Faculty of Chemical Engineering (FKK)

Oil and Gas Department,

University Teknologi of Mara

Chapter 1 : Reservoir rock properties

Erfan Mohammadian

1
Rock Properties
 Knowledge of petro-physical and hydrodynamic properties of
reservoir rocks are of fundamental importance to the
petroleum engineer. These data are obtained from two major
sources: core analysis and well logging.

1) Coring
2) Porosity
3) Saturation
4) Permeability
5) Wettability
6) Capillary pressure
7) Relative permeability
2
 1.CORING

3
4
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT ??
Detailed information from target formations is essential for the
successful evaluation of both primary and secondary recovery
programs.

With quality cores, oil companies can more fully understand formation
characteristics and more efficiently achieve production objectives

High quality cores provide the most accurate lithology, porosity and
permeability information for building the geologic model of the
reservoir.

5
Core Analysis
o Detailed information from target formations is essential for
the successful evaluation of both primary and secondar
recovery programs.

 A cylindrical sample of geologic formation, usually reservoir

rock, taken during or after drilling a well.

 Core analysis can include evaluation of rock properties

and anisotropy; organic matter content, maturity, and
type; fluid content; fluid sensitivity; and geomechanical
properties.

 This information can be used to calibrate log

and seismic measurements

6
CORE PLUGS
 •Core plug : A plug, or sample, taken from a conventional
core for analysis.

 Core plugs are typically 1 in. to 1 1/2 in. [2.5 to 3.8 cm] in
diameter and 1 in. to 2 in. [5 cm] long.

 Core plugs are ordinarily cut perpendicular to the axis of

the core or parallel to the axis, called horizontal and
vertical plugs, respectively, when cut from a vertical
wellbore.

7
Full Diameter Cores
 Full-diameter cores are nearly as large in
diameter as the drill bit; 30 ft in length and 6 in. in
diameter)
 taken at the time of drilling the zone

8
Side wall cores
– Sidewall cores (generally less than 1 in. [2.5 cm] in
diameter) taken
 after a hole has been drilled.

9
ABOUT CORING

 Standard core analysis are performed on core plugs

taken at frequency of core per ft.

The core plugs are being analyzed for a few hours

10
Objectives of Core analysis

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 Play the video here

15
ASSIGNMENT #1

Write an essay about tools used for

side wall drilling and full diameter
drilling. (not more than a 2 pages +
figures)….explain the mechanism of
operation

16
17
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19
 I IIa IIb
Unacceptable

~1 ft kH ?

Or
kH Full-
Suitable
kV kV Diameter
III IV V

kV
Full kH Matrix
Diameter Only
`4” - 9”
Fracture
k and φ?
Whole Core
Analysis
(2-3 ft)

Different Lithologies Require Careful Selection of Suitable Core Plugs or

20
Require Whole-Core Analyses
 2.POROSITY

21
OBJECTIVES

 To provide an understanding of
 The concepts of rock matrix and porosity
 The difference between original (primary) and
 induced (secondary) porosity
 The difference between total and effective
 porosity
 Laboratory methods of porosity determination
 Determination of porosity from well logs

22
Discussion Topics

 Origins and descriptions

 Factors that effect porosity

 Methods of determination

23
POROSITY
Definition: Porosity is the fraction of the bulk
volume of a material (rock) that is occupied by
pores (voids ).
 Porosity is an intensive property describing the fluid
storage capacity of rock
 Porosity is a static property – it can be measured in the
absence of flow

24
ROCK matrix and Pores
• Rock matrix is the grains of sandstone, limestone,
dolomite, and/or shale that do not make up the
supporting structure.
• Matrix is the non-pore space

• Pore space is filled with fluids.

• water
• oil
• natural gas

25
Rock Matrix And pore space

Rock matrix Pore space

26
 Rock matrix Water Oil and/or gas

27
Porosity Formula

 Vma is often showed as Vg (grain volume)

 Vb = Vg + Vp

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Ranges of Porosity

30
 CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC
Rock-forming Source of
material

Rocks under high

Molten materials in Weathering and
temperatures
deep crust and erosion of rocks
and pressures in
upper mantle exposed at surface
deep crust
process

Recrystallization due to
Crystallization Sedimentation, burial
heat, pressure, or
(Solidification of melt) and lithification
chemically active fluids

31
Major types of Rocks
The three major rock types are sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic rocks. Their
classification is based on their origins.

Sedimentary rocks are formed from particles derived from igneous, metamorphic or
other sedimentary rocks by weathering and erosion. Sedimentary rocks provide the
hydrocarbon source rocks and most of the oil and gas reservoir rocks.

Igneous rocks are formed from molten material which is either ejected from the
earth during volcanic activity (e.g., lava flows, and ash falls), or which crystallizes from a
magma that is injected into existing rock and cools slowly, giving rise rocks such as
granites. Igneous rocks are of minor importance for oil exploration. Rarely,
hydrocarbon is produced from fractured igneous rocks.

Metamorphic rocks are formed by subjecting any of the three rock types to high
temperatures and pressures, that alter the character of the existing rock. Common
examples of metamorphic rocks are marble derived from limestone and slate derived
from shale. Due to the high temperature and pressures there is very little organic
matter or hydrocarbons in metamorphic rocks.

32
 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

• Clastics

•Carbonates

•Evaporites

33
Grain-Size Classification for Clastic Sediments
Name Millimeters Micrometers

4,096
Boulder 256
Cobble 64
Pebble 4
Granule 2
Very Coarse Sand 1
Coarse Sand 0.5 500
Medium Sand 0.25 250
Fine Sand 0.125 125
Very Fine Sand 62
0.062
Coarse Silt 0.031 31
Medium Silt 0.016 16
Fine Silt 0.008 8
Very Fine Silt 0.004 4
Clay (modified from Blatt, 1982)

34
 Average Detrital Mineral Composition
of Shale and Sandstone
Mineral Composition Shale Sandstone
Clay Minerals 60 (%) 5 (%)

Quartz 30 65

Feldspar 4 10-15

Rock Fragments <5 15

Carbonate 3 <1

Organic Matter, <3 <1

Hematite, and
Other Minerals (modified from Blatt, 1982)
35
MAJOR COMPONENTS OF SANDSTONE

Matrix
Sand (and Silt) Size Detrital Grains
Silt and Clay Size Detrital Material

Cement
Material Precipitated Post-Depositionally,
During Burial. Cements Fill Pores and
Replace Framework Grains
Pores
Voids Among the Above Components

36
 COMPONENTS OF SANDSTONE
“matrix” CONSISTS OF QUARTZ, FELDSPAR, CEMENT AND CLAY

PORE
(QUARTZ)
CEMENT
(CLAY)

(FELDSPAR)

37 0.25 mm
 ORIGINS OF POROSITY
(Genetic Classification)

PRIMARY (ORIGINAL) POROSITY

• Developed at deposition
• Typified by: Intergranular pores of clastics or
carbonates, AND Intercrystalline and fenestral pores of
carbonates
• Usually more uniform than induced porosity
SECONDARY (INDUCED) POROSITY
 Developed by geologic processes after deposition
(diagenetic processes)
 Examples: Grain dissolution in sandstones or carbonates,
Vugs and solution cavities in carbonates, Fracture
development in some sandstones, shales, and carbonates
38
FACTORS THAT AFFECT POROSITY
PRIMARY
 Particle sphericity and angularity
 Packing
 Sorting (variable grain sizes)

SECONDARY (DIAGENETIC)
 Cementing materials
 Overburden stress (compaction)
 Vugs, dissolution, and fractures
39
Factors that affects porosity
 In the geology section, we show core photographs with examples of
porosity. For now, it is useful to note these effects:

 Porosity increases as angularity of particles increases.

 Porosity increases as the range of particle size decreases. In contrast,

porosity decreases as the volume of interstitial and cementing material
increases.

 Porosity decreases as the compaction increases (greater depth generally

means higher overburden stresses, higher compaction forces, and lower
porosity)

 Vugs and fractures will contribute to porosity, but to understand their

affect on effective porosity requires careful study of cores and special
logging measurements.

40
 ROUNDNESS AND SPHERICITY
OF CLASTIC GRAINS

High
Porosity

Low

Very Sub- Sub- Well-

Angular Angular Rounded
Rounded
Rounded
Angular
ROUNDNESS

Porosity
41
 GRAIN PACKING IN SANDSTONE
Line of Traverse
(using microscope) 4 Types of Grain Contacts

Packing Proximity
Tangential Contact A measure of the extent to
which sedimentary particles
are in contact with their
Sutured Contact neighbors
Long Contact Packing Density
Cement
A measure of the extent to
which sedimentary particles
occupy the rock volume
Matrix
Concavo-Convex
(clays, etc.)
Contact

This Example
Packing Proximity = 40%
Packing Density = 0.8
(modified from Blatt, 1982)
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 CUBIC PACKING OF SPHERES
Porosity = 48%

43
Porosity Calculations - Uniform Spheres

 Bulk volume = (2r)3 = 8r3

 Matrix volume =
4 πr 3

3
 Pore volume = bulk volume - matrix volume

44
 Pore Volume
Porosity =
Bulk Volume

Bulk Volume − Matrix Volume

=
Bulk Volume

8 r3 − 4 / 3 π r3 π
= = 1 − = 47.6%
8 r3 2 (3 )

45
 RHOMBIC PACKING OF SPHERES
Porosity = 27 %

46
 Sorting (variable grain sizes)

Packing of Two Sizes of Spheres

Porosity = 14%

47
 Grain-Size Sorting in Sandstone

Very Well Well Moderately Poorly Very Poorly

Sorted Sorted Sorted Sorted Sorted

SORTING

48
 TYPES OF TEXTURAL CHANGES SENSED
BY THE NAKED EYE AS BEDDING
Sand
Shale Slow Current
Fast Current
Change of Composition Change of Size
River
Eolian
Beach
Fluvial
Change of Shape Change of Orientation

Change of Packing
49
 PROGRESSIVE DESTRUCTION OF
BEDDING THROUGH BIOTURBATION
Regular Irregular Bioturbated Sandstone
Layers Layers (Whole Core)

Mottles Mottles Homogeneous

(Distinct) (Indistinct) Deposits

50
FACTORS THAT AFFECT SECONDARY
(DIAGENETIC) POROSITY

 Cementing materials
 Overburden stress (compaction)
 Vugs, dissolution, and fractures

51
 DIAGENESIS
Diagenesis is the Post-
Depositional Chemical and
Mechanical Changes that
Carbonate Occur in Sedimentary Rocks
Cemented
Some Diagenetic Effects Include

Oil Compaction
Stained Precipitation of Cement
Dissolution of Framework
Grains and Cement
The Effects of Diagenesis May
Enhance or Degrade Reservoir
Quality
Whole Core
Misoa Formation, Venezuela Photo by W. Ayers
52
 DUAL POROSITY IN SANDSTONE
1. Primary and secondary “matrix” porosity system
2. Fracture porosity system

FRACTURE DISSOLUTION
PORE

PORE

(QUARTZ)
CEMENT
(CLAY)

(FELDSPAR)

53 0.25 mm
 POROSITY IN SANDSTONE

Porosity in Sandstone
Pore Typically is Lower Than
That of Idealized Packed
Spheres Owing to:
Quartz Variation in Grain Size
Grain Variation in Grain Shape
Cementation
Mechanical and Chemical
Compaction

Scanning Electron Micrograph

Norphlet Sandstone, Offshore Alabama, USA
Photomicrograph by R.L. Kugler

54
 POROSITY IN SANDSTONE

Pore
Throat Pores Provide the
Volume to Store
Hydrocarbons

Pore Throats Restrict

Flow through pores

Scanning Electron Micrograph

Norphlet Formation, Offshore Alabama, USA

55
INTERGRANULAR PORE AND MICROPOROSITY

Intergranular
Pore

Intergranular Pores
Microporosity Contain Hydrocarbon
Fluids

Quartz Micropores Contain

Kaolinite
Detrital
Grain
Irreducible Water

Backscattered Electron Micrograph

Carter Sandstone, Black Warrior Basin,
56 Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
 Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs,
Authigenic Kaolinite
Secondary Electron Micrograph

Significant Permeability
Reduction

High Irreducible Water

Saturation

Migration of Fines
Problem

Carter Sandstone
North Blowhorn Creek Oil Unit
57 Black Warrior Basin, Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
 DISSOLUTION POROSITY

Partially Dissolution of
Dissolved Framework Grains
Feldspar (Feldspar, for
Example) and
Cement may
Pore Enhance the
Interconnected
Quartz Detrital Pore System
Grain
This is Secondary
Thin Section Micrograph - Plane Polarized Light
Avile Sandstone, Neuquen Basin, Argentina Porosity

Photo by R.L. Kugler

58
 DISSOLUTION POROSITY

Dissolution Pores
May be Isolated and
not Contribute to the
Partially Effective Pore System
Dissolved
Feldspar

Scanning Electron Micrograph

Photo by R.L. Kugler
Tordillo Formation, Neuquen Basin, Argentina

59
 CARBONATES POROSITY TYPES
Interparticle Pores Between Particles or Grains
Intraparticle Pores Within Individual Particles or Grains

Intercrystal Pores Between Crystals

Moldic Pores Formed by Dissolution of an
Individual Grain or Crystal in the Rock
Fenestral Primary Pores Larger Than Grain-Supported
Interstices
Fracture Formed by a Planar Break in the Rock
Vug Large Pores Formed by Indiscriminate
Dissolution of Cements and Grains

60
 Idealized Carbonate Porosity Types

Interparticle Intraparticle Intercrystal Moldic

Fabric
Selective
Fenestral Shelter Growth-Framework

Non-Fabric
Selective
Fracture Channel Vug

Breccia Boring Burrow Shrinkage

Fabric Selective or Not Fabric Selective
61
(modified from Choquette and Pray, 1970)
CARBONATE POROSITY - EXAMPLE

Moldic
Pores
• Due to dissolution
Dolomite and collapse of ooids
(allochemical particles)

Moldic • Isolated pores

Pore
• Low effective porosity

Calcite • Low permeability

Thin section micrograph - plane-polarized light

Blue areas are pores.
Smackover Formation, Alabama (Photograph by D.C. Kopaska-Merkel)

62
CARBONATE POROSITY - EXAMPLE
Moldic and
Interparticle Pores
Interparticle
Pores • Combination pore system

• Moldic pores formed through

dissolution of ooids (allochemical
particles)

• Connected pores

Moldic • High effective porosity

Pore
• High permeability
Thin section micrograph
Smackover Formation, Alabama
Black areas are pores.
63
(Photograph by D.C. Kopaska-Merkel)
 PORE SPACE
CLASSIFICATION

(In Terms of Fluid Properties)

64
PORE-SPACE CLASSIFICATION
 Total porosity, φt = Total Pore Volume
Bulk Volume

 Effective porosity, φe = Interconnected Pore Space

Bulk Volume

• Effective porosity – of great importance;

contains the mobile fluid

65
COMPARISON OF TOTAL AND
EFFECTIVE POROSITIES

 Very clean sandstones : φe → φt

 Poorly to moderately well -cemented
intergranular materials: φt ≈ φe
 Highly cemented materials and most
carbonates: φe < φt

66
Measuring Porosity

1. Core samples (measure two of: Vb,Vp, or Vm)

- RCA
-SCAL
2. Open hole wireline logs

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MATRIX DENSITIES (ρm) OF TYPICAL PURE
COMPONENTS OF RESERVOIR ROCK

77
APPLICABILITY AND ACCURACY OF
MATRIX MEASUREMENT
TECHNIQUES
 Known or assumed matrix density
 Accurate only if matrix density is known and not
assumed
 Core samples are often mixtures of several
components with varying matrix densities, so density
must be measured

78
 LABORATORY METHODS OF
POROSITY DETERMINATION
To determine porosity, measure 2 of 3
basic parameters:

1. Bulk volume (Vb)

2. Matrix volume (Vm)

• Assumed matrix (grain) density
• Displacement method
• Boyles Law

(Vp)
3. Pore volume
79
 MATRIX VOLUME FROM
DISPLACEMENT METHOD

 Reduce sample to particle size

 Measure matrix volume of particles by
 Volumetric method
 Archimedes method (gravimetric measurement)

80
Calculate the Porosity of a Core Sample Using the
Displacement Method and Matrix Volume

The core sample from previous example was stripped of the

paraffin coat, crushed to grain size, and immersed in a container
with liquid. The volume of liquid displaced by the grains was 7.7
cm3. Calculate the matrix volume and the core porosity. Is
this effective porosity or total porosity? (It is total porosity)

Bulk Volume, Vb = 9.9 cm3

Matrix Volume, Vma = 7.7 cm3

Vp V − Vma =
9.9 cm 3 – 7.7 cm3
Porosity = φ = = b = 0.22 or 22%
Vb Vb 9.9 cm3

81
 LABORATORY METHODS OF
POROSITY DETERMINATION
To determine porosity, measure 2 of 3
basic parameters:

1. Bulk volume (Vb)

2. Matrix volume (Vm)

• Assumed matrix (grain) density
• Displacement method
• Boyles Law (Gas Expansion)

(Vp)
3. Pore volume
82
 MATRIX VOLUME FROM GAS
EXPANSION METHOD

 Involves compression of gas into pores

 Uses Boyle’s law

p1 V1 = p 2 V2

83
 GAS EXPANSION METHOD TO
CALCULATE Vma

 Initial conditions, with volumes of 2 cells known

 Place core in second cell, evacuate gas (air)

from second cell

 Open valve

84
GAS EXPANSION METHOD TO
CALCULATE Vma
P1
Initial conditions

V1 Core

Valve Evacuate
Cell 1 closed Cell 2

85
GAS EXPANSION METHOD TO
CALCULATE Vma
P1 Final conditions
P2

Core

Valve
Cell 1 open Cell 2

86
GAS EXPANSION METHOD TO
CALCULATE Vma

 Vf = Volume of Cell 1 + Volume of

Cell 2 - Matrix Volume of Core

 Vt = Volume of Cell 1 + Volume of

Cell 2

 Vm = Vt - Vf

87
APPLICABILITY AND ACCURACY OF
MATRIX MEASUREMENT
TECHNIQUES
 Displacement method - Very accurate when
core sample is crushed without destroying
individual matrix grains
 Gas expansion method - Very accurate,
especially for samples with low porosities

Neither method requires a prior knowledge of

core properties
88
 LABORATORY METHODS OF
POROSITY DETERMINATION

To determine porosity, measure 2 of 3

basic parameters:

1. Bulk volume (Vb)

2. Matrix volume (Vm)
3. Pore volume (Vp)

89
 LABORATORY METHODS OF
POROSITY DETERMINATION

Pore volume determination (Effective)

1. Gravimetric (Archimedes)

Vp = Wsat - Wdry
ρfluid

2.
•
Boyle’s Law:
(Gas expansion) p1 V1 = p 2 V2

90
 PORE VOLUME FROM
SATURATION METHOD

 Measures the difference between the weight of a

core sample saturated with a single fluid and the
dry weight of the core

 Pore volume,
Wsat − Wdry
Vp =
ρf
91
 Archimedes Method of Calculating
Porosity a Core Sample
Using the gravimetric method with the following data,
calculate the pore and bulk volumes and the porosity. Is
this porosity total or effective?

Dry weight of sample, Wdry = 427.3 g

Weight of sample saturated with water, Wsat = 448.6 g

Density of water (ρf ) = 1.0 g/cm3

Weight of saturated sample submerged in water, Wsub =

269.6 g
92
Archimedes Method of Calculating
Porosity a Core Sample

Wsat – Wdry = 448.6 – 427.3 g

Vp = ρf = 21.3 cm3
1.0 g/cm3

Wsat – Wsub 448.6 – 269.6 g

Vb = ρf = = 179.0 cm3
1.0 g/cm3

Vp
Porosity = φ =
21.3 cm3
= = 0.12 or 12%
179.0 cm3
Vb
93
Applicability and Accuracy of Pore
Volume Measurement Techniques

 Saturation (Archimedes) method

 Accurate in better quality rocks if effective
pore spaces can be completely saturated
 In poorer quality rocks, difficult to completely
saturate sample
 Saturating fluid may react with minerals in the
core (e.g., swelling clays)

94
 LABORATORY METHODS OF
POROSITY DETERMINATION

Pore volume determination (Effective)

1. Gravimetric (Archimedes)
Wsat - Wdry
Vp = ρfluid

2. Boyle’s Law:
• (Gas expansion)
p1 V1 = p 2 V2

95
 PORE VOLUME FROM GAS
EXPANSION METHOD

Initial conditions
P1

V1 Core

Valve
Cell 1 closed Cell 2

96
 PORE VOLUME FROM GAS
EXPANSION METHOD

Final conditions
P1

P2

Core

Valve
Cell 1 open Cell 2

97
 SUMMARY

To determine porosity, measure 2 of 3

basic parameters:

1. Bulk volume
2. Matrix volume
3. Pore volume

98
CORES

 Allow direct measurement of reservoir

properties
 Used to correlate indirect measurements,
such as wireline/LWD logs
 Used to test compatibility of injection fluids
 Used to predict borehole stability
 Used to estimate probability of formation
failure and sand production

99
 SOME KEY FORMULAS

Vp Vb − Vma
Porosity = φ = =
Vb Vb
V =V +V
b m p

V = φ (V )
p b

V = (1 − φ )(V )
m b

m = ( ρ )(V )
100
101
 3.SATURATION

102
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104
105
106
Average Saturation

107
108
109
110
 Electrical
Conductivity of fluid
saturated Rocks

111
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115
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120
121
 Rock
Compressibility

122
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125
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132
133
 Compressibility
of fluids

134
Compressible Fluids

 These are fluids that experience large changes in volume

as a function of pressure. All gases are considered
compressible fluids.

135
136
137
4.PERMEABILITY

138
Permeability
 Definition a property of the porous medium and is a
measure of the capacity of the medium to transmit fluids

 OR a measure of the fluid conductivity of the particular

material

 Permeability is an INTENSIVE property of a

porous medium (e.g. reservoir rock)
 The rock permeability, k, is a very important rock
property because it controls the directional
movement and the flow rate of the reservoir fluids in
the formation.

139
Sources for Permeability Determination
 Core analysis
 Well test analysis (flow testing)
- RFT (repeat formation tester) provides small well tests
 Production data
-production logging measures fluid flow into well
 Log data
-MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) logs calibrated via core
analysis

140
 Examples, Typical Permeability-
Porosity Relationship

141
From Tiab and Donaldson, 1996
 A
Darcy’s
Apparatus for h1-h2
q
Determining
Permeability
A
h1

h2
(Sand Pack Length) L

•Flow is Steady State

•q = KA (h1-h2)/L
•K is a constant of q
proportionality
•h1>h2 for downward flow

142
Darcy Formula
 Darcy developed a fluid flow equation that has since
become one of the standard mathematical tools of the
petroleum engineer.
 If a horizontal linear flow of an incompressible fluid is
established through a core sample of length L and a
cross-section of area A, then the governing fluid flow
equation is defined as

143
144
PERMEABILITY

 Darcy’s “K” was determined to be a combination of

 k, permeability of the sand pack (porous medium, e.g.
reservoir rock)
 µ, viscosity of the liquid

k
K=
μ
145
Permeability
Dimensions & Units
 Permeability is a derived dimension
 From Darcy’s equation, the dimension of permeability is length squared

qμ L  L3 P ⋅ T L 1 1 
k= ;  ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ 2 ⋅  = L2
A Δp  T 1 1 L P 
[ ]
 This is not the same as area, even though for example, it is m2 in SI units

 In Darcy and SI Units, this equation is coherent

 Oilfield units are non-coherent, a unit conversion constant is required

146
Darcy Units
 Permeability is a derived dimension based on Darcy’s Equation
k = (q µ L) / (A ∆p)

 The unit of permeability is the Darcy [d]

 The oilfield unit is millidarcy [md]

 The Darcy is defined from Darcy’s Equation, where:

q [cm3/s]
µ [cp]
L [cm]
A [cm2]
∆p [atm]

147
question 1
 A brine is used to measure the absolute permeability of a
core plug. The rock sample is 4 cm long and 3 cm2 in
cross section. The brine has a viscosity of 1.0 cp and is
flowing a constant rate of 0.5 cm3/sec under a 2.0 atm
pressure differential. Calculate the absolute permeability.

148
Question 2
 Rework the above example assuming that an oil of 2.0 cp
is used to measure the permeability. Under the same
differential pressure, the flow rate is 0.25 cm3/sec.
compare your results with example one, explain why.

149
Differential Form - Darcy’s Law
 Darcy’s Equation rearranged as Darcy velocity (volumetric flux)
vs = q/A = (k/µ) (∆p/L)

 This equation applies for any L, ∴ as L→0

vs = q/A = -(k/µ) (dp/ds)

where,
vs Darcy velocity, (volumetric flux)
s distance along flow path (0≤s ≤ L), in the direction of
decreasing pressure (note negative sign)
 The differential form is Darcy’s Law

150
Darcy equation in field units

151
Brine of µ = 1 Cp is flowing at a rate of 0.3
bbl/day under a 30 psi pressure differential into a core plug of
0.1 ft long and 0.0215 ft2 cross section. Calculate the
absolute permeability in oil field units.

152
Solution

Can you calculate in Darcy units ?

153
Flow potential
 An extension of the Darcy's law can be obtained for an
inclined reservoir) In this case the pressure difference (Pi -
P2) is not the only driving force in .the tilted reservoir as
gravitational force also contributes. Note that the
gravitational force is always vertically downward where
as pressure could be at any direction In practice, we
introduce a new parameter
 called fluid potential, ɸ The fluid potential at any point in
the reservoir is defined as :

154
Flow Potential
 The generalized form of Darcy’s Law includes pressure and
gravity terms to account for horizontal or non-horizontal flow

qs k  dp ρg dz 
vs = =−  −
A µ  ds c ds 
 The gravity term has dimension of pressure / length
 Flow potential includes both pressure and gravity terms,
simplifying Darcy’s Law
q k  dΦ 
vs = =− 
A μ  ds 
 Φ = p - ρgZ/c ; Z+↓; Z is elevation measured from a datum (+ve
below datum, and –ve above datum)
 Φ has dimension of pressure

155
Flow Potential - Gravity Term
• Φ = p - ρgZ/c
• Z+↓
• Z is elevation measured from a datum
• Φ has dimension of pressure
• Oilfield Units
• c = (144 in2/ft2)(32.17 lbm⋅ft/lbf⋅s2)

156
Flow potential

157
Flow potential

158
Example

159
 Flow Of Liquids In
Porous Media

160
Forms of Darcy formula
 Linear form of Darcy equation

 Radial Form

 Spherical form

161
 Linear Flow, Incompressible
Liquid
 1-D Linear Flow System (assumptions of Darcy formula)
• steady state flow
• incompressible fluid, q(0≤s ≤ L) = constant
• dΦ includes effect of dZ/ds (change in elevation)
• A(0≤s ≤ L) = constant
• Darcy flow (Darcy’s Law is valid)
• k = constant (non-reactive fluid)
• single phase (S=1)
• isothermal (constant µ)
A

q L 2
1
162
 Linear Flow, Incompressible
Liquid
q k  dΦ 
vs = =− 
 Darcy’s Law: A μ  ds 
kA
q ds = − dΦ
A μ
q L 2 L Φ2
kA
1
q ∫ ds = − ∫ dΦ
0
μ Φ1

q=
kA
(Φ1 − Φ 2 )
 q1→2 > 0, if Φ1 > Φ2 μL
 Use of flow potential, Φ, valid for horizontal, vertical or inclined flow

163
 Radial Flow, Incompressible
Liquid
 1-D Radial Flow System
• steady state flow
• incompressible fluid, q(rw≤s ≤ re) = constant
• horizontal flow (dZ/ds = 0 ∴ Φ = p)
• A(rw≤s ≤ re) = 2πrh where, h=constant
• Darcy flow (Darcy’s Law is valid)
• k = constant (non-reactive fluid)
• single phase (S=1) q
• isothermal (constant µ)
• ds = -dr

rw re
164
 Radial Flow, Incompressible
Liquid
 Darcy’s Law:
q k  dΦ 
vs = =−  ds 
A μ
q q k
dr = dp
2π rh μ
rw pw
1 2π kh
q ∫ dr = ∫ dp
rw re
re
r μ pe
 qe→w > 0, if pe > pw
q=
2π kh
(p e − p w )
μ ln(re /rw )

165
166
 Flow Of Liquids In
Porous Media:

Gas Flow in Porous Media

167
 Gas Flow vs. Liquid Flow
 Gas density is a function of pressure (for isothermal
reservoir conditions)
 Real Gas Law  pV   pV 
R =  = 
 znT  reservoir  znT standard conditions

 We cannot assume gas flow in the reservoir is incompressible

 Gas density determined from Real Gas Law p γ g M air
ρg =
zRT
 Darcy’s Law describes volumetric flow rate of gas flow at
reservoir conditions (in situ)
k  dp 
qg
vs = =−
A μ g  ds 
168
 Gas Flow vs. Liquid Flow
 Gas value is appraised at standard conditions
 Standard Temperature and Pressure
 qg,sc[scf/day] is mass flow rate (for specified γg)

t2

Income[$] = ∫ Price [$/Mscf] ⋅ q g,sc [Mscf/day] dt [days]

t1

 For steady state flow conditions in the reservoir, as flow proceeds

along the flow path:
 Mass flow rate, qg,sc , is constant
 Pressure decreases
 Density decreases
 Volumetric flow rate, qg , increases

169
 Gas Formation Volume Factor
 Given a volumetric gas flow rate at reservoir conditions, qg, we
need to determine the mass flow rate, qg,sc
 Bg has oilfield units of [rcf/scf]
 scf is a specified mass of gas (i.e. number of moles)
 reservoir cubic feet per standard cubic foot
 (ft3)reservoir conditions / (ft3)standard conditions

Vres (znRT/p) res p sc Tz

Bg = = = ; z sc = 1
Vsc (znRT/p) sc pTsc
q g = q g,sc Bg

170
Linear Gas Flow
 1-D Linear Flow System
• Steady state flow (mass flow rate, qg,sc , is constant)
• Gas density is described by real gas law, ρg=(pγgMair)/(zRT)
• Horizontal flow path (dZ/ds=0 ∴ Φ=p)
• A(0≤s ≤ L) = constant
• Darcy flow (Darcy’s Law is valid)
• k = constant (non-reactive fluid)
• single phase (Sg=1)
• Isothermal (T = constant)
A

qg L 2
1
171
 Linear Gas Flow
Darcy’s Law:
qgk  dp 
 vs = =−  ds 
A μg  
kA
q g ds = − dp
μg
A kA
qg L 2 q g,sc ds = − dp
1 Bg μ g

q1→2 > 0, if p1 > p2  Tsc   p 

 q g,sc ds = − k A  
  dp
 T p sc   z μ g 
 Tsc 
L p2
p
q g,sc ∫ ds = − k A   ∫p z μ g dp
172
0  T p sc  1
 Integral of Pressure Dependent Terms
 Two commonly used approaches to the evaluating the integral of the pressure
dependent terms:

 (zµg )=Constant approach, also called “p2 Method”

 valid when pressure < 2,500 psia p2
p
 for Ideal Gas a subset of this approach is valid I= ∫ dp
 z = 1; valid only for low pressures z μg
 µg depends on temperature only p1

 Pseudo-pressure approach
 “real gas flow potential” - Paul Crawford, 2002 (see notes view).
 the integral is evaluated a priori to provide the pseudopressure function,
m(p)
 specified gas gravity, γg
 specified reservoir temperature, T
 arbitrary base pressure, p0
 valid for any pressure range

173
 (zµg )=Constant
 Assumption that (zµg ) is a constant function of pressure
is valid for pressures < 2,500 psia, across the range of
interest, for reservoir temperature and gas gravity

174
 (zµg )=Constant
 At other temperatures in the range of interest

Reservoir Temperature Gradient

175 ≅ 0.01 °F/ft
dT/dZ
 (zµg )=Constant, Linear Flow
 If (zµg )=Constant
p2
1 p 
p2 p2 2
p 1
I= ∫ dp = ∫p p dp = (z μ g )  2 
p1
z μg (z μ g ) 1 p1

 Gas Flow Rate (at standard conditions)

k A  Tsc   1  2
q g,sc =  

L  T p sc 

 2zμ 
(
 p1 − p 22 )
 g 

176
 Radial Gas Flow
 The radial equations for gas flow follow from the previous
derivation for liquid flow and are left as self study

 (zµg )=Constant

2 π k h  Tsc   1  2
q g,sc =  
ln(re /rw )  T p sc 

 2zμ 
(
 p e − p 2w )
 g 

 Pseudopressure
2 π k h  Tsc  1 
q g,sc =   [m(pe ) − m(p w )]
ln(re /rw )  T p sc  2 

177
 LABORATORY
DETERMINATION
OF PERMEABILITY

Some slides in this section are from NExT PERF Short Course Notes, 1999.
Some slides appear to have been obtained from unknown primary
sources that were not cited by NExT. Note that some slides have a notes section.

178
 LABORATORY METHODS FOR
DETERMINING ABSOLUTE PERMEABILITY
1” or 1 1/2”

Plug
Slab Taken for
Most Common •Photography
•Description
•Archival
Full Diameter

Heterogeneous

Whole Core
Heterogeneous
179
 I. WHOLE-CORE METHOD

 Uses selected pieces from the full or whole

core
 Core sizes 2 1/2 to 5 1/2 inches in diameter

 Several inches to several feet long

 Most applicable approach for very

heterogeneous formations.
 Additional expense limits the practical number
of tests.

180
 II. CORE PLUG METHOD

 Most commonly applied method.

 Uses small cylindrical core samples
 3/4 inch to 1 1/2 inch diameter

 1 to a few inches long

 May not apply to heterogeneous formations.

181
 I IIa IIb

Different Unacceptable

Lithologies ~1 ft
kH ?
Require Or
Careful kH Full-
Suitable Diameter
Selection of kV kV

Suitable Core III IV V

Plugs or kV
Require Full kH Matrix
Whole-Core Diameter
`4” - 9”
Only

Analyses Fracture
k and φ?
Whole Core
182 Analysis
(2-3 ft)
 III. WHOLE CORE

Whole Core Photograph,

Misoa “C” Sandstone,
Venezuela

183
Photo by W. Ayers
 LAB PROCEDURE FOR
MEASURING PERMEABILITY

 Cut core plugs from whole core or use sample

from whole core
 Clean core and extract reservoir fluids, then
dry the core
 Flow a fluid through core at several flow rates
 Record inlet and outlet pressures for each
rate

184
PERM PLUG METHOD
LIQUID FLOW

 Measure inlet and outlet pressures (p1 and p2)

at several different flow rates
 Graph ratio of flow rate to area (q/A) versus
the pressure function (p1 - p2)/L
 For laminar flow, data follow a straight line
with slope of k/µ
 At very high flow rates, turbulent flow is
indicated by a deviation from straight line
through origin
185
Laboratory Determination of Absolute
Permeability, Liquid Flow

Darcy Flow Non-Darcy Flow

q
A

k
Slope = µ

0
0 (p1 - p2)

L
186
ISSUES AFFECTING LABORATORY
MEASUREMENTS OF PERMEABILITY

 Core Handling, Cleaning, and Sampling

 Fluid-Rock Interactions
 Pressure Changes
 Rock Heterogeneities (Fractures)
 Gas Velocity Effects (Klinkenberg)

187
CORE HANDLING PROCESSES
-Affect Permeability Measurements
 Core Handling
 Cleaning
 Drying (Clay Damage)
 Storage (Freezing)
 Sampling

188
FLUID-ROCK INTERACTIONS
- Affect Permeability Measurements
 Fresh water may cause clay swelling,
reducing permeability
 Tests may cause fines migration, plugging
pore throats and reducing permeability
 Reservoir or synthetic reservoir fluids are
generally preferred

189
PRESSURES CHANGES
- Affect Permeability Measurements

 Core alterations resulting from loss of

Confining Pressure during core recovery
 Core testing may be conducted by applying a
range of net overburden pressures

190
CORE HETEROGENEITIES
-Affect Measurements Of Permeability
 Naturally-fractured reservoirs
 Core plugs represent matrix permeability
 Total system permeability (matrix + fractures) is higher
 Core Mineralogy problems (Salts, Gypsum)

191
 EXAMPLE CORE REPORT

192
193
194
 Laboratory Analysis of Gas Flow
Mean Pressure Method
 Beginning from (zµg )=Constant Equation for Linear Flow

k A  Tsc   1  2
A q g,sc =  
L  T p sc 

 2zμ 
(
 p1 − p 22 )
qg L 2  g 
1
 From Real Gas Law, we can evaluate q at any pressure

q p Tsc k A  Tsc   1  2
q g,sc =
z p sc T
=  
L  p sc T 

 2zμ 
(
 p1 − p 22 )
 g 

 where, p=
(p + p2
1 )
2
 and, (zμ g ) = Constant = z ⋅ μ g
195
 Laboratory Analysis of Gas Flow
Mean Pressure Method
 canceling terms and substituting mean pressure

q =
kA
 
(
 1  p12 − p 22 )
μg L p 2

q =
kA
μg L
(
p1 − p 2 )

 The Mean Pressure Method is commonly used to analyze

laboratory flow (low pressure)
 flowing temperature is isothermal
 Mean flow rate is volumetric rate at point in core where pressure is mean
pressure value

196
 Factors Affecting
Permeability Determination

Non-Darcy Flow
Some figures in this section are from “Fundamentals of Core Analysis,” Core Laboratories, 1989.
Some slides in this section are from NExT PERF Short Course Notes, 1999.
Some slides appear to have been obtained from unknown primary
sources that were not cited by NExT. Note that some slides have a notes section.
197
 Air Permeability Measurement
 Measurement of permeability in the laboratory is most commonly
done with air
 Convenient and inexpensive
 Problem: low values of mean flowing pressure
 downstream pressure, patm
 upstream pressure, just a few psi higher than patm

 At low mean flowing pressure, gas slippage occurs

 Diameter of flow path through porous media approaches the “mean free
path” of gas molecules
 mean free path is a function of molecule size
 mean free path is a function of gas density
 Increasing mean flowing pressure results in less slippage
 as pmean→∞, we obtain absolute (equivalent liquid) permeability

198
 Non-Darcy Flow - Gas Slippage

 Liquid flow and gas flow at high mean flowing pressure is laminar
 Darcy’s Law is valid
 flow velocity at walls is zero

 At low mean flowing pressure gas slippage occurs

 Non-Darcy flow is observed
 flow at walls is not zero

 Klinkenberg developed a method to correct gas permeability

measured at low mean flowing pressure to equivalent liquid
permeability
199
 Non-Darcy Flow - Klinkenberg Effect

 As pmean→∞, gas permeability approaches absolute permeability

200
 Non-Darcy Flow - Klinkenberg Effect

 Klinkenberg correction for kair depends on mean flowing pressure

 correction ratio shown is for pmean = 1 atm

201
 Non-Darcy Flow - Klinkenberg Effect

 Klinkenberg correction for kair is more important for low absolute

permeability

202
 Non-Darcy Flow - High Flow Rates

 In the field, gas wells exhibit non-Darcy flow at high flow rates
 At high flow velocity, inertial effects and turbulence become
important, and cause non-Darcy flow
 inertial effect

203
 Non-Darcy Flow - Turbulence
 Recalling Darcy’s equation for gas flow, (zµg )=Constant

k A  Tsc   1  2
q g,sc =  
L  T p sc 

 2zμ 
(
 p1 − p 22 )
 g 
 For laboratory flow experiments we can assume T=Tsc and z=1

q g,sc =
k

(
 A  p12 − p 22

)
μg  p sc  2L
 For Darcy flow, plotting (qg,sc psc)/A vs. (p12-p22)/(2L) results in
straight line.
 line passes through origin [when qg,sc =0, then (p12-p22)=0]
 slope = k/ µg
 behavior departs from straight line under turbulent flow conditions (high
flow velocity)
204
Non-Darcy Flow - Turbulence

Darcy Non-Darcy
flow flow

q psc
A

k
Slope = µ

0
0 (p12- p22)

2L
205
Non-Darcy Flow - Forchheimer Equation

 Forchheimer proposed a flow equation to account for the non-

linear effect of turbulence by adding a second order term

− dp μ g  q g 
2
 qg 
=   + β ρ g  
ds k A A
 Note that unit corrections factors would be required for non-coherent unit
systems.
 As flow rate decreases, we approach Darcy’s Law (2nd order term
approaches zero)

206
 Non-Darcy Flow - Forchheimer Plot

 Based on Forchheimer’s Equation a plotting method was

developed to determine absolute permeability even with
Non-Darcy effects
 (1/kgas) vs. qg,sc
 kgas determined from Darcy’s Law (incorrectly assuming Darcy flow) and is
a function of qg,sc
 intercept = (1/kabs); absolute permeability
(1/kgas), (1/md)

Slope = [(βρg,sc)/(µgA)]

Intercept = [1/kabs]

207 qg,sc
Non-Darcy Flow - Forchheimer Equation
 Non-Darcy Coefficient, β, is an empirically determined function of
absolute permeability
 For Travis Peak (Texas)

NOB=Net
Overburden
208
 Conversion Factors
for
Oilfield Units

209
 Need for Unit Conversions
 Petroleum Engineers must be able to work with various unit
systems
 International scope of industry
 Unit systems used varies geographically
 Team members may not all be located in same geographical location
 Joint ventures between companies
 Particular units may be required at your location
 Legislated units for reporting and regulatory compliance
 Company protocol

210
 Oilfield Units
 Oilfield units are non-coherent
 Newton’s 2nd Law (F=ma)
 SI: Force (Newton) is a derived unit to make equation coherent
 USCS: Mass (slugs) is a derived unit to make equation coherent
 AES, Oilfield Units: A unit conversion constant required (F=ma/gc )
 Darcy’s Law
 Darcy units: Permeability is a derived unit to make equation coherent
 SI: coherent (permeability unit is m2 )
 Oilfield Units: A unit conversion constant is required
 The constant may include geometry terms (integrated form)
 For gas flow, the constant may include standard temperature and pressure, even for Darcy
and SI units

q − C k dΦ
vs = =
A μ ds

211
 Learning Objectives
 Deriving unit conversion constants
 Given
 A physical relationship expressed as an equation, using coherent units or with a
correct conversion constant supplied
 and appropriate unit conversion factors between unit systems
 Find
 The required unit conversion constant (including its units) to express the equation
in a different unit system

 Correctly apply Darcy Equations for incompressible fluid and real

gas, using oilfield units

212
 Darcy’s Law - Darcy Units
 Linear (1-D) flow of an incompressible fluid

q=
kA
(Δp)
μL
 where,
 q cm3/s
 k darcies
 A cm2
 ∆p atm
 µ cp
 L cm

 The Darcy a derived unit of permeability, defined to make this equation

coherent (in Darcy units)

213
 Darcy’s Law - Oilfield Units
 Linear (1-D) flow of an incompressible fluid

q=
CkA
(Δp)
μL
 where,
 q bbl/D
 k millidarcies
 A ft2
 ∆p psia
 µ cp
 L ft

 The approach demonstrated will be to convert each term back to Darcy

units, restoring the coherent equation, then collecting the conversion factors
to obtain the oilfield unit constant, C
214
 Darcy’s Law - Oilfield Units
q [cm3/s] = q [bbl/D] · 5.61458 [ft3/bbl] · (30.48)3 [cm3/ft3] · (1/86400) [D/s]
= 1.84013 [(cm3/s)/(bbl/D)] · q [bbl/D]

k [d] = k [md] · (1/1000) [d/md]

A [cm2] = A [ft2] · (30.48)2 [cm2/ft2]

∆p [atm] = ∆p [psia] · (1/14.6959) [atm/psia]

L [cm] = L [ft] · 30.48 [cm/ft]

k[md] ⋅ 0.001[d/md] A[ft 2 ] ⋅ 929.03[cm 2 /ft 2 ]

q[bbl/D] ⋅ 1.84013[(cm /s)/(bbl/D)] =
3

μ[cp] L[ft] ⋅ 30.48[cm/ft]

× (Δp[psia] ⋅ 0.068046[atm/psia])
215
 Darcy’s Law - Oilfield Units
 Collecting the constants and canceling

0.001127 k[md] A[ft 2 ]

q[bbl/D] = (Δp[psia])
μ[cp] L[ft]

 The unit of the constant is defined from the above equation

[bbl/D] ⋅ [cp] ⋅ [ft]
C = 0.0011271
[md][ft 2 ][psia]

 We were able to cancel leaving the units of C as shown above because,

[cm3 /s] ⋅ [cp] ⋅ [cm]
1[d] ≡ 1
[cm 2 ][atm]

216
 Static Pressure Gradient - SI Units
 Static pressure gradient of a fluid

dp = ρ g dh

 where,
 p Pa = N/m2 = (kg⋅m/s2)/(m2) = kg/(m⋅s2)
 ρ kg/m3
 g 9.80665 m/s2
 h m

 Coherent for SI units

217
 Static Pressure Gradient - Oilfield Units
 Static pressure gradient of a fluid

ρg
dp = dh
D
 where,
 p psi = lbf/in2
 ρ lbm/ft3
 g 32.174 ft/s2
 h ft

218
Static Pressure Gradient - Oilfield Units
p [Pa] = p [psi] · 6894.757[Pa/psi]

ρ [kg/m3] = ρ [lbm/ft3] · 16.01846 [kg/m3)/(lbm/ft3)]

h [m] = h [ft] · 0.3048 [m/ft]

dp[psi] ⋅ 6894.757[Pa/psi] = ρ[lb m /ft 3 ] ⋅ 16.01846[(kg/m3 )/(lb m /ft 3 )]

× g[ft/s2] ⋅ 0.3048[m/ft]
× dh[ft] ⋅ 0.3048[m/ft]

 Because the constant D is on the bottom, collect terms on left and cancel using
definition of Pascal [Pa]
D=4633.06 [(lbm /ft3)(ft/s2)(ft)/(psia)]

 Alternate derivation from dimensional homogeneity (self study)

D=(144 [in2/ft2]) · (32.174[(lbm·ft)/(lbf·s2)])
 OR
D=4633.06 [(in2/ft2)·(lbm·ft)/(lbf·s2)])
219
 Handout - Darcy Equations
 Darcy Equations for Real Gas
 For pseudopressure, m(p), the unit conversion constant, C, is the
same as for p2 equation (Constant (z µg))
 (p12 − p22 ) 
  Replaced by [m(p1 ) − m(p2 )]
 z μ g 

 A single term of the equation is replaced with the term in brackets having the
same units and meaning:

[Term ] = 2 ∫p p
p1
dp
2 zμ
g

 Note that in oilfield units, m(p) has units of [psia2/cp]

 Note the constant, C, includes the 1/2 from integration

220
 Average Permeability
Flow in Layered
Systems

Some figures were taken from Amyx, Bass and Whiting, Petroleum Reservoir Engineering
(1960).

221
 Average Permeability
 If permeability is not a constant function of space (heterogeneity),
we can calculate the average permeability
 Common, simple flow cases are considered here
 Linear, Parallel (cores, horizontal permeability)
 Linear, Serial (cores, vertical permeability)
 Radial, Parallel (reservoirs, horizontal layers)
 Radial, Serial (reservoir, damage or stimulation)

 Average permeability should represent the correct flow capacity

 For a specified flow rate, average permeability results in same pressure drop
(and vice versa)
 Review Integral Averages (Self Study, e.g. Average Velocity)

222
 Linear Flow, Pressure Profile
 Review, Darcy’s Law:
horizontal flow (Φ=p) q k  dp 

vs = =−  
A μ  ds 
kA
q ds = − dp
A μ
q L 2 L p2
1 kA
q ∫ ds = − ∫ dp
0
μ p1

q=
kA
(p1 − p2 )
μL

223
 Linear Flow, Pressure Profile
 We can determine how x p(x)
kA
pressure varies along the q ∫ ds = − ∫ dp
flow path, p(x), by 0
μ p1
considering an arbitrary
point, 0≤x ≤ L qμ x
p(x) = p1 −
 Integral from 0→x kA
OR, equivalently
L p2
kA
A
q ∫ ds = − ∫ dp
q L 2
1 also integrate x→L
μ p(x)
 We could x

q μ (L − x)
p(x) = p 2 +
kA
224
 Linear Flow, Pressure Profile
 Pressure profile is a linear
function for homogeneous
properties p1
 slope depends on flow rate

p(x)

p→
A
p2
q L 2
1

0
0 x L
x→

225
Averaging the permeability
 There are three simple permeability-averaging techniques
that are commonly used to determine an appropriate
average permeability to represent
 an equivalent homogeneous system. These are:
 • Weighted-average permeability
 • Harmonic-average permeability
 • Geometric-average permeability

226
 Linear, Parallel Flow
• Permeability varies across several
horizontal layers (k1,k2,k3)
 Discrete changes in permeability
h = h1 + h 2 + h 3 = ∑ h i
 Same pressure drop for each layer
p1 - p 2 = Δp = Δp1 = Δp2 = Δp3
 Total flow rate is summation of flow rate for all layers
q = q1 + q 2 + q 3 = ∑ q i

 Average permeability results in correct total flow rate

kwh
q= Δp ; A = w ⋅ h
μL
227
 Linear, Parallel Flow
• Substituting,
kwh k1 w h1 k2 w h2 k3 w h3
q= Δp = Δp + Δp + Δp
μL μL μL μL

• Rearranging,

k=
∑ k i ⋅ hi
h
• Average permeability reflects flow capacity of all layers

228
 Linear, Serial Flow
• Permeability varies across several
vertical layers (k1,k2,k3)
 Discrete changes in permeability
L = L1 + L 2 + L3 = ∑ Li
 Same flow rate passes through each layer
q = q1 = q 2 = q 3
 Total pressure drop is summation of pressure drop across layers
p1 − p 2 = Δp1 + Δp2 + Δp3 = ∑ Δpi
 Average permeability results in correct total pressure drop
qμ L
p1 - p 2 = ; A = w⋅h
kwh
229
230
231
232
233
 Linear, Serial Flow
• Substituting,
qμ L q μ L1 q μ L 2 q μ L3
p1 - p 2 = = + +
k w h k1 w h k 2 w h k 3 w h

• Rearranging, L
k=
Li
∑k p1
i

• If k1>k2>k3, then k
p→
– Linear pressure profile in each layer p2

0
234
0 L
x→
 Radial Flow, Pressure Profile
q k  dp 
 Review, Darcy’s Law: vs = =−  
 horizontal flow (Φ=p) A μ  ds 
q k
dr = dp
2π rh μ
rw pw
1 2π kh
q q ∫ dr = ∫ dp
re
r μ pe

q=
2π kh
(p e − p w )
rw re
μ ln(re /rw )

235
 Radial Flow, Pressure Profile
 We can determine how rw
1 2π kh
pw

pressure varies along the q ∫ dr = ∫ dp

flow path, p(r), by r
r μ p(r)
considering an arbitrary q μ ln(r/rw )
point, rw≤r ≤ re p(r) = p w +
 Integral from r → rw
2π k h
OR, equivalently
OR
r p(r)
1 2π kh
Integral from re→r q ∫ dr = ∫ dp

re
r μ pe

q μ ln(re /r)
p(r) = p e −
2π k h
236
 Radial Flow, Pressure Profile
 Pressure profile is a linear
function of ln(r) for
homogeneous properties
 slope depends on flow rate pe

p(r)

p→
pw
q

0
rw r re
ln(r) →

rw re

237
 Radial, Parallel Flow
• Permeability varies across several
(3) horizontal layers (k1,k2,k3)
 Discrete changes in permeability
h = h1 + h 2 + h 3 = ∑ h i
 Same pressure drop for each layer
pe - p w = Δp = Δp1 = Δp2 = Δp3

 Total flow rate is summation of flow rate for all layers

q = q1 + q 2 + q 3 = ∑ q i

 Average permeability results in correct total flow rate

2π k h
q= Δp
μ ln(re /rw )
238
 Radial, Parallel Flow
• Substituting,
2π k h
q= Δp
μ ln(re /rw )
2π k1 h1 2π k 2 h 2 2π k 3 h 3
= Δp + Δp + Δp
μ ln(re /rw ) μ ln(re /rw ) μ ln(re /rw )
• Rearranging,

k=
∑ k i ⋅ hi
h

• Average permeability reflects flow capacity of all layers

239
 R1 of this

Radial, Serial Flow

figure is r2
of
equations
• Permeability varies across two vertical
concentric cylindrical layers
[k(rw≤r≤r2) = k1, k(r2≤r≤re = k2]
 Discrete changes in permeability
re − rw = Δr1 + Δr2 = ∑ Δri
 Same flow rate passes through each layer
q = q1 = q 2

 Total pressure drop is summation of pressure drop across layers

pe − p w = Δp1 + Δp2 = ∑ Δpi
 Average permeability results in correct total pressure drop
q μ ln(re /rw )
240
pe - p w =
2π k h
 Radial, Serial Flow
• Substituting (rw=r1, r2 ,re=r3),
q μ ln(re /rw ) q μ ln(r2 /rw ) q μ ln(re /r2 )
pe - p w = = +
2π k h 2π k1 h 2π k 2 h
• Rearranging,
ln(re /rw )
k=
(ln(ri +1/ri )
∑
All Layers ki

241
Example 1 -parallel

242
Solution

243
Example 2
A hydrocarbon reservoir is characterized by five distinct
formation segments that are connected in series. Each
segment has the same formation thickness. The length and
permeability of each section of the five bed reservoir are
given below:

244
245
Solution

246
247
248
 5.WETTABILITY

249
250
251
252
Wettability
 Definition : the tendency of one fluid to spread or to
adhere to a solid surface in the presence of other
immiscible fluids.
 Laboratory experiments have proved that rock wettability
affects oil displacement (recovery).
 The evaluation of reservoir wettability can be made
through measurements of interfacial tensions, i.e.,
tensions acting at the fluid-fluid and rock-fluid interfaces,
and the contact angle.
 Note that wettability itself is a microscopic characteristic,
that has to be measured by using micro-scale laboratory
investigation techniques.

253
 A wetting phase is one which spreads over the solid surface
and preferentially wets the solid. The contact angle
approaches zero (and will always be less than 90˚).

 A non-wetting phase has little or no affinity for a solid and

the contact angle will be greater than 90˚.

254
255
256
257
258
 The angle Ø is influenced by the tendency of one of the
fluids, i.e. water, of the immiscible pair, to spread on the
pore wall surface in preference to the other (oil).
 The qualitative recognition of preferred spread is called a
wettability preference, and the fluid which spreads more
is said to be the wetting phase fluid.
 Contact angles are measured, by convention, through the
fluid whose wettability is studied or through the fluid
which is wetting the solid surface.
 A table of typical fluid pairs of interest in reservoir
engineering is shown in the Table

259
 CONTACT ANGLE

Oil
σow
Oil θ Water Oil

σos σws σos

Solid The contact angle, θ, measured
through the denser liquid phase,
AT = adhesion tension, milli-Newtons/m or dynes/cm)
defines which fluid wets the solid
surface.
θ = contact angle between the oil/water/solid interface measured through the water, degrees

σos = interfacial energy between the oil and solid, milli-Newtons/m or dynes/cm

σws = interfacial energy between the water and solid, milli-Newtons/m or dynes/cm

σow = interfacial energy (interfacial tension) between the oil and water, milli-Newtons/m or
dynes/cm
260
WETTING PHASE FLUID
 Wetting phase fluid preferentially wets the solid rock
surface.
 Attractive forces between rock and fluid draw the
wetting phase into small pores.
 Wetting phase fluid often has low mobility.
 Attractive forces limit reduction in wetting phase
saturation to an irreducible value (irreducible wetting
phase saturation).
 Many hydrocarbon reservoirs are either totally or
partially water-wet.
261
 NONWETTING PHASE FLUID
 Nonwetting phase does not preferentially wet the
solid rock surface
 Repulsive forces between rock and fluid cause
nonwetting phase to occupy largest pores
 Nonwetting phase fluid is often the most mobile
fluid, especially at large nonwetting phase
saturations
 Natural gas is never the wetting phase in
hydrocarbon reservoirs

262
 WATER-WET RESERVOIR ROCK
 Reservoir rock is water - wet if water preferentially wets the
rock surfaces
 The rock is water- wet under the following conditions:
 σws > σos

 AT < 0 (i.e., the adhesion tension is negative)

 0° < θ < 90°

If θ is close to 0°, the rock is considered

to be “strongly water-wet”

263
WATER-WET ROCK

σow Oil

θ Water
σos σws σos
Solid

• 0° < θ < 90°

• Adhesive tension between water and the rock surface
exceeds that between oil and the rock surface.

264
OIL-WET ROCK

 Reservoir rock is oil-wet if oil preferentially wets

the rock surfaces.
 The rock is oil-wet under the following
conditions:
 σos > σws
 AT > 0 (i.e., the adhesion tension is positive)
 90° < θ < 180°
If θ is close to 180°, the rock is considered to be
“strongly oil-wet”

265
OIL-WET ROCK
σow
Water
Oil
θ

σos σws σos Solid

• 90° < θ < 180°

• The adhesion tension between water and the rock surface is less
than that between oil and the rock surface.

266
INTERFACIAL CONTACT ANGLES,
VARIOUS ORGANIC LIQUID IN
CONTACT WITH SILICA AND CALCITE
WATER

SILICA SURFACE

WATER

CALCITE SURFACE

267 From Amyx Bass and Whiting, 1960; modified from Benner and Bartel, 1941
 GENERALLY,

• Silicate minerals have acidic surfaces

• Repel acidic fluids such as major polar
organic compounds present in some crude oils
• Attract basic compounds
• Neutral to oil-wet surfaces

• Carbonate minerals have basic surfaces

• Attract acidic compounds of crude oils
• Neutral to oil-wet surfaces
Tiab and Donaldson, 1996

Caution: these are very general statements and relations

that are debated and disputed by petrophysicists.

268
 WATER-WET OIL-WET

Air
OIL Oil OIL
θ
θ

θ WATER θ WATER
θ < 90°
WATER WATER θ > 90°
SOLID (ROCK) SOLID (ROCK)
FREE WATER

OIL
GRAIN GRAIN

OIL
RIM

BOUND WATER FREE WATER

269
Ayers, 2001
 WATER-WET OIL-WET

Air Oil

WATER WATER

270
 WETTABILITY IS AFFECTED
BY:
• Composition of pore-lining minerals

• Composition of the fluids

• Saturation history

271
WETTABILITY CLASSIFICATION
1. Strongly oil- or water-wetting

2. Neutral wettability – no preferential wettability to either water or oil

in the pores

3. Fractional wettability – reservoir that has local areas that are strongly
oil-wet, whereas most of the reservoir is strongly water-wet.
- Occurs where reservoir rock have variable mineral composition and
surface chemistry

4. Mixed wettability – smaller pores area water-wet are filled with water,
whereas larger pores are oil-wet and filled with oil
- Residual oil saturation is low
- Occurs where oil with polar organic compounds invades a water-wet
rock saturated with brine

272
 Another way of classification
•Strong wettability

•Intermediate wettability

•Mixed wettability

Strong wettability: The rock has a strong tendency to one of the phases.
Oil wet and water-wet is the typical examples.

Intermediate wettability: when two miscible fluids are in contact with

rock, but one fluid has higher tendency to wet the reservoir.

Mixed wettability: some rocks have various chemical compounds and

therefore exhibit binary tendency to the fluids. This means that some parts of
the reservoir is water wet, while other parts exhibits oil wet behavior or vice
versa. This could be occurred due to heterogeneity in the reservoir.
273
Wettability measurement methods

USBM method

Amott method

274
 6.CAPILLARY PRESSURE

275
 PART 1

276
 In the complicated systems, such as oil and gas reservoirs,
it is important to recognize the effect of the surface
properties of oil/rock, water/rock and, in combination, the
interface oil/water.

 A central property, is the surface or interfacial tension (or

more correctly the surface or interfacial energy).

 This property is very sensitive to chemical changes at the

interface.

277
Surface and Interfacial Tension
 An interface is known as the boundary region between
two adjacent bulk phases. The equilibrium
bulk phases can be:
 Liquid-vapor (LV).
 Liquid-liquid (LL).
 Liquid-solid (LS).
 Solid-vapor (SV).

278
Surface and Interfacial Tension
 When these two fluids are liquid and gas, the term surface
tension is used to describe the forces acting on the
interface.
 When the interface is between two liquids, the acting
forces are called interfacial tension.

279
 Surfaces of liquids are usually blanketed with what acts as
a thin film.
 Although this apparent film possesses little strength, it
nevertheless acts like a thin membrane and resists being
broken. This is believed to be caused by attraction
between molecules within a given system.
 All molecules are attracted one to the other in
proportion to the product of their masses and inversely
as the squares of the distance between them.

280
281
 Consider the two immiscible fluids, air (or gas)
and water (or oil) as shown schematically in
previous Figure.
 A liquid molecule, which is remote from the
interface, is surrounded by other liquid
molecules, thus having a resulting net attractive
force on the molecule of zero.
 A molecule at the interface, however, has a force
acting on it from the air (gas) molecules lying
immediately above the interface and from liquid
molecules lying below the interface.

282
 Resulting forces are unbalanced and give rise to surface
tension.
 The unbalanced attraction force between the molecules
creates a membrane-like surface with a measurable
tension, i.e., surface tension.
 if carefully placed, a needle will float on the surface of the
liquid, supported by the thin membrane even though it is
considerably more dense than the liquid.

283
 The surface or interfacial tension has the units of force
per unit of length, e.g., dynes/cm, and is usually denoted by
the symbol σ.
 If a glass capillary tube is placed in a large open vessel
containing water, the combination of surface tension and
wettability of tube to water will cause water to rise in the
tube above the water level in the container

284
285
286
287
288
Capillary Tube - Conceptual Model
Air-Water System

θ Air
∆h

Water

• Considering the porous media as a collection of capillary tubes provides useful

insights into how fluids behave in the reservoir pore spaces.
• Water rises in a capillary tube placed in a beaker of water, similar to water (the
wetting phase) filling small pores leaving larger pores to non-wetting phases of
reservoir rock.
289
 CAPILLARY TUBE MODEL
AIR / WATER SYSTEM
 The height of water in a capillary tube is a function of:
 Adhesion tension between the air and water 2 σ aw cos θ
Radius of the tube ∆h =
r g ∆ρ aw


 Density difference between fluids

This relation can be derived from balancing the upward force due to adhesion tension
and downward forces due to the weight of the fluid (see ABW pg 135). The wetting
phase (water) rise will be larger in small capillaries.
∆h = Height of water rise in capillary tube, cm
σaw = Interfacial tension between air and water,
dynes/cm
θ = Air/water contact angle, degrees
r = Radius of capillary tube, cm
g = Acceleration due to gravity, 980 cm/sec2
∆ρaw = Density difference between water and air, gm/cm3
Contact angle, θ, is measured through the more dense phase (water in this case).
290
 Rise of Wetting Phase Varies with
Capillary Radius

1 2 3 4

AIR

WATER

Ayers, 2001
291
CAPILLARY TUBE MODEL
AIR/WATER SYSTEM
pa1 Ai
pw1 r
∆h
pa2
pw2

Water

Water rise in capillary tube depends on the density difference of fluids.

Pa2 = pw2 = p2
pa1 = p2 - ρa g ∆h
pw1 = p2 - ρw g ∆h
Pc = pa1 - pw1
= ρw g ∆h - ρa g ∆h
292 = ∆ρ g ∆h
CAPILLARY PRESSURE – AIR / WATER
SYSTEM
 Combining the two relations results in the following expression for
capillary tubes:

2 σ aw cos θ
Pc =
r

293
CAPILLARY PRESSURE – OIL / WATER
SYSTEM
 From a similar derivation, the equation for capillary
pressure for an oil/water system is

2 σ ow cos θ
Pc =
r

Pc = Capillary pressure between oil and water

σow = Interfacial tension between oil and water, dyne/cm
θ = Oil/water contact angle, degrees
r = Radius of capillary tube, cm

294
Adhesion Tension, AT

Adhesion tension, which is a function of the interfacial tension,

determines which fluid preferentially wets the solid. In the case
of water-oil-solid, the adhesion tension AT is defined as:

 A positive adhesion tension AT indicates that water

preferentially wets the solid surface (water wet).
 An AT of zero indicates that both phases have an equal affinity
for the surface (neutral system).
 A negative AT indicates the oil wets the solid surface (oil wet).
The magnitude of the adhesion tension determines the ability
of the wetting phase
 to adhere to the solid and to spread over the surface of the
solid.

295
 PART 2

296
297
298
Oil-Water system

299
Example 1

300
301
Capillary Pressure of Reservoir Rocks
 The interfacial phenomena described above for a single
capillary tube also exist when bundles of interconnected
capillaries of varying sizes exist in a porous medium.
 The capillary pressure that exists within a porous medium
between two immiscible phases is a function of the
interfacial tensions and the average size of the capillaries
which, in turn, controls the curvature of the interface.
 In addition, the curvature is also a function of the
saturation distribution of the fluids involved.

302
Capillary Curve

303
 there is a finite capillary pressure at 100% water
saturation that is necessary to force the nonwetting
phase into a capillary filled with the wetting phase.
 This minimum capillary pressure is known as the
displacement pressure, pd.

304
 If the largest capillary opening is considered as circular with a
radius of r, the pressure needed for forcing the non-wetting
fluid out of the core is:

• This is the minimum pressure that is required to displace the wetting

phase from the largest capillary pore because any capillary of smaller
radius will require a higher pressure.

•As the wetting phase is displaced, the second phenomenon of any

immiscible displacement process is encountered, that is, the reaching of
some finite minimum irreducible saturation. This irreducible water saturation
is referred to as connate water.

• It is possible from the capillary pressure curve to calculate the average

size of the pores making up a stated fraction of the total pore space. Let
pc be the average capillary pressure for the 10% between saturation of 40
and 50%.
305
306
 capillary pressure is plotted versus water saturation for four
rock samples with permeability increasing from k1 to k4 .
 It can be seen that, for decreases in permeability, there are
corresponding increases in capillary pressure at a constant
value of water saturation.
 This is a reflection of the influence of pore size since the
smaller diameter pores will invariably have the lower
permeabilities.
 Also, as would be expected the capillary pressure for any
sample increases with decreasing water saturation, another
indication of the effect of the radius of curvature of thewater-
oil interface.
307
Hystersis Effect
 The process of saturating and desaturating a core with the
nonwetting phase is called capillary hysteresis.
 The two capillary pressure-saturation curves are not the same.

 This difference in the saturating and desaturating of the capillary-

pressure curves is closely related to the fact that the advancing
and receding contact angles of fluid interfaces on solids are
different. Frequently, innatural crude oil-brine systems, the
contact angle or wettability may change with time.

 Thus, if a rock sample that has been thoroughly cleaned with

volatile solvents is exposed to crude oil for a period of time, it
will behave as though it were oil wet and vice-versa
308
Initial Saturation Distribution in a
Reservoir
 An important application of the concept of capillary pressures
pertains to the fluid distribution in a reservoir prior to its
exploitation.
 The capillary pressure-saturation data can be converted into
height-saturation data by arranging the Equation and solving
for the height h above the free-water level.

309
310
It is essential at this point to introduce and define four
important concepts:

• Transition zone
• Water-oil contact (WOC)
• Gas-oil contact (GOC)
• Free water level (FWL)

311
 The figure indicates that the saturations are gradually
charging from 100% water in the water zone to
irreducible water saturation some vertical distance above
the water zone. This vertical area is referred to as the
transition zone, which must exist in any reservoir where there
is a bottom water table.

312
 The transition zone is then defined as the vertical thickness
over which the water saturation ranges from 100% saturation
to irreducible water saturation Swc.

 The creation of the oil-water transition zone is one of the

major effects of capillary forces in a petroleum reservoir.

 The WOC is defined as the “uppermost depth in the reservoir

where a 100% water saturation exists.”

 The GOC is defined as the “mini-mum depth at which a 100%

liquid, i.e., oil + water, saturation exists in the reservoir.”
313
314
315
316
Example 2
 The reservoir capillary pressure-saturation data of the Big
Butte Oil reservoir is shown graphically. Geophysical log
interpretations and core analysis establish the WOC at
4923 ft. The following additional data are available:

Oil density = 40.0 lb/ft3

• Water density = 60.6 lb/ft3
• Interfacial tension = 45 dynes/cm

317
Calculate:
 Connate water saturation (Swc)
 Depth to FWL
 Thickness of the transition zone
 Depth to reach 50% water saturation

318
 4891.5 ‘

4923 ‘

FWL =
4933 ‘

319
Solution:
a)
From the Figure, connate-water saturation is 20%.
b)
 Applying Equation with a displacement pressure of 1.5 psi
gives

4923 + (144).(1.5) / (60.6-40.0) = 4933 ft

320
C)
Thickness of transition zone = 144 (6.0 1.5)/(60.6 -40.0) =
31.5 ft
d)
Pc @ sw= 50% = 3.5 psi
Equivalent height above the FWL = (144) (3.5)/(60.6 – 40.0)
= 24.5 ft
Depth to 50% water saturation = 4933 -24 ‘ = 4919 ft

321
 The above example indicates that only oil will flow in the
interval between the top of the pay zone and depth of
4891

322
From a practical standpoint, this means that in a gas
reservoir having a gas-water contact, the thickness of the
transition zone will be a minimum since ∆ρ will be large. if
all other factors remain unchanged :
 a low API gravity oil reservoir with an oil-water contact
will have a longer transition zone than a high API gravity
oil reservoir

323
 The above expression also shows that as the radius of the
pore r increases the volume of h decreases. Therefore, a
reservoir rock system with small pore sizes will have a
longer transition zone than a reservoir rock system
comprised of large pore sizes.

324
325
 Because in low gravity oil(API) density of oil is
high(Ro(oil)-Ro(water) will be smaller and consequently
denominator of fraction of Pc is smaller and Pc id
higher....and vice versa
 The reservoir pore size can often be related
approximately to permeability, and where this applies, it
can be stated that high permeability reservoirs will have
shorter transition zones than low permeability reservoirs

326
327
 6.RELATIVE PERMEABILITY

328
Permeability
 Absolute Permeability

 Effective permeability

 Relative permeability
Effective permeability
 The ability to preferentially flow or transmit a particular
fluid when other immiscible fluids are present in the
reservoir (e.g., effective permeability of gas in a gas-water
reservoir).
 The relative saturations of the fluids as well as the nature
of the reservoir affect the effective permeability.

 K total= K effective Water + K effective oil

Relative permeability
Definition the relative permeability of each phase at a
specific saturation is the ratio of the effective permeability
of the phase to the absolute permeability (Ahmad, 2001).
 laboratory studies have concluded that the effective
permeability of any reservoir fluid is a function of the
reservoir fluid saturation and the wetting
characteristics of the formation.

 It becomes necessary, therefore, to specify the fluid

saturation when stating the effective permeability of any
particular fluid in a given porous medium.
example

if the absolute permeability k of a rock is 200 md and the

effective permeability ko of the rock at an oil saturation of
80 percent is 60 md, the relative permeability kro is 0.30
at So = 0.80. Since the effective permeabilities may range
from zero to k, the relative permeabilities may have any
value between zero and one, or:
 It should be pointed out that when three phases are
present the sum of the relative permeability (kro + krg + krw)
is both variable and always less than or equal to unity.
 An appreciation of this observation and of its physical causes
is a prerequisite to a more detailed discussion of toward
three-phase relative permeability relationships.
 It has become a common practice to refer to the relative
permeability curve for the non-wetting phase as knw and
the relative permeability for the wetting phase as kw.
 When a wetting and a non-wetting phase flow together in
a reservoir rock, each phase follows separate and distinct
paths.
 When a wetting and a non-wetting phase flow together in
a reservoir rock, each phase follows separate and distinct
paths.
 The distribution of the two phases according to their
wetting characteristics results in characteristic wetting
and non-wetting phase relative permeabilities.
 Since the wetting phase occupies the smaller pore
openings at small saturations, and these pore openings do
not contribute materially to flow, it follows that the
presence of a small wetting phase saturation will affect
the non-wetting phase permeability only to a limited
extent.
 Since the non-wetting phase occupies the central or
larger pore openings which contribute materially to fluid
flow through the reservoir, however, a small non-wetting
phase saturation will drastically reduce the wetting phase
permeability.
relative permeability curves for a water wet
rock
gas-oil relative permeability curve
 Since the connate (irreducible) water normally occupies
the smallest pores in the presence of oil and gas, it
appears to make little difference whether water or oil
that would also be immobile in these small pores
occupies these pores.
 Consequently, in applying the gas-oil relative permeability
data to a reservoir, the total liquid saturation is normally
used as a basis for evaluating the relative permeability to
the gas and oil.
 In the water-oil system, as noted previously, oil is normally
the non-wetting phase, whereas in the presence of gas the
oil is the wetting phase. Consequently, in the presence of
water only, the oil relative permeability curve takes on an
S shape whereas in the presence of gas the oil relative-
permeability curve takes on the shape of the wetting
phase, or is concave upward. Note further that the critical
gas saturation Sgc is generally very small.
 Theoretically, the critical saturation and the residual
saturation should be exactly equal for any fluid; however,
they are not identical.
 Critical saturation is measured in the direction of
increasing saturation, while irreducible saturation
is measured in the direction of reducing
saturation.
 Thus, the saturation histories of the two measurements
are different.
Hysteresis effect
 As was discussed for capillary-pressure data, there is also
a saturation history effect for relative permeability.
 The effect of saturation history on relative permeability is
illustrated in Figure 5-3.
 If the rock sample is initially saturated with the wetting
phase (e.g., water) and relative-permeability data are
obtained by decreasing the wetting-phase saturation while
flowing non-wetting fluid (e.g., oil) in the core
 the process is classified as drainage or de-saturation.
Drainage
 It is generally agreed that the pore spaces of reservoir
rocks were originally filled with water, after which oil
moved into the reservoir, displacing some of the water,
and reducing the water to some residual saturation.
 When discovered, the reservoir pore spaces are filled
with a connate water saturation and an oil saturation.
 If gas is the displacing agent, then gas moves into the
reservoir, displacing the oil.
 This same history must be duplicated in the laboratory to
eliminate the effects of hysteresis. The laboratory
procedure is to first saturate the core with water, then
displace the water to a residual, or connate, water
saturation with oil after which the oil in the core is
displaced by gas.
 This flow process is called the gas drive, or drainage,
depletion process. In the gas drive depletion process, the
non-wetting phase fluid is continuously increased, and the
wetting phase fluid is continuously decreased.
Imbibition Process
 The imbibition process is performed in the laboratory by first saturating
the core with the water (wetting phase), then displacing the water
to its irreducible (connate) saturation by injection oil.

 This “drainage” procedure is designed to establish the original fluid

saturations that are found when the reservoir is discovered.

 The wetting phase (water) is reintroduced into the core and the
water (wetting phase) is continuously increased. This is the
imbibition process and is intended to produce the relative
permeability data needed for water drive or water flooding
calculations.
 Figure 5-3 schematically illustrates the difference in the drainage and
imbibition processes of measuring relative permeability.

 It is noted that the imbibition technique causes the non-wetting

phase (oil) to lose its mobility at higher values of water saturation
than does the drainage process. The two processes have similar
effects on the wetting phase (water) curve.

 The drainage method causes the wetting phase to lose its

mobility at higher values of wetting-phase saturation than does the
imbibition method.
350