Using Appeals: Ethos, Pathos, and Logos

There are three types of rhetorical appeals, or persuasive strategies, used in arguments to support claims and
respond to opposing arguments. An effective argument should incorporate a combination of all three appeals to
make its case. Those appeals are as follows:

Logos
Logos, or the appeal of reason, relies on logic and reasoning to support an argument. Logos often depends on the
use of inductive or deductive reasoning.

 Inductive reasoning takes a specific representative case or facts and then draws generalizations or conclusions
from them. Inductive reasoning must be based on a sufficient amount of reliable evidence. In other words,
the facts you draw on must fairly represent the larger situation or population.
 Deductive reasoning begins with a generalization then applies it to a specific case or situation. The
generalization you start with must have been based on a sufficient amount of reliable evidence.
However, when using the Logos appeal, one must be careful of reasoning errors. These reasoning errors are often
called logical fallacies. *See Fallacies document for more information.
These are some of the most common fallacies:

 Slippery Slope: This is a conclusion based on the idea that if A event happens then eventually B, C… X, Y,
Z will also eventually happen. If you don’t want event Z to occur, then event A must never occur either.

 Example: If marijuana is legalized, then many other drugs will become legalized thereafter.

 Post hoc ergo propter hoc: This phrase is Latin for “after this, therefore because of this”, implying that if
event A happens first, then event B occurs, that event A must have caused event B. You must be able to
prove correlation between two events!

 Example: I ate ice cream, and now my stomach is upset.

 Begging the Claim: This error is when you include the conclusion that you’re trying to prove in the claim
itself.
 Example: Filthy and polluting coal should be banned. Here, the author is arguing that coal is polluting the earth and
should be banned, which is logical. However, the conclusion must be proved and by calling coal “filthy and
polluting” in the claim before proving how coal causes pollution, the author has made an error in the claim.

 Circular Argument: The author restates the claim rather than providing evidence.
Example: George Bush was a good communicator because he spoke effectively. Rather than providing evidence of
George Bush’s communication skills, the author simply restated what it is to be a good communicator.

 Either/Or: This logic error is a conclusion that oversimplifies an argument by reducing it to only two
options.
Example: We can either stop using gas-burning cars, or we will destroy the Earth. Here, the author ignores a range of
choices between these two options such as developing cleaner fuel alternatives, using new technologies, or
providing better public transportation to reduce daily driving.

 Ad Populum: This logical fallacy is an emotional appeal that speaks to positive (such as patriotisms or
democracy) or negative (such as terrorism or fascism) concepts rather than the real issue at hand.
Example: If you were a true American, you would support the war in Afghanistan. In this example, the author equates
the readers’ patriotism with a concept that so many “true Americans” are against to support their point.

Ethos
Ethos, or the ethical appeal, is based on the character, credibility, or reliability of the writer. There are many ways to
establish good character and credibility as an author such as:

 Using only credible, reliable sources to build your argument and citing those sources correctly.
 Respecting the reader by stating all opposing opinions accurately.
 Establishing common ground with your audience by acknowledging values and beliefs shared by those on
both sides of the argument.
 If appropriate for the assignment, disclose your own personal interest in the topic or what personal
experience you have with the topic.
 Organize your argument in a logical, easy to follow manner. You can use the Toulmin method of logic or a
simple pattern such as chronological order, general to specific details, etc.
 Proofread your argument, too many careless mistakes can cast doubt on your character as a writer.

Pathos
Pathos, or the emotional appeal, appeals to an audience’s needs, values, and emotional sensibilities. Argument
emphasizes reason but used properly there is often a place for emotion as well.

 Emotional appeals can use sources such as interviews and individual stories to paint a more legitimate and
moving picture of reality of illuminate the truth.
 Only use an emotional appeal if it truly supports the claim you are making, not as a way to distract for the
real issues of debate. An argument should never use emotion to misrepresent a topic, make the reader feel
guilty, or frighten people.