schemes have isotropy
problems (do not satisfy Galilean invariance) and produce very noisy results.
The main contribution of LGA schemes is that they are precursor of the Lattice
Boltzmann method.
The origins of the Lattice Boltzmann Method (LBM) ([2, 3, 4]) lie in the LGA
schemes. While the LGA schemes use discrete numbers to represent the state of the
molecules, the LBM method makes use of statistical distribution functions with real
variables, preserving by construction the conservation of mass, linear momentum
and energy. It can be shown that if the collision operator is simplified under the
Bhatnagar-Gross-Krook (BGK) approximation [5], the resulting scheme reproduces
the hydrodynamic regime also for low Mach numbers. This operator is defined as
follows:
1
ΩBGK
i = (fieq − fi ) (1.4)
τ
eq
where fi is the local equilibrium function and τ is the relaxation characteristic time
(which is related to the macroscopic viscosity).
Usually, the equilibrium distribution function adopts the following expression:
eq ciα vα vα vβ ciα ciβ
fi (r, t) = ti ρ 1 + 2 + ( 2 − δαβ ) (1.5)
cs 2c2s cs
where cs is the sound speed, v the macroscopic velocity, δ the Kronecker delta, and
ti are built preserving the isotropy in space.
LBM schemes are classified as a function of the spatial dimensions d and the
number of distribution functions b, resulting the notation DdQb. The most common
4 Theory
schemes in two dimensions are the D2Q7 and D2Q9 represented in Figure 1.2,
while in three dimensions the most used schemes are the D3Q13, D3Q15, D3Q19
and D3Q27 plotted in Figure 1.3.
Finally, the multiscale Chapman-Enskog expansion gives us the relation between
the macroscopic viscosity and the relaxation parameter:
1
ν = c2s (τ − ) (1.6)
2
For a positive viscosity, the relaxation time must be greater than 0.5. The most
interesting aspect is that these schemes are able to model a wide range of viscosities
(0, ∞) in an efficient way even using explicit formulations.
General references are the review by Chen and Doolen (1998) [6] and the book
by Succi (2001) [7].
Leddy
Tbreak ∼ (1.7)
νeddy
and the time to dissipate the kinetic energy through viscosity is expressed as
L2eddy
Tdissip,visc ∼ (1.8)
ν
1.4 Turbulence modeling 5
For large eddies and high Reynolds numbers, the break time is smaller than time
employed to dissipate the energy and this produces the Kolmogorov cascade.
The kinetic energy of a turbulent structure can be estimated by
2
Ec eddy ∼ Veddy
The smallest eddies present in the flow (of size ∼ Lcritical ) have a break
time equal to time necessary to transform their kinetic energy to viscous energy
(Tbreak ∼ Tdissip,visc ). Then the kinetic energy dissipation ratio can be estimated by
3 3
Vcritical ν3 Veddy
εviscous ∼ ∼ 4 ∼ ∼ εbreak (1.9)
Lcritical Lcritical Leddy
and thus,
3 L3 3
Leddy Veddy eddy Lcritical L3critical 3
∼ 3 = Reeddy (1.10)
Lcritical ν 3 Leddy L3eddy
Finally,
Lcritical −3/4
∼ Reeddy (1.11)
Leddy
Taking into account this relation, if we want to solve explicitly every eddy in a
three-dimensional flow, the number of elements are in the order of
3
Leddy 9/4
Nelements ∼ ∼ Reeddy (1.12)
Lcritical
Table 1.1 summarizes the number of elements necessary to solve in a direct way
the turbulence at different Reynolds numbers. Direct numerical simulation (DNS)
of turbulence is currently possible only for low Reynolds numbers, while for typical
industrial Reynolds numbers some modeling for the unresolved scales is required.
Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) approach models the turbulence in
a global way. This approach is nowadays the most widely adopted and calculates
6 Theory
values averaged in time, removing the time dependence of the solution. Although
calculating averaged results is computationally less expensive, new terms appear in
the Navier-Stokes equations that have to be modeled by new transport equations.
Moreover there are several RANS models, each one suitable for a specific problem,
and the parameters of each model need to be adjusted empirically.
Another approach to the turbulence problem is the Large Eddy Simulation
(LES). These schemes solve the turbulence in a local way, modeling only the smallest
scales, and are closer to the physics (see Figure 1.4). The turbulence at smallest
scales has been extensively studied and its behavior can be reproduced without using
arbitrary parameters. These are the type of schemes employed in XFlow.
The LES scheme adopted by default by XFlow is the Wall-Adapting Local Eddy-
viscosity (WALE), which has good properties both near and far of the wall and with
laminar and turbulent flows. This model is formulated as follows:
References
[1] Y.H. Qian, D. D’Humieres, and P. Lallemand. Lattice BGK models for Navier-
Stokes equation. Europhysics Letters, 17:479, 1992.
[2] G. McNamara and G. Zanetti. Use of the Boltzmann equation to simulate lattice-
gas automata. Physical Review Letters, 61:2332–2335, 1988.
[3] F.J. Higuera and J. Jimenez. Boltzmann approach to lattice gas simulations.
Europhysics Letters, 9:663–668, 1989.
[5] P.L. Bhatnagar, E.P. Gross, and M. Krook. A model for collision processes in
gases. Phys. Rev., 94:511, 1954.
[6] S. Chen and G. Doolen. Lattice Bolzmann method for fluid flows. Annual
Reviews of Fluid Mechanics, 30:329–64, 1998.
[7] S. Succi. The Lattice Boltzmann Equation for Fluid Dynamics and Beyond.
Clarendon Press, 2001.
8 REFERENCES
2
Lid-driven cavity flow
The solution computed with XFlow is plotted in Figure 2.2. The vx velocity
distribution along vertical centerline is shown in Figure 2.3 and Table 2.1. Additional
quantitative comparisons of pressure and vorticity are presented in Tables 2.2 and
2.3.
For this problem it is essential to activate the high order boundary conditions
(Project Tree > Engine > Advanced Options > High order boundary
conditions). This imposes the velocity at the lid through a high order scheme.
While using high order BC the velocity relative error is O(10−3 ), with the default
BC the relative error is O(10−2 ).
11
Table 2.2: Pressure p along the vertical centerline for Re = 1000. Comparison of
XFlow’s results for different resolutions with a reference solution.
Table 2.3: Vorticity ω along the vertical centerline. Comparison of XFlow’s results
for different resolutions with a reference solution.
12 REFERENCES
References
[1] U. Ghia, K.N. Ghia, and C.T. Shin. High-Re solutions for incompressible
flow using the Navier-Stokes equations and a multigrid method. Journal of
Computational Physics, 48:387–411, 1982.
[2] C.-H. Bruneau and M. Saad. The 2d lid-driven cavity problem revisited.
Computers & Fluids, 35:326–348, 2006.
3
Natural convection in a cavity
Buoyancy-driven flow in a square cavity with vertical sides which are differentially
heated allows to test XFlow in thermal problems where the buoyancy forces are
modeled using the Boussinesq approximation. The aim is to calculate the flow and
thermal field for Rayleigh numbers of 103 and 106 , and compare the results with the
benchmark solutions published by De Vahl et al. [1].
The boundary conditions for the problem (see Figure 3.1) involve two vertical
walls at different temperatures, leading to a thermal gradient across the domain.
This thermal gradient produces varying buoyancy forces between the walls that
drive the flow. Horizontal walls are considered adiabatic.
The Boussinesq approximation assumes the linear variation of the density as a
function of the temperature θ,
ρ = ρ0 [1 − α(θ − θ0 )]
and that the thermodynamic properties of incompressible fluids are constant except
14 Natural convection in a cavity
∇·v =0 (3.1)
dv
ρ0 = ∇ · σ + ρ0 [1 − α(θ − θ0 )]g (3.2)
dt
dθ
ρ0 cp = k∇ · (∇θ) + Φ (3.3)
dt
where α is the thermal expansion coefficient, cp the specific heat at constant pressure,
k the thermal diffusion coefficient, θ0 a reference temperature, ρ0 = ρ(θ0 ), and Φ is
the viscous heat dissipation.
Benchmark solutions for the natural convection problem were published by [1].
These solutions are compared against the numerical results obtained with XFlow.
The non-dimensional distances and velocities used in the results are
x y vx L vy L
X= , Y = , Vx = , and Vy =
L L κ κ
k
with κ = the thermal diffusivity. The Rayleigh number is defined as
ρ cp
ρ g α ∆θ L3
Ra = (3.4)
µκ
Tables 3.1 and 3.2 show the comparison of XFlow’s results with the benchmark
solution published in [1] for Ra = 103 and Ra = 106 . There is a good agreement in
both cases although the accuracy decreases for the highest Rayleigh number. This
deterioration is consistent with the findings of most contributors reported in [1].
In this test, the maximum and minimum locations are cell centered, none of the
interpolation techniques suggested by [2] have been employed.
Table 3.1: Case Ra = 103 . Comparison of XFlow’s results for different resolutions
with the benchmark solution.
Table 3.2: Case Ra = 106 . Comparison of XFlow’s results for different resolutions
with the benchmark solution.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 3.2: Result fields for Ra = 103 : (a) temperature, (b) horizontal velocity, (c)
vertical velocity, and (d) vorticity.
17
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 3.3: Result fields for Ra = 106 : (a) temperature, (b) horizontal velocity, (c)
vertical velocity, and (d) vorticity.
18 REFERENCES
References
[1] G. DeVahl Davis and I.P. Jones. Natural convection in a square cavity: a
comparison exercise. International Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids,
3:227–248, 1983.
The NACA-0012 airfoil is a widely-used wing section that has zero camber and
a maximum thickness to chord ratio of 12 percent. Its two-dimensional profile is
symmetric and has very smooth aerodynamic shape, as shows Figure 4.1. This
validation case presents the results for the flow past a NACA-0012 at zero angle-
of-attack and Reynolds number 500 using XFlow, and compares the results with
reference data. Due to lack of experimental data for such a low Reynolds number,
the comparison will be based on the CFL3D code from the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration (NASA) [1, 2].
This two-dimensional single phase external aerodynamics analysis has been run
using a virtual wind tunnel of dimensions 60 × 40 m and a NACA-0012 profile of
chord length L = 1 m. In order to reach a Reynolds number equal to 500 based on
the chord length, the simulation parameters have been set according to Table 4.1.
The spatial resolution chosen is 2.56 m for the far field, and 0.005 m around
the airfoil profile and within the wake area, as shown in Figure 4.2. The spatial
discretization has been defined through a region of refinement instead of using an
adaptive refinement in order to ensure that the symmetry of the NACA-0012 is
respected. The discretization ended up with 1.3 million elements in 9 levels of
refinement. Since the flow is laminar, no wall functions have been used to model the
boundary layer.
Due to the fact that XFlow solver is inherently transient, the analysis has been
20 NACA-0012 airfoil at Re = 500
run until the aerodynamic coefficients stabilize in time. The time step used was
0.004 s, which corresponds to a Courant number of 1 with respect to the lattice size
and the free-stream velocity.
Figure 4.4: X-component of velocity u(x, y) at x/L = 0.0, 0.25, 0.50, 0.75 and 1.0.
23
Figure 4.5: Y-component of velocity v(x, y) at x/L = 0.0, 0.25, 0.50, 0.75 and 1.0.
24 NACA-0012 airfoil at Re = 500
Figure 4.6: Pressure coefficient at x/L = 0.0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 and 1.0.
REFERENCES 25
References
[1] C. Rumsey, R. Biedron, and J. Thomas. CFL3D: Its history and some recent
applications. Technical report, NASA TM-112861, 1997.
[2] D.P. Lockard, L.-S. Luo, S.D. Milder, and B.A. Singer. Evaluation of
PowerFLOW for Aerodynamic Applications. Journal of Statistical Physics,
107(1/2):423–478, 2002.
26 REFERENCES
5
S825 airfoil
The S825 airfoil has been designed for horizontal-axis wind turbine applications by
the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (Colorado, USA). The report of the
design and experimentation of the S825 airfoil [1] exposes the different objectives
and constraints set for the design, as well as the methodology of measurements
which have been conducted in the NASA Langley Low-Turbulence Pressure Tunnel
(LTPT) [2]. As explained in [1], the main objectives were, first, to reach a maximum
lift coefficient of at least 1.40 at a Reynolds number of 2 × 106 . Second, a low profile-
drag coefficients should be obtained between 0.40 and 1.20 of the lift coefficient. Two
main constraints were to keep the zero-lift pitching-moment coefficient greater than
-0.15, and also to have an airfoil thickness equal to 17% of the chord. The final two-
dimensional design is as shown in Figure 5.1, with a chord length equal to 0.45715
m.
between -4 and 10 degrees every two degrees. All the calculations are transient due
to the nature of the XFlow solver and use the Wall-Adapting Local-Eddy turbulence
model, which belongs to the Large Eddy Simulation (LES) approach. Wall function
models in XFlow assume that the boundary layer is fully turbulent, therefore it is
not possible to model transition or prescribe a transition location.
Two-dimensional single phase analyses have been performed using a virtual wind
tunnel of 60 m × 40 m and a velocity at the inlet of 43.7493 m s−1 . The angle of
attack is varying by rotating the geometry instead of projecting the inlet velocity
vector, since XFlow allows easy manipulation of the geometry.
The fluid has a density of 1 kg m−3 and a dynamic viscosity of 10−5 Pa s
accordingly to the Reynolds number based on the airfoil chord length (Re = 2×106 ).
The simulations have been run for 1 second of physical time, with a time step of
0.002 s. The resolution scale at the far field is 1.28 m, using the refinement near
walls and dynamically adapting to the wake available in XFlow. The walls and the
wake are resolved with a scale of 0.0025 m, as shown in Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2: Resolution refinement near the airfoil and the wake.
The solution for the static pressure and velocity flow variables at final time for
zero angle of attack can be observed in Figure 5.3.
For each angle of attack, the curve of pressure coefficients (Cp ) has been
extracted in XFlow using a cutting plane field distribution which projects the selected
field on the upper and lower sides of the airfoil. The Cp has been computed as
following, being Vref equal to 43.7493 m s−1 :
pstatic
Cp = 1 2
(5.1)
2 ρ Vref
29
(b) Velocity
Figure 5.3: Static pressure and velocity flow fields at final time for AoA = 0 degrees.
For the angles of attack -4, -2, 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 degrees, the pressure coefficient
distribution along the airfoil has been compared with the transition free experimental
data presented in [1]. The results for angle of attack between 0 and 6 degrees are
in good agreement with the experiments, as shows Figure 5.4. On the upper side
of the airfoil, the pressure coefficients are slightly under-estimated when the angle
increases but still match reasonably with the experimental data.
However, when angles are increased to 8 and 10 degrees of AoA then results
are getting less accurate, as shown in Figure 5.5. The pressure coefficient tends
to be more under-estimated near the leading edge of the upper part. This could
be explained by the lack of transition model or the LES model, which is not fully
consistent for 2D simulations.
Another last series of angles of attack have been studied, this time for negative
incidence. Again, XFlow predicts with accuracy the pressure coefficient distribution
for -2 and -4 degrees, as shown in Figure 5.6.
Finally, Figure 5.7 compares the angle of attack vs. lift coefficient for theoretical
[1], experimental [1] and XFlow results. For positive angles, the lift coefficient is
slightly over-predicted by XFlow but in good agreement with the theoretical results.
30 S825 airfoil
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 5.4: Airfoil pressure coefficient distribution for different AoA: a) 0 degrees,
b) 2 degrees, c) 4 degrees, d) 6 degrees.
31
(a) (b)
Figure 5.5: Airfoil pressure coefficient distribution for different AoA: a) 8 degrees,
b) 10 degrees.
(a) (b)
Figure 5.6: Airfoil pressure coefficient distribution for different AoA: a) -2 degrees,
b) -4 degrees.
32 S825 airfoil
Figure 5.7: AoA (α) vs. lift coefficient (Cl ) for theoretical, experimental and
XFlow results.
REFERENCES 33
References
[1] D. Somers. Design and experimental results for the s825 airfoil. Technical report,
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2005.
Trapping vortices is a technique that prevents vortex shedding in flows past bluff
bodies. Vortices forming near bluff bodies tend to be shed downstream but, if the
vortex is kept near the body at all times, it is called trapped.
This validation case compares XFlow results with experimental data for the flow
inside a vortex trapping cavity (vortex cell). The geometry consists in a rectangular
channel of section 520 × 52 mm with a spherical vortex cell of 45 mm depth located
at mid-length as shown in Figure 6.1. The boundary condition at the inlet is set
to a constant fluid velocity of UL = 36 m/s and the gauge pressure to 0 Pa at the
outlet. The fluid has been initialized to UL in the whole domain except inside the
vortex cell where it is 0 m/s in order to reach quicker the pseudo-steady state.
The experimental data from [1, 2] provide the normalized X-component of the
velocity measured along a vertical line going from the bottom of the sphere up to
the upper wall of the channel (see Figure 6.2). The vertical coordinate along the
line is normalized by the line length L = 52 mm.
The two-dimensional studies led by [3] based on steady RANS turbulence models
show how sensitive are the numerical results for the vortex cell flow depending
on the turbulence model and the choice of the numerical scheme. XFlow uses
36 Vortex cell
Figure 6.3: Comparison of XFlow 3D results with experimental data and RANS
results from [3].
References
[1] P. A. Baranov, S. V. Guvernyuk, M. A. Zubin, and S. A. Isaev. Numerical and
physical modeling of the circulation in a vortex cell in the wall of a rectilinear
channel. Fluid Dynamics, 35:663–673, 2000.
[2] S.A. Isaev, S.V. Guvernyuk, M.A. Zubin, and Y.S. Prigorodov. Numerical and
physical modeling of a low-velocity air flow in a channel with a circular vortex
cell. Journal of Engineering Physics and Thermophysics, 73:337–344, 2000.
For this validation the 1/5 wind tunnel test model has been adopted. Vehicle’s
length, width and height are 0.81 m, 0.29 m and 0.27 m respectively, while wind
tunnel dimensions are 9 x 1.5 x 3 m (see Figure 7.1). This corresponds to a blockage
ratio of 1.38%. The wind tunnel domain type available in XFlow is used, with an
inlet uniform velocity of 50 m/s. The fluid properties are density ρ = 1 kg m−3 and
dynamic viscosity µ = 1.5 × 10−5 Pa s.
The Reynolds number for this case is 2.7 × 106 , taking the length of the vehicle
as reference. In this problem it is essential to resolve the turbulent wake properly.
Particle resolution in the far field is 0.1 m, while in the wake and on the model
surface scales up to 2.5 mm are resolved. Dynamic wake refinement is applied, so
that the specified particle resolution is automatically adopted in regions with high
turbulence, while less turbulent regions are treated with fewer particles. In addition,
XFlow uses a Large Eddy Simulation (LES) approach for modeling the turbulence,
in particular the Wall-Adapting Local Eddy-viscosity (WALE) model (see Section
1).
The turbulent wake structure can be observed in Figures 7.2 and 7.3, together
with the instantaneous pressure field and the skin friction distribution in Figure 7.4.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 7.3: Instantaneous velocity field: (a) on the vehicle surface, (b) in the
Y = 0.07 m plane, and (c) in the symmetry plane.
42 Automotive aerodynamics
Figure 7.4: Instantaneous pressure field in the symmetry plane and skin friction
distribution.
Typically, drag stabilizes in a characteristic time of the order of the flow traveling
the vehicle length. In 0.1 seconds, the flow has traveled more than six times the
whole body. The time averaged drag between 0.05 and 0.1 seconds of physical
simulation is Cd = 0.151 (see Figure 7.9), in good agreement with the values
measured in the experiments shown in Table 7.1. [2] showed that using transient
CFD simulations, surface pressure values can be computed fairly accurate. The
overall drag coefficient however, is not predicted satisfactorily. RANS turbulence
models tend to overestimate the drag. LES transient calculations are becoming an
integral part of the aerodynamic development process and affordable using XFlow.
XFlow 0.151
Experiments Volvo 0.158
Experiments Daimler Benz 0.153
References
[1] G. Le Good and K. Garry. On the use of reference models in automotive
aerodynamics. SAE paper, 2004-01-1308.
[2] S. Perzon and L. Davidson. On transient modeling of the flow around vehicles
using the reynolds equations. In ACFD 2000 Beijing, pages 720–727, 2000.
8
Multi-phase flows
When heavy fluid lies above lighter, the equilibrium in unstable and a small
perturbation of the interface from the horizontal will grow with time, producing the
phenomenon known as Rayleigh-Taylor instability [1]. This instability is a prototype
problem for computational studies of multi-phase flows.
The problem consists of two layers of fluid initially at rest in the rectangular
domain Ω = (−d/2, d/2) × (−2d, 2d), see Figure 8.1. The flow is characterized by
the density difference between the two fluids and their effective viscosity.
Figure 8.2: Vertical position of spike and bubble vs. time. Comparison of
XFlow solution with reference ones.
Computations are carried out on a 200 × 800 grid and the time step is automatically
set to 0.000144 s. Free-slip condition is enforced at all walls. The tracking of the
interface is done using the marker-and-cell method.
Results on the vertical position of the tip of the falling and rising fluid (spike and
bubble, respectively) are shown in Figure 8.2. XFlow solution is in good agreement
with the reference results [3, 4].
The evolution of the instability is shown in Figure 8.3 at dimensionless times
√
t̃ =0, 1, 1.25, 1.5, 1.75, 2, 2.25, 2.5, where t̃ = t g At. Around t̃ = 1.5 the heavy
fluid begins to roll up into two counter-rotating vortices (see also Figure 8.4). Later,
around t̃ = 2, these two vortices become unstable and a pair of secondary vortices
appear at the tails of the roll-ups. The roll-ups and vortices in the heavy fluid
spike are due to the Kelvin–Helmholtz instability. The shapes of the fluid interface
obtained with XFlow compare well with those of the reference results [3, 4].
47
t̃ = 0 t̃ = 1 t̃ = 1.25 t̃ = 1.5
References
[1] D.H. Sharp. An overview of Rayleigh-Taylor instability. Physica D, 12:3–18,
1984.
[3] J.-L. Guermond and L. Quartapelle. A projection FEM for variable density
incompressible flows. Journal of Computational Physics, 165:167–188, 2000.
[4] H. Ding, P. Spelt, and C. Shu. Diffuse interface model for incompressible
two-phase flows with large density ratios. Journal of Computational Physics,
226:2078–2095, 2007.