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Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi

Derivation of scientific name: Official Common Name:

Endomycorrhiza, (AMF) Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi

Introduction:  

Fungus is a microscopic organism of the group

Scientific Name and Classification:
eukaryotes that includes yeasts, moulds and
mushrooms. These organisms are so Kingdom:
small they
Fungi
require a microscope for thorough observation. They
are globally abundant, present in a wide range of
Phylum/Division:
habitats. Glomeromycota

To many, the word “fungus” often brings up images of athletes foot or spoiled green oranges and bread.
Class:
We are quick to forget the numerous beneficial fungal species that helped shape civilisation. For
Glomeromycetes
example, ever since humans discovered fermentation of barley to produce beer, or the baking of bread,
fungi have had a significant impact on human history. Order:
Glomerales
The only other organisms known to have a longer relationship with these little microscopic organisms
are plants. When plants first started establishing across terrestrial environments more Family:
than 430 million
years ago, they were accompanied by a symbiotic fungus, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungiGlomeraceae
(AMF).

Generaall known
This fungus (Endomycorrhiza, AMF), from the fungal phylum, Glomeromycota- which contains
: Funneliformis,
AMF- has coevolved with the majority of plants ever since. Considering the long evolutionary history ofGlomus, Rhizophagus, Sclerocy
Septoglomus
AMF, it is not surprising that the mycorrhizal association is present in 95% of all vascular and over 200 described species.
plant families,
as AMF seemingly lacks host specificity.

How to recognise arbuscular mycorrhizae fungi:

As arbuscular mycorrhizae fungi are microscopic organisms, therefore microscopes and staining
procedures of plant root samples will need to be done to be able to visualise the fungi that colonised the
root samples. This staining procedure is known as Trypan-blue staining, which is used to selectively
colour dead cells or tissues blue to allow easy observation of fungal structures under a microscope. The
stain highlights fungal structures such as the hyphae, arbuscules, and vacuoles, as shown in figure 1.
The characteristic feature of this fungus is the arbuscules, these are high branched structures that
colonise the root cells, which allows for the carbon transfer from plant to fungi (see figure 2).

Distribution and habitat:

Arbuscular mycorrhizae fungi are present in all soils as fungal spores, and lack any intrinsic movement
capabilities. Spores are commonly present in the rhizosphere soil zone which is generally the “middle
zone” of soil, in the immediate area of a plant root system and soil associated microorganisms. However,
once in the vicinity of a nearby host plant’s root system and under the correct conditions spore
germination can commence. This results in the growth of hyphae (branchlike structures) that branches
out to nearby host plant root systems. Whereby, a mutual symbiotic relationship establishes between the
two organisms. 
Food:

The relationship between AMF and plants is purely symbiotic in nature. These associations are initiated
by spore germination. The AMF acts as extension of the root system of plants, to assist in absorbing
water and nutrients, whilst the plant provides the fungus with a source of carbohydrates. This
relationship is essential for AMF as they are considered obligate biotrophs, in that they are unable to
grow and complete their life cycle without the association with a living root.

The symbiotic relationship is initiated when a potential host plant, releases strigolactones, a
phytohormone (i.e. plant hormones), that promotes seed germination and root and root-hair elongation.
 The phytohormone and low-phosphorous concentrations, ensures the growth of branch-like structures
called hyphae, from AMF spores in the soil, and initiate symbiosis between AMF and the host plant. The
fungi then colonises the plant root network, when the AMF hyphae penetrates the plant’s epidermal cell
wall, the fungus forms “arbuscules” which are highly branched structures for nutrient exchange with the
plant. These are the defining characteristic of AMF.

These arbuscules are the sites where; phosphorous, carbon, water and other nutrient exchanges take
place. This process is also beneficial towards the plant as the hyphal strands of the AMF have access to
phosphorous that plant roots cannot reach. The figure below illustrates the relationship between the
plant root and AMF. It indicates the characteristic structures of AMF when symbiosis is established with
a host plant.

Click here for source (/node/14988)

Reproduction and life cycle:

Reproduction in fungi occurs through

spores, which are produced on the hyphae.
These thick-walled spores remain in the soil
for extended periods of time. Some of the
spores are large enough that allows
recovery through sieving the soil.

In laboratory tests, AMF spores have been

able to germinate and produce hyphae, but
as of yet no one has been able to grow the fungus independently of a root, thereby emphasising the
requirement of plant roots to ensure germination of the spores.

THE BIG PICTURE:

Friends and foes:

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are extremely beneficial to the environment, as they dramatically assist in
improving plant health and maximise the absorption of nutrients. This symbiotic relationship between
fungus and plant spanning millions of years and have allowed for plants to colonise areas that would
have been too harsh to withstand. However, their presence in soil makes them vulnerable to erosion, and
tilling. Tilling reduces the inoculation of the soil and the efficacy of the fungi by disrupting the hyphal
network.

Smart Strategies:

The symbiotic relationship between the fungi and plant can assist in restoring areas affected by
desertification or degradation. This is achieved by inoculating the soil with AMF when reintroducing
vegetation in ecological restoration projects (phytoremediation) that has been affected by industrial
activities such as mining.

The benefits of AMF are greatest in areas with low phosphorous concentration, as soil’s phosphorous
levels available for the plants increase, the amount of phosphorous also increases in the plant’s tissues.

Additionally, in the agricultural processes AMF act as natural biofertilizers, since they are capable of
providing the host with water, nutrients, and pathogen protection, in exchange for photosynthetic
products. Therefore, as with the phytoremediation strategy, the direct re-introduction of AMF into the
target soil can be utilised for farming purposes. 

Poorer world without me:

The important and beneficial symbiotic relationship between plants and AMF cannot be taken for
granted. Life absent AMF would be drastically different, as the helpful relationship between fungi and
plant are of utter importance for their survival. Their role in the ecosystem as well as agriculture would be
impossible to replace.

People & I:

The full potential that AMF can play in agriculture, phytoremediation habitat loss and even as supplement
to achieve healthier lawns is presently being investigated. The potential for restoring regions affected
with industrial processes could improve the productive value of the area by promoting the revegetation of
the area and rebuild the soil of the disturbed area. Similarly, the potential to improve agricultural yields, if
not improve plant survival, by inoculating the soil with AMF could prove to be a useful strategy in the
future to ensure food security.

Threats to AMF:

Climate change poses a great threat to AMF, due to irreparable damage to various ecosystems, as well
as the increasing rate of habitat loss due to human activities. Therefore, successive steps should be
implemented to mitigate subsequent disasters that may arise from these concerns.

References and further reading:

Marleau, J., Dalpé, Y., St-Arnaud, M. and Hijri, M. (2011). Spore development and nuclear inheritance in
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. BMC Evolutionary Biology, 11(1).

Mycorrhizas.info. (2017). Mycorrhizal Associations: Arbuscular Mycorrhizas. [online] Available at:

https://mycorrhizas.info/vam.html [Accessed 11 May 2017].

Rossouw, M. (2016). Application of plant growth promoting substances and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
for phytostabilisation of mine tailings. MSc. University of Stellenbosch.

Soilquality.org.au. (2017). Soil Biological Fertility | Fact Sheets | soilquality.org.au. [online] Available at:
http://www.soilquality.org.au/factsheets/soil-biological-fertility [Accessed 11 May 2017].

Stürmer, S. (2012). A history of the taxonomy and systematics of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi belonging
to the phylum Glomeromycota. Mycorrhiza, 22(4), pp.247-258.

Website.nbm-mnb.ca. (2017). Mycorrhizae. [online] Available at: http://website.nbm-

mnb.ca/mycologywebpages/NaturalHistoryOfFungi/Mycorrhizae.html [Accessed 11 May 2017].

 Author: Marthinus Jacob Rossouw

GMO Programme: SANBI/NRF Intern,

Kirstenbosch

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