Measurement of Pressure: Dr. Gangadharan Raju

Measurement of Pressure
Instructor
Dr. Gangadharan Raju
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad
Measurement of pressure Instrumentation
Pressure
Pressure is the normal force exerted by the medium, usually a fluid, on a
unit area
Pressure often expressed

in pascal (N/m2)
Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is measured

relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and the local
atmospheric pressure. Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to
read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate gage pressure.
2
Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering IIT Hyderabad
How Much is a Pascal (Pa)
• 1 N/m2 is a very small pressure

• Therefore kilopascal (kPa)
• 1 atmosphere (14.7 psi, 750mmHg) is
approximately 100 kPa = 1 bar
• 1 kPa is about 7 mmHg
• 1% of a gas at our altitude is about 7 mmHg
3
Pressure
Relation of Various Units of Pressure to the Pascal
4
Courtesy: T G Beckwith, R D Maragoni, J H Lienhard, Mechanical Measurements Pearson learning solutions, USA, 2011.
Pressure measurement
Asses the situation

• What is the range of pressures to be measured?
• Is pressure dynamic or static?
• What is more important: absolute accuracy or good
repeatability?
• How much overpressure protection is required?
5
Measurement of pressure 6 Instrumentation
Static and Dynamic Pressure
Static pressure tube B

Impact tube A
Total or stagnation pressure = Static pressure + Dynamic pressure
6
Pressure measuring transducers
Pressure measurement involves covering a pressure difference into a force and

then measuring the force
Force can be measured by

- weight of an object or of a column of liquid
- deflection in an elastic member
- piezoelectric material
7
Types of Measurement
• Mechanical
• U-tube manometer, Bourdon tube, Diaphragm and Bellows
• Electrical
• Strain Gauge, Capacitive sensor, Potentiometric, Resonant
Wire, Piezoelectric, Magnetic, Optical
8
Manometer
It is commonly used to measure small and
moderate pressure differences. A manometer
contains one or more fluids such as mercury,
water, alcohol, or oil.
Measuring the
pressure drop across
a flow section or a flow
device by a differential
manometer.
The basic
manometer.
In stacked-up fluid layers, the

pressure change across a fluid layer
of density  and height h is gh. 9
9
Inclined type manometer
𝑃1𝑎 = 𝑃2𝑎 + 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ
= 𝑃2𝑎 + 𝜌𝑚 𝑔𝐿sin𝜃
Greater sensitivity obtained through a displacement amplification scheme
10
Manometer
Manometer is simple, inexpensive and relatively free from error
Not practical for measuring pressures greater than, say, 200 kPa
Poor dynamic performance
11
Deadweight tester
Primarily for calibration and can measure
extremely high pressures.
A deadweight tester measures pressure

directly through application of a weight
that provides a force per unit
It is constructed with an internal chamber

filled with a fluid (usually oil), along with a
tight-fitting piston, cylinder, and plunger.
A deadweight tester is able Total force F acting on the oil at the

to measure extremely high piston–oil interface is the sum of the
pressures (up to 10,000 psi weight of the piston plus the applied
in some applications). weights.
12
12
Bourdon Gage
Principle: change in curvature of the tube is proportional to

difference of pressure inside from that outside the tube
Applications: tire pressure, pressure at the top or along the walls of

tanks or vessels
13
Types of Bourdon Gage
C-type tubes are available for measuring pressures

up to 6000 bar
C-type tube of 25mm radius has a maximum

displacement travel of 4 mm, giving a moderate
level of measurement resolution
Helical and spiral tubes are available for measuring

pressures up to 700 bar
Measurement resolution and sensitivity is higher

compared to C-type
Bourdon tubes only have guaranteed accuracy limits when measuring

gaseous pressures
14
Bellows
A bellows sensing element is a thin-walled,

flexible metal tube formed into deep
convolutions and sealed at one end
One end is held fixed and pressure is

applied internally.
Difference between the internal and

external pressures causes the bellows
to change in length
15
Diaphragms
Applied pressure causes displacement of the diaphragm and this movement is
measured by a displacement transducer
Flexibility and sensitivity to pressure change must provide diaphragm deflections

that match the input range of the secondary transducer
Natural frequency of the diaphragm should be sufficiently high to provide

satisfactory frequency response
Output should be linear
16
Diaphragms Diaphragm pressure gauges are

suitable for gauge, absolute and
differential pressure
Their core, the diaphragm element, is

a circular, corrugated diaphragm
which is clamped or welded between
two flanges.
Diaphragm is generally manufactured

from resilient steels such as stainless
steel or Inconel
On pressure loading, the deflection of

the element, proportional to the
incident pressure, is translated to a
movement via a link
Diaphragm elements basically possess a corrugated profile as flat metal

diaphragm would deform plastically under loading and would therefore
make a precise pressure measurement impossible.
17
Diaphragms
Diaphragm pressure gauges: operating range 16 mbar- 25 bar.
Bourdon tubes, in contrast, the lowest measured value achieved is

around 600 mbar.
At pressures below 16 mbar however, diaphragm elements are pushed to

their limits: they would have to be extremely thin to achieve the
required elasticity, and no longer be reliably stable
Diaphragm pressure gauges are almost predestined for the highest

demands of aggressive materials, such as one finds in the chemical
and petrochemical industries.
18
Diaphragms
Deflection of flat metal diaphragms is limited either by stress requirements or
by deviation from linearity
Maximum deflection that can be tolerated while maintaining a linear

pressure-displacement relation is about 30% of the diaphragm thickness
19
Diaphragms
Flat circular diaphragm
Relationship between pressure and deflection
p = applied pressure, t = thickness, a = radius,

yc= central deflection,
E= Young’s modulus, u=Poisson’s ratio
20
Diaphragms
Natural frequency of the diaphragm
Relationship between sensitivity and natural frequency
Sensitivity is inversely proportional to square of natural frequency
Sensitivity can be improved by lowering the natural frequency
The natural frequency should be 3 to 4 times the frequency of pressure

pulsations
21
Diaphragms
Corrugated circular diaphragm
Corrugated diaphragms permit considerably larger deflections than flat

diaphragms
The number and depth of corrugations control the response and sensitivity
The greater the number and depth, the more linear is its deflection and
greater is the sensitivity
22
Diaphragms
Flat and corrugated diaphragm under load are bent in the tangential and radial
directions
Flat diaphragm has equal bending rigidity along radial and tangential directions
Corrugated diaphragm has different bending rigidity along radial and tangential
directions
Because of geometrical shape, the resistance to bending and stretching will be

smaller than in the tangential direction 23
Diaphragms
24
Strain-gage and Diaphragms
25
Diaphragms
Capacitative transdcuers
𝑎
Capacitance 𝐶 = 𝜖𝑎
𝑑
𝜖𝑎 = Absolute permittivity,
a = Area of the plate
d = Distance between the plate

Capacitative pressure transducers use a flexible diaphragm as one plate of a
capacitor
The change in capacitance caused by the diaphragm displacement is

detected using either a capacitance bridge or the change in frequency of an
electrical oscillator
Capacitative transducers have extremely high sensitivity, and are useful for
high resolution vacuum pressure measurements 26
Mcleod Gage
Working of McLeod Gauge is based on

Boyles law
𝑝2 𝑉2
𝑝1 =
𝑉1
𝑝1 and 𝑝2 are pressures at initial and final

conditions, 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 are volumes at
corresponding conditions
By compressing a known volume of

the low-pressure gas to a higher
pressure and measuring the resulting
volume and pressure, one can
calculate the initial pressure
27
Mcleod Gage
Volume of the capillary per unit length is denoted by a so that the
volume of the gas in the capillary is 𝑉 = 𝑎𝑦
𝑐
Volume of the capillary, bulb, and tube down to the opening is 𝑉𝐵

𝑉𝐵
Assume isothermal compression of the gas in the capillary, 𝑝𝑐 = 𝑝
𝑉𝑐
Pressure indicated by the capillary is 𝑝𝑐 − 𝑝 = 𝑦 Pressure in terms of the

height of the mercury
column
𝑎𝑦 2 𝑦𝑉𝑐
𝑝= =
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑎𝑦 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑎𝑦
𝑎𝑦 2
𝑝= , 𝑎𝑦 ≪ 𝑉𝐵
𝑉𝐵
Total pressure range of from about 0.01 Pa to 10 kPa can be measured
28
Strain gage- Pressure cell
Strain gauge based pressure transducers convert a pressure into a

measurable electrical signal.
Their function is based on the ability of the strain gauges to change their
resistance value in response to the physical deformation of a material
caused by pressure.
By wiring the strain gauges in a Wheatstone bridge arrangement, small

changes in resistance can be exploited to give rise to a precise electrical
signal proportional to the applied pressure.
29
Strain gage- Pressure cell

Cylindrical-type pressure cell
∆𝑅 2𝐹𝑅𝑑 2 2 − 𝜗
=
𝑃𝑖 𝐸 𝐷2 − 𝑑2
∆𝑅 = Strain gage resistance change
Pi = Internal pressure
R = nominal gage resistance
D = Outer diameter of the cylinder
d = Inner diameter of the cylinder
E = Young’s modulus
𝜗 = Poisson’s ratio
30
Electrical resistance gage- Bridgeman gage

Very high pressures (say above 1000 bars) may be measured by means of
electrical resistance gauges which are known as Bridgeman gauge
Principle of operation- make use of resistance change

brought about by direct application
of pressure to the conductor itself
Sensing element is the thin wire of Magnanin (84 Cu + 12 Mn + 4 Ni) or an alloy of

Gold and Chromium (2.1%) which is loosely wound
31

𝜌𝐿
Electrical resistance 𝑅=
𝐴
𝑑𝑅 𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝐷 𝑑𝜌
Change in resistance = −2 +
𝑅 𝐿 𝐷 𝜌
1 Bi-axial stress on small element of wire
Strains 𝜖𝑥 = 𝜎 − 𝜗𝜎𝑦
𝐸 𝑥
1
𝜖𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜗𝜎𝑥
𝐸
Stresses are applied pressure 𝜎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑦 = −𝑝, 𝜎𝑧 = 0
𝑑𝐷 𝑝
Lateral Strain 𝜖𝑥 = 𝜖𝑦 = = − (1 − 𝜗)
𝐷 𝐸
Longitudinal Strain 𝑑𝐿 𝑝
𝜖𝑧 = = 2𝜗
𝐿 𝐸
32

𝑑𝑅 𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝐷 𝑑𝜌
= −2 +
𝑅 𝐿 𝐷 𝜌
𝑝 𝑝 𝑑𝜌 𝑝 𝑑𝜌
= 2𝜗 + 2 1 − 𝜗 + =2 +
𝐸 𝐸 𝜌 𝐸 𝜌
𝑑𝑅 𝑝 𝑅1 − 𝑅 𝑝
=2 =2
𝑅 𝐸 𝑅 𝐸
2
𝑅1 = 𝑅 1 + 𝑏𝑝 , 𝑏 =
𝐸
b = pressure coefficient of resistance,

R = Resistance at 1atm,
p = gage pressure
33

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Measurement of Pressure

Dept. of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering

Pressure often expressed

Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is measured

How Much is a Pascal (Pa)

• 1 N/m2 is a very small pressure

Asses the situation

Static and Dynamic Pressure

Static pressure tube B

Total or stagnation pressure = Static pressure + Dynamic pressure

Pressure measuring transducers

Pressure measurement involves covering a pressure difference into a force and

Force can be measured by

In stacked-up fluid layers, the

Inclined type manometer

Greater sensitivity obtained through a displacement amplification scheme

Manometer is simple, inexpensive and relatively free from error

Poor dynamic performance

A deadweight tester measures pressure

It is constructed with an internal chamber

A deadweight tester is able Total force F acting on the oil at the

Principle: change in curvature of the tube is proportional to

Applications: tire pressure, pressure at the top or along the walls of

Types of Bourdon Gage

C-type tubes are available for measuring pressures

C-type tube of 25mm radius has a maximum

Helical and spiral tubes are available for measuring

Measurement resolution and sensitivity is higher

Bourdon tubes only have guaranteed accuracy limits when measuring

A bellows sensing element is a thin-walled,

One end is held fixed and pressure is

Difference between the internal and

Flexibility and sensitivity to pressure change must provide diaphragm deflections

Natural frequency of the diaphragm should be sufficiently high to provide

Output should be linear

Diaphragms Diaphragm pressure gauges are

Their core, the diaphragm element, is

Diaphragm is generally manufactured

On pressure loading, the deflection of

Diaphragm elements basically possess a corrugated profile as flat metal

Bourdon tubes, in contrast, the lowest measured value achieved is

At pressures below 16 mbar however, diaphragm elements are pushed to

Diaphragm pressure gauges are almost predestined for the highest

Maximum deflection that can be tolerated while maintaining a linear

Relationship between pressure and deflection

p = applied pressure, t = thickness, a = radius,

Relationship between sensitivity and natural frequency

Sensitivity is inversely proportional to square of natural frequency

Sensitivity can be improved by lowering the natural frequency

The natural frequency should be 3 to 4 times the frequency of pressure

Corrugated diaphragms permit considerably larger deflections than flat

Because of geometrical shape, the resistance to bending and stretching will be

Strain-gage and Diaphragms

a = Area of the plate

d = Distance between the plate

The change in capacitance caused by the diaphragm displacement is

Working of McLeod Gauge is based on

𝑝1 and 𝑝2 are pressures at initial and final

By compressing a known volume of

Volume of the capillary, bulb, and tube down to the opening is 𝑉𝐵

Pressure indicated by the capillary is 𝑝𝑐 − 𝑝 = 𝑦 Pressure in terms of the

Strain gage- Pressure cell

Strain gauge based pressure transducers convert a pressure into a