1

1-X-rays:

a. Are a form of electromagnetic radiation T

b. Have energy proportional to their frequency T

c. Always obey the quantum theory when interacting with matter F

d. Used in diagnostic radiology have a wavelength of the order of micrometres F

e. Travel at the speed of light T

X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation, i.e. they may be depicted as perpendicular
oscillating electric and magnetic fields.

Energy of an X-ray beam is equal to the product of Planck's constant and its frequency.

Photons may interact with matter according to the quantum theory (e.g. photoelectric effect) or
the wave theory (e.g. coherent scattering) of the electromagnetic radiation.

The wavelength of diagnostic X-rays is in the region of 10–10 to 10–11 m.

The frequency of an X-ray photon is equal to the speed of light divided by the wavelength of
that photon.

2-In Compton interactions:

a. Mass attenuation coefficient is dependent on the physical density of the F

observer

b. Linear attenuation coefficient of fat decreases with increasing photon energies F

c. Linear attenuation coefficient of bone is always greater than that of muscle T

d. Linear attenuation coefficient of each bone, muscle and fat increases by

approximately 25% as photon energy increases from 20 to 100 keV F

e. Linear attenuation coefficient of each of water and fat varies sufficiently for the
two to be differentiated on a film exposed with a 100 keV monochromatic beam F

B Mass attenuation coefficients are independent of the density (physical state) of the absorber
to which they pertain, but do depend on the number of the electrons per gram of the particular
absorber. Elements with higher atomic numbers which have fewer electrons per gram therefore
have low mass attenuation coefficients.
 2

A Linear attenuation coefficients are a function of photon energy.

A The linear attenuation coefficient of an absorber is equal to the product of the mass
attenuation coefficient and density of that absorber and increases in the order of fat<MUSCLE<

B In diagnostic radiology, attenuation decreases with increasing photon energy except at K

edges.

B Water has only 2% more electrons per cubic centimetre than fat and therefore when
Compton interaction dominates there is an insufficient difference in the attenuation between
the two for them to be differentiated on a plain radiograph.

3-The photoelectric attenuation process:

a. Occurs when photons collide with atomic nuclei

b. Decreases proportionally with increasing radiation energy

c. Gives rise to scattered radiation outside the body

d. Is the main reason for lead being a good protective material for diagnostic X-rays

e. The energy of photoelectrons ejected due to this event is equal to the energy of the
incident photon

B The photoelectric effect is initiated when a photon or electron ejects a bound electron from
an atom if the energy of the former is greater than the binding energy of the electron.

B The probability of photoelectric interaction occurring decreases markedly as photon energy of

the radiation increases, being inversely proportional to the cube of the photon energy.

B This is a total absorption process hence scattered radiation outside the body is not due to this
event. However, the characteristic X-rays produced during this process may be sufficiently
energetic to leave the patient body (for example from barium and iodine) and may act like
Compton scattered rays.

A The probability of photoelectric interactions in lead is higher due to its high atomic number.
Since this is a total absorption process, the individual wearing a lead containing protective
device is safe from being exposed to radiation.

B Part of the incident photon energy is expended in removing the electron from the atom. This
equals to the binding energy of the shell involved in the process. The remainder becomes the
kinetic energy of the photoelectron.
 3

4-The following statements are true:

a. Compton scattering of a photon with energy in the range of 25–150 keV always
gives a scattered photon with greater than 50% the energy of the incident photon

b. The probability of the Compton interaction occurring is dependent on the number

of electrons per gram of the tissue in which interaction occurs

c. The probability of the Compton interaction occurring is directly proportional to the

atomic number of the tissue in which interaction occurs

d. Compton interaction is likely to occur within a tissue as photon energy increases

e. Compton interaction can occur with all the electrons of the low atomic number
elements found in the soft tissue

A Within the range of photon energies encountered in the diagnostic radiology the energy of
the deflected photon will always be greater than two-thirds of the energy of the incident
photons. The scattered radiation from the Compton effect therefore has an energy similar to
that of the primary beam and is a serious risk to the operator of a screening unit.

A The probability of the Compton interaction is dependent on the electron density of the object
under investigation. Compton interaction is inversely proportional to the photon energy.
Scattered photons may move in any direction. As the angle of deflection decreases, the energy
retained by the scattered photons increases.

B The probability of the Compton interaction does not depend on atomic number of the tissue.
Photoelectric interaction is higher with higher atomic number of the tissue in question.

A The physical density, electron density and energy of the incident photon beams influence the
probability of the Compton interaction.

A The K shell binding energy of the electrons of all the common soft tissue elements is less than
1 keV. These electrons are therefore functionally free in the photon range of diagnostic X-rays
and are available for Compton interactions

5-The following process has raised an important contribution to X-ray attenuation in

diagnostic range:
a. Compton

b. Photoelectric interaction
 4

c. Pair production

d. Coherent elastic interaction

e. Photodisintegration

A Compton interaction occurs between photons and loosely bound orbital electrons. A Compton
interaction results in scattered photon that has less energy than that of incident photon, and that
travels in a new direction. The scattered photons may participate in additional tissue interactions or
reach the image receptor and degrade image quality.

A It is interaction between incident photon and tightly bound electrons. The photoelectric interaction
occurs when a photon is totally absorbed by an inner shell electron and an electron is ejected. As a
result of the photoelectric emission, a positive ion is formed.

B Pair production occurs when a high energy photon interacts with the nucleus leading to production
of matter and anti-matter.

A It occurs when a low energy X-ray photon excites an atom and passes through without any net
energy transfer to the atom.

B The energy threshold of photonuclear disintegration is approximately 15 MeV. This occurs when a
high energy photon is absorbed by a nucleus resulting in immediate disintegration.

6-The following statements are true regarding nuclei having different numbers of
protons, neutrons or both:

a. Nuclei having the same number of protons are isotopes

b. Isotopes have the same physical properties

c. Nuclides having the same mass number are isobars

d. When excited, isotopes of an element emit characteristic X-rays of the same energy

e. Isomer is an excited form of a nucleus

A Atomic number is the same but mass number is different for isotopes. They have the same
chemical properties and occupy the same position in a periodic table.

B Isotopes have a different number of neutrons, mass number, density and other physical
properties.

A This is the definition of an isobar.

 5

A There is no difference in the number of electrons, and hence electron shells, in isotopes; so
when they emit characteristic X-rays, they have the same energies.

A The only difference between the isomers is the amount of energy they possess, so during
isomeric transition there is release of this excess energy without any change in mass of atomic
number of the radionuclide.

With respect to radioactive decay:

a. The activity of a radionuclide is 1 MBq if there were 1000 disintegrations per second

b. Radioactive decay always produces gamma rays since the source is nucleus

c. Mostly very heavy nuclei tend to be unstable

d. Physical half-life is independent of the biological half-life in the body

e. Different radioisotopes of the same element always have the same half-lives

The answer is: B (B means false and A means true)

The SI unit of radioactive disintegration is Becquerel, which means one disintegration per second.
Since Becquerel is a very small quantity, most radioactive administrations are measured in mega-
Becquerel. 1 MBq = 106 Bq.

The answer is: B

Rather than emitting gamma rays energy released following radioactive decay may be transferred to
an orbital electron, which is then emitted from the atom with subsequent production of characteristic
X-rays – internal conversion.

The answer is: A

For high mass number nuclides, the number of neutrons exceeds their atomic number to remain
stable. Very heavy nuclei (Z>82) tend to be unstable and hence radioactive.

The answer is: A

Physical half-life is a fixed characteristic of a radionuclide.

The answer is: B

 6

The half-life or more properly called physical half-life is unique to each radioisotope and hence not
necessarily all radioisotopes of the same element have the same half-life.

In radioactive decay modes:

a. All the beta rays emitted in radioactive decay process have the same energy

b. In beta plus decay, the atomic number decreases by one and the mass number stays the
same

c. During electron capture, only characteristic X-rays are released

d. Electron capture may compete with beta plus decay

e. Alpha decay poses a major risk as an external radiation source

The answer is: B

Beta emission has a continuous spectrum of energies up to a maximum, Emax, which is characteristic
of the radionuclide. The average emission is about Emax/3.

The answer is: A

In beta plus decay, a proton inside a nucleus is converted into neutron and the excess energy is
released as a positively-charged electron. Positrons being antimatter have a very brief existence and
when combined with an electron annihilate each other to release two photons of 511 keV travelling in
opposite directions.

The answer is: B

If the daughter nucleus is left in an excited state following electron capture and release of
characteristic X-rays, it will also emit gamma rays. For example iodine-123 decays wholly by electron
capture releasing characteristic X-rays as well as gamma rays.

The answer is: A

Both of these decay modes occur in neutron-deficient radioisotopes and hence may compete with
each other. In electron capture, a proton inside the nucleus is converted into a neutron by capturing
an orbital electron. A neutrino is also emitted. In this process, the atomic number decreases by one
but the mass number stays the same.

The answer is: B

Because alpha particles are heavy, they are a low risk external radiation source, but pose a major risk
if ingested or injected.
 7

The binding energy of an electron is:

a. Its kinetic energy of an orbital electron

b. Greater for an electron in M shell than the one in L orbit

c. Normally measured in volt

d. K shell binding energy in the case of tungsten is 150 keV

e. When an electron moves from a shell to one farther out, it releases energy as binding
energy is always less with shells far from the nucleus

The answer is: B

The binding energy is the amount of work required to remove an electron from its shell in an atom.
The binding energy of inner shell electrons is large and that of outer shell electrons is small. K shell
binding energy increases with the atomic number of an element.

The answer is: B

The closer a shell to the nucleus of an atom, the higher the binding energy of the electrons orbiting
the shell.

The answer is: B

It is normally expressed in electron volts.

The answer is: B

It is 70 keV. The binding energy is never greater than 100 keV.

The answer is: B

An atom is excited when an electron is raised from one shell to another farther out. This involves
expenditure of energy; the atom as a whole has more energy than normal and is hence said to be
excited.

The following statements are correct regarding the structure of an atom:

a. Tungsten atom has 10 electrons in its valence shell

b. Valence shell is concerned with chemical, thermal and electrical properties of an atom
 8

c. Metals usually have tightly bound valence shell electrons

d. An element always has the same atomic number

e. Protons and neutrons in a nucleus are called nucleons

B No valence shell can have more than eight electrons.

A Valence shell electrons are concerned with the physical, chemical and thermal properties of an
atom. X-rays involve inner shell electrons and radioactivity is due to unstable nucleus

B Most metals have one, two or three valence shell electrons, one of which is easily detached from it
and is called free. This is the reason behind metals being good conductors of heat and electricity.

A An element can have different mass numbers but they always have the same atomic number.

A They are collectively called nucleons

A quantum:

a. Is an amount of electromagnetic radiation

b. Of visible light has more energy than a quantum of ultraviolet (UV) light

c. Having an energy of 140 keV, has a wavelength of 0.1 nm

d. Usually has a mass greater than beta particles

e. Has an energy proportional to its frequency

The answer is: A In quantum mechanics, electromagnetic radiation is regarded as stream of packets or
quanta of energy called photons travelling in a straight line.

The answer is: B Ultraviolet rays are of higher frequency electromagnetic radiation than visible light.
The higher the frequency, the greater the energy of the quanta of that radiation

The answer is: A Energy is proportional to the frequency and inversely proportional to the wavelength
of radiation.

The answer is: B Quanta may behave as waves or particles but have no mass.

The answer is: A

Photons or quanta are proportional to the frequency, and the proportionality constant is called
Planck's constant.
 9

Electromagnetic radiation:

a. Electromagnetic waves of X-rays and visible light travel at different velocity in a

vacuum

b. Electromagnetic waves are longitudinal waves of sinusoidally varying electric and

magnetic fields

c. X-rays and gamma rays behave exactly the same way when they interact with matter

d. X-rays and gamma rays are indirectly ionizing radiations

e. All electromagnetic radiations are potentially ionizing

The answer is: B Though the velocity in air may differ, all electromagnetic waves travel with the same
velocity as light when in a vacuum

The answer is: B They are transverse waves; the electric and magnetic field vectors point at right
angles to each other and to the direction of travel of the wave

The answer is: A The only difference between these two electromagnetic waves is their site of origin.

The answer is: A Only charged particles like alpha, beta, electrons, etc. are directly ionizing.

The answer is: B Electromagnetic radiation having sufficient energy to remove an orbital electron
from an atom is called ionizing radiation. Not all electromagnetic radiation is ionizing, e.g. visible light,
radio-waves, etc.

Radionuclides produced by target bombardment in a nuclear reactor usually:

a. Are neutron-deficient nuclides

b. Are carrier-free

c. Decay with emission of beta particles

d. Have high mass numbers

e. Are often short-lived

The answer is: B In a nuclear reactor, an additional neutron is forced into a stable nucleus, hence they
are usually neutron rich and decay principally by the beta minus decay process

The answer is: B As they have the same atomic numbers, the nuclides produced at a nuclear reactor
cannot be separated from their parent stable nucleus and hence cannot be made carrier-free.
 10

The answer is: A The excess neutron is converted to a proton and an electron. The electron is ejected
from the nucleus with high energy.

The answer is: A The atomic number of the nucleus stays the same, but its mass number will be higher
than its parent stable nucleus.

The answer is: B Unlike cyclotron produced radionuclides, the product has a reasonable half-life.
Because neutrons are added, activated materials tend to lie above the line of stability, and thus to
decay by electron emission

X-rays:

a. Are a form of electromagnetic radiation

b. Have energy proportional to their frequency

c. Always obey the quantum theory when interacting with matter

d. Used in diagnostic radiology have a wavelength of the order of micrometres

e. Travel at the speed of light

The answer is: A X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation, i.e. they may be depicted as
perpendicular oscillating electric and magnetic fields.

The answer is: A The energy of an X-ray beam is equal to the product of Planck's constant and its
frequency.

The answer is: B Photons may interact with matter according to the quantum theory (e.g.
photoelectric effect) or the wave theory (e.g. coherent scattering) of the electromagnetic radiation.

The answer is: B The wavelength of diagnostic X-rays is in the region of 10−10 to 10−11 m.

The answer is: A The frequency of an X-ray photon is equal to the speed of light divided by the
wavelength of that photon.

For atomic structure:

a. The atomic number is the number of protons plus electrons

b. Electrons exist in shells of energy levels around the nucleus

c. All electrons exist at the same energy level for a given element
 11

d. A nucleon is smaller than a nucleus

e. The nucleus of an atom has a net positive charge

The answer is: B Atomic number is the number in the periodic table, defined by the number of
protons. Atomic mass number is the number of protons plus the number of neutrons.

The answer is: A Electrons exist at different energy levels described as shells of decreasing energy.

The answer is: B It will take the same amount of energy to dislodge a K-shell electron for different
atoms of the same element, but the K-shell electrons and L-shell electrons within the same atom will
have different energy levels

The answer is: B Examples of nucleons are protons and neutrons. A nucleus is all the protons plus
neutrons of one atom. In hydrogen the single proton is the only nucleon, and thus the nucleon and the
nucleus would be the same size

The answer is: A The nucleus comprises positive protons and neutral neutrons. Negative electrons
exist outside the nucleus.

Elements useful to radiology:

a. The atomic number of tungsten (W) is 82

b. The K-edge of barium is approximately 37 keV

c. The K-edge of calcium (Ca) is approximately 20 keV

d. The gamma emission of 99Technectium metastable (Tc-99m) is approximately 140 keV

e. The atomic number of iodine is 53

The answer is: B Lead (Pb) has an atomic number of 82. Tungsten (W) has an atomic number of 74.

The answer is: A The K-edge of barium is high enough that the photoelectric effect predominates in
barium screening.

The answer is: B The K-edge of Ca is 4 keV. Common elements in the body have a low K-edge which is
why the Compton effect predominates at the higher end of the diagnostic energy range.

The answer is: A This is much higher than diagnostic X-ray energies.
 12

The answer is: A With a higher atomic number than soft tissue, the K-edge of iodine is also higher. The
photoelectric effect therefore predominates at diagnostic X-ray energies; this makes it suitable as a
contrast agent

Regarding electromagnetic radiation:

a. Radio-waves are a form of electromagnetic radiation

b. Radio-waves travel at 3×810 ms−1 in vacuo

c. X-rays and gamma rays vary only in their origin

d. Frequency and wavelength are directly proportional to one another

e. Radio-waves travel in divergent straight lines

The answer is: A Radio-waves are the least energetic form of electromagnetic radiation.

The answer is: B They travel at 3×108 ms−1 in vacuo.

The answer is: A X-rays arise primarily through changes in electron energy state; gamma rays arise
from radioactive decay

The answer is: B They are indirectly proportional

The answer is: A This is one of the particle-like properties of electromagnetic radiation.

In the production of X-rays:

a. Bremsstrahlung refers to the energy gained by electrons as they are accelerated

towards the target

b. Thermionic emission occurs in the target

c. Bremsstrahlung radiation is formed at the cathode of an X-ray tube

d. Characteristic radiation is formed at the anode of an X-ray tube

e. Only about 50% of the energy of the bombarding electrons is emitted as useful X-ray
radiation
 13

The answer is: B Bremsstrahlung can be translated as ‘braking’ energy, referring to the slowing of the
bombarding electron. The electron is slowed by its passage close to the nucleus and gives off the
reduction in kinetic energy as electromagnetic radiation.

The answer is: B Thermionic emission occurs in the filament of the cathode. This is the method by
which electrons are emitted for acceleration to the target.

The answer is: B Electrons are produced at the negative cathode and accelerate towards the positive
anode, where they can react with the target atoms to produce X-rays.

The answer is: A When the electrons hit atoms in the anode they can produce X-rays either through
the Bremsstrahlung process or can knock a K-shell electron out of its orbit thus allowing an L- or M-
shell electron to drop down and produce characteristic radiation

The answer is: B Typically less than 1% of the energy is converted to useful X-ray radiation.

X-ray attenuation:

a. Is the process where photons are absorbed or scattered thus reducing the photons in
the emerging beam

b. In a monoenergetic beam, the half-value layer increases with depth due to hardening of
the beam

c. Monoenergetic beams are used in digital radiography

d. The linear attenuation coefficient is inversely proportional to the half-value layer (HVL)

e. The number of photons in the emerging beam reaches zero after five HVLs

The answer is: A This occurs to a greater or lesser extent in different tissues; it is these differences in
attenuation that allow us to see anatomic detail using X-rays.

The answer is: B Hardening of the beam occurs when the beam is composed of a spectrum of
wavelengths. The process of hardening occurs when lower energy photons are absorbed first, leaving
more penetrating photons that will travel further through tissue.

The answer is: B Digital radiography uses tubes of the same type of design as conventional
radiography, where a spectrum or X-ray energies are produced with the maximum energy being set by
the peak kilovoltage of an X-ray tube (kVp).

The answer is: A Linear attenuation coefficient (μ) = 0.693/HVL.

 14

The answer is: B The reduction in the number of photons is exponential, and therefore never truly
reaches zero. The intensity of the emerging beam can be calculated by I = I0e–μd where I is intensity, I0
is initial intensity, μ is the attenuation coefficient and d is the thickness of material.

Attenuation of X-rays:

a. In clinical practice, the first and second HVLs are equal

b. The mass attenuation coefficient of a material decreases with atomic number

c. Elastic scatter greatly affects the images produced using X-rays

d. The photoelectric effect leads to complete absorption of X-ray photon energy

e. The photoelectric effect predominates when diagnostic X-rays meet contrast media
such as barium

The answer is: B X-ray beams used clinically are not monoenergetic. After one HVL the lower energy
photons will have been preferentially removed and the beam will now be more penetrating. The
second HVL of this beam will therefore be greater.

The answer is: A The mass attenuation coefficient is obtained by dividing the linear attenuation
coefficient by density; this makes it independent of density and relates only to atomic number and
photon energy.

The answer is: B Also known as coherent or Rayleigh scatter, this process refers to an interaction
where a photon is deflected from a bound electron which is not ejected from the atom and therefore
no ionizing events occur. For diagnostic energies, the probability of this effect is small compared to
that of the Compton and photoelectric effects.

The answer is: A The energy taken up by the photoelectron is absorbed very close (within ~1 µm) of
the site of interaction.

The answer is: A The photoelectric effect is proportional to Z3/E3 and is therefore more likely when
low energy clinical beams interact with relatively high density contrast media.

Regarding an X-ray beam used in clinical practice:

a. If the characteristic radiation was removed from a beam the intensity of that beam
would increase

b. The intensity of a beam would diminish by 16 times if you moved from 1 m to 4 m from
 15

the source

c. The inverse square law assumes no absorption or scattering in the medium

d. The mean energy of the beam is approximately 50% of the operating tube kV

e. It has a constant HVL

The answer is: B Intensity equals total photon energy in cross section per unit time. Removal of the
characteristic rays would mean fewer photons

The answer is: A According to the inverse square law; if you double your distance, the area of the beam
increases by four times, i.e. the intensity is reduced by 4. In the example given the distance is doubled twice, so
intensity is reduced to one-sixteenth. Intensity is defined as energy transmitted per unit area

The answer is: A There is some attenuation in air but this is very low compared with the effect of the inverse
square law.

The answer is: A The operating kV is equal to the maximum photon energy possible; most photons will not be
as energetic.

The answer is: B Clinical X-ray beams are not monoenergetic; lower energy photons are more readily
attenuated, so the beam intensity increases as it penetrates, thereby also increasing the HVL.

Regarding the Compton effect:

a. The Compton effect describes scatter of photons by the tissue

b. A photoelectron is ejected in a collision with a photon

c. The free electrons described in Compton scatter are often bound within the valence shell of
atoms

d. The probability of the Compton effect is proportional to the atomic number (Z) cubed

e. The mass attenuation coefficient for the Compton effect for bone is twice that of soft tissue

The answer is: A The Compton effect describes scatter, with a resulting recoil electron and scattered lower
energy photon.

The answer is: B This describes the photoelectric effect.

 16

The answer is: A Although the term ‘free electrons’ is used, it refers to any electron with a binding energy
much lower than that of the incident photon.

The answer is: B The Compton effect is proportional to the density of electrons, which is approximately
proportional to the density of the tissue. The photoelectric effect is proportional to Z3/E3.

The answer is: B The mass attenuation coefficient is already divided by the density of the tissue meaning the
effect of density has been cancelled out. Also, the Compton effect is not proportional to atomic number. The
linear attenuation coefficient of bone would be higher than that of soft tissue as the physical density, and thus
the electron density is higher.

Photoelectric effect:

a. The photoelectric effect occurs at a maximum when the incident photon energy is just less than
the K-edge

b. Characteristic radiation may be emitted after the photoelectric effect

c. Most biological damage is caused directly by the ionization of the atom by X-ray photons

d. At higher energies the photoelectric effect becomes a more common interaction

e. The photoelectron has energy equal to the energy of the incident photon plus the binding
energy of the electron
The answer is: B The photoelectric effect cannot occur unless the photon has more energy than the binding
energy of the electron. The photoelectric effect is at its maximum when the photon energy is just greater than
the K-edge.

The answer is: A The ejection of the photoelectron leaves a gap in the inner shell. An electron falling from an
outer shell may give up some energy as characteristic radiation as it moves to a lower energy state.

The answer is: B The high energy nature of this process causes that atom to become ionized, and the
photoelectron continues on and collides to cause many more ionizations. As so many more ionization events
are caused indirectly by the subsequent photoelectrons and Compton electrons, the direct biological damage
from photon interactions is relatively small.

The answer is: B The photoelectric effect is proportional to Z3/E3, and thus decreases with increasing photon
energies.

The answer is: B The energy of the incident photon is used to break the binding energy of the electron; its
remaining energy is transferred to the photoelectron.
 17

X-ray interactions with matter:

a. The photoelectric effect predominates in high kV techniques such as computed tomography

(CT)

b. At 30 keV or less the Compton effect predominates

c. In diagnostic high kV techniques such as CT pair production becomes a significant effect

d. In Compton scatter the electron never travels in the backward direction

e. The probability of Compton scatter occurring is related to the electron density of the material

The answer is: B The chance of the photoelectric effect is related to Z3/E3. In the human body at diagnostic X-
ray levels the photoelectric effect occurs mainly at lower photon keV or with high atomic number contrast
agents such as barium

The answer is: B In soft tissue interacting with a 30 keV beam approximately half the interactions will be
Compton effect and half will be photoelectric. At lower keV the photoelectric effect predominates. At higher
keV the Compton effect predominates.

The answer is: B Pair production does not occur with photon energies of less than 1 MeV, and thus does not
occur in diagnostic radiology.

The answer is: A The electron can be scattered only forward or at angles of up to 90°.

The answer is: A At very high photon energies the Compton effect begins to diminish, but at diagnostic
radiology photon energies the Compton effect can be viewed as only dependent on the electron density, which
is related to the density of the tissue.

Regarding luminescence:

a. The outermost filled electron band in a luminescent material is known as the conduction band

b. The process of luminescence is possible only in substances which are manufactured entirely
free from impurities

c. In radiographic detectors the intensity of light emitted from a phosphor is directly proportional
to the intensity of energy absorbed from the X-rays or gamma rays

d. In computed radiography (CR) image processing, the exposed detector plate is heated in order
 18

to stimulate the release of light

e. In personal dosimetry systems, optical stimulated luminescent dosimeters allow a greater

sensitivity of measurement compared with thermoluminescent detectors
The answer is: B The outermost (lowest energy) layer is known as the valence band. The conduction band is the
adjacent, higher energy band. On excitation of a phosphor, electrons in the valence band are energized and
promoted to the conduction band.

The answer is: B Between the valence band and conduction band is the forbidden zone. Impurities in the
phosphor (deliberately manufactured in this way) contain electron bands which lie within the forbidden zone.
Excited electrons which fall into these ‘electron traps’ subsequently move to the valence band with the release
of light energy. This is the basis of photoluminescence.

The answer is: A The energy absorbed is also proportional to the intensity of the beam itself.

The answer is: B Computed radiography uses photostimulable phosphor plates. The detector plate is
stimulated by light, usually a laser, to allow image formation.

The answer is: A Optical stimulated luminescent dosimeters give readings down to 0.01 mSv. Unlike
thermoluminescent dosimetry (TLDs), they can also be read more than once because not all electrons are
released at the first reading by the scanning laser beam.

Radiation:

a. Bremsstrahlung radiation can occur at any energy from just above 0 keV to the peak voltage
potential in the X-ray tube

b. Kα radiation describes the emission of a particle of two protons and two neutrons

c. Characteristic radiation results in specific energy photons being emitted relating to the electron
binding energies

d. Characteristic radiation from the L-shell of tungsten is used in high kV techniques

e. Beta radiation is commonly used in nuclear diagnostic imaging.

The answer is: A Most of the lower energy photons are absorbed either within the target, the tube wall or in
the filter.

The answer is: B Kα emission is emission of characteristic radiation after an electron falls from the L-shell to the
K-shell. Kβ emission occurs after an electron falls from the M-shell to the K-shell. Do not confuse Kα with an
alpha particle.
 19

The answer is: A The energy of the photon and thus the wavelength and frequency (E = hf) is related to the
energy difference of the electron between the shell it moves from and to.

The answer is: B L-shell characteristic radiation is low energy radiation (~10 keV in the case of tungsten) that is
unlikely to penetrate through the filter.

The answer is: B Beta particles travel only very short distances and thus cannot be used for imaging. Beta
particle emitters are sometimes used for therapy, e.g. thyroid ablation.

Regarding atomic structure:

a. Protons are approximately 2000 times heavier than electrons

b. The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons plus neutrons

c. Electron binding energy is greatest in the valence shell

d. Valence shell electrons are concerned with the electrical properties of an element

e. The maximum number of electrons in the K-shell is 4

The answer is: A Protons and neutrons have a relative mass of 1, electrons have a relative mass of 0.0054.

The answer is: B Atomic number is equal to the number of protons; mass number is equal to the number of
protons plus neutrons.

The answer is: B The valence shell is the outermost electron shell. Being furthest from the nucleus, attraction is
weaker and so binding energy is lower.

The answer is: A A loose valence shell electron in metals enables conductivity.

The answer is: B The maximum is 2.

Concerning electromagnetic radiation:

a. The energy of a photon is directly proportional to the frequency

b. Microwaves, X-rays, and gamma rays are examples of ionizing radiation

c. Electromagnetic radiation always follows the inverse square law

d. The beam intensity measured as energy fluence rate is measured as the sum of the energy of
the photons per unit area per unit time
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e. A typical wavelength for diagnostic X-rays is 400 nm

The answer is: A Energy = hf, where h is Plank's constant.

The answer is: B Microwaves are low frequency electromagnetic radiation, and the energy is not sufficient to
produce ionization of water. X-rays and gamma rays are ionizing

The answer is: B The inverse square law only applies to a point source for electromagnetic radiation. While the
focal spot is technically not a point source, it is small enough that the inverse square law can be applied with
reasonable accuracy.

The answer is: A Energy fluence is the sum of the energies. Photon fluence is the number of photons

The answer is: B This is the wavelength for blue light. X-rays have a wavelength of 1 nm or less.

In the clinical production of X-rays, the following are true:

a. The energy of fast moving electrons striking a target is mostly converted to X-rays

b. There are two electrical currents in the system

c. High frequency X-ray generators provide a steady supply with approximately 10% ripple

d. Characteristic X-rays from a tungsten target have energies of 58 and 68 keV

e. A molybdenum target provides lower energy characteristic X-rays than a tungsten target

The answer is: B 99% of the incident electron energy is converted to heat, the rest to X-rays.

The answer is: A One is the tube potential used to accelerate electrons (high kV, low current), the other flows
through the filament to liberate electrons (low kV, high current).

The answer is: B Ripple is generally no greater than 2%.

The answer is: A Characteristic energy values are equal to the difference in binding energy of the electron
shells involved.

The answer is: A For molybdenum, Kα photons have energy of 17.5 keV, while Kβ have energy of approximately
20 keV. This compares with energies of 58 and 68 keV for tungsten.

Interaction of X-rays with matter:

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a. X-rays are directly ionizing

b. Following photoelectric absorption in soft tissue, characteristic radiation is released

c. The photoelectric effect is less likely with higher energy X-rays

d. K-edge filters ideally have a K-shell binding energy just above the mean X-ray beam energy

e. X-rays ionize air

The answer is: B X and gamma rays are indirectly ionizing; the secondary electrons (photoelectrons or those
reflected in the Compton effect) form ion pairs along their path through a material. By contrast, alpha and beta
particles ionize directly.

The answer is: A This is of very low energy and usually absorbed immediately, often with the release of a
further Auger electron.

The answer is: A The photoelectric effect is inversely proportional to E3.

The answer is: B Ideally just below the mean beam energy.

The answer is: A This is the principle behind an ionization chamber.