HIGH - RISE

BUILDINGS
 References

• Tarnath S.B. “Structural Analysis & Design of Tall

Buildings” Mc Graw Haill Book Company

• Schuller W. “High Rise Building Structures” John

Wiley & Sons

• Smith B.S. & Coull A. “Tall Building Structures

Analysis & Design” John Wiley & Sons

2
 INTRODUCTION
• From a structural engineer's point of view
tall building or multi-storeyed building is
one that, by virtue of its height, is affected
by lateral forces to an extent that they play
an important role in the structural design

• Multi-storeyed buildings provide a large

floor area in a relatively small area of land
in urban centres

4
 World's tallest buildings 151
Storey 138 148
140
127

Empire State World Trade Centre Jin Mao Sears Tower Petronas Towers
Building (381 m) (415 m) (417 m) Building (443 m) (452 m)
(421m)
6
 CONCRETE V/S STEEL TALL BUILDINGS
Steel Framed High Rise Building are -
• Faster to erect
• Lighter
• Better quality control
• Reduced site time - Fast track Construction
• Large column free space and amenable for
alteration
• Less material handling at site
• Less percentage of floor area occupied by
structural elements
• Has better ductility and hence superior lateral
load behaviour;
• better Earthquake / Wind resistance
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 ANATOMY

• BEAMS

• COLUMNS

• FLOORS

• BRACING SYSTEMS

• CONNECTIONS

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BEAM AND COLUMN CONSTRUCTION

Beam

One-way slab

Column

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BEAM AND COLUMN CONSTRUCTION - 1

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BEAM AND COLUMN CONSTRUCTION - 2

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COMMON TYPES OF FLOOR SYSTEMS

• Concrete slabs supported by open-web

beams
• One-way and two-way reinforced concrete
slabs supported on std. steel beams
• Concrete slab and steel beam composite
floors
• Composite profiled decking floors
• Precast concrete floors on steel beams

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Concrete slabs supported by open-web joists

Stud welding
Concrete slab

Tack weld Open web joist

Bottom chord

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One-way and two-way reinforced concrete
slabs supported on steel beams

Welded wire mesh for effectively bonding

fireproofing concrete.

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Concrete slab and steel beam composite floors

Steel beam encased in concrete Steel beam acting composite with

( Rarely used now a days ) concrete slab using shear connectors

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 Profiled decking floors

• Popular for lighter loads

• Advantages:
– Do not need form work
– Lightweight concrete is used resulting in
reduced dead weight
– Decking distributes shrinkage strains, thus
prevents serious cracking, reduces leakages
– Decking stabilises the beam against lateral
buckling, until the concrete hardens

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Profiled decking floors - 1

Profiled sheet A

Section A-A showing dimples

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Profiled decking floors - 2

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Precast concrete slab floors

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 Lateral forces

• High wind pressures on the sides of tall

buildings produce base shear and
overturning moments
• These forces cause horizontal deflection
• Horizontal deflection at the top of a
building is called drift
• Drift is measured by drift-index, /h,
where,  is the horizontal deflection at
top of the building and h is the height of
the building

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Lateral forces - 1

h Drift index =  / h

Lateral drift

As per I.S.code - drift index should not be

more than 0.002 of total height

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LATERAL LOAD RESISTING SYSTEMS

• Rigid frames

• Shear walls

• Braced frames

• Advanced structural forms

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 Shear wall

Rigid frames Shear wall frames Braced frames

( Moment resisting )

Lateral load resisting systems

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 Rigid frames

• Framed with moment resisting connections

between beams and columns.
• Used economically to provide lateral load
resistance for low-rise buildings
• Less stiff than other systems
• Moment resisting connections may be
necessary in locations where loads are
applied eccentrically with respect to centre
line of the columns

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Moment resistant connections - 1

Stiffeners

Shop welded and field bolted connection

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Moment resistant connections - 2

Stiffener Top plate

Erection angle

Field welded and field bolted connection

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Moment resistant connections - 3

End plate

Stiffener

End plated connection

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 Shear walls
• Shear walls are specially designed RC walls
parallel to the direction of load are used to resist
lateral loads by acting as deep cantilever beams
fixed at foundation
• Interior concrete core walls around the elevator,
stair etc. may be considered as shear walls

• Advantages of shear walls:

– Very rigid in their own plane and hence are

effective in limiting deflections
– Act as fire compartment walls
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 Braced frames

X - brace K- brace Knee brace

Bracing systems

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 Braced frames
• X-bracing system
– Works well for 20 to 60 storey building
– Does not give room for openings such as doors and
windows
• To provide more flexibility for the placing of
windows and doors, K-bracing system or full-
storey knee bracing system can be used

• Knee bracing is efficient in energy dissipation

during earthquake loads by forming plastic
hinge in beam

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 Connections
Depending upon structural behaviour,
connections are classified as:

• Simple connections ( Hinged )

– Detailed to allow beam end to rotate freely
and beam behaves as a simply supported
beam
– Transfers shear and axial forces between
connecting members but does not transfer
bending moment

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• Rigid connections
– Detailed to ensure a monolithic joint such that
angle between beam and column before
deformation remains same even after
deformation
– Transfers shear, axial force and bending
moment from beam to column

• Semi-rigid connections
– Designed to transmit full shear force and a
fraction of the rigid joint bending moment
across the joint
– Analysis of frames with such joints is
complex

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 ADVANCED STRUCTURAL FORMS

• Framed tubes
– Lateral resistance is provided by
very stiff moment resisting
frames that form a tube around
the perimeter of the building

– Gravity loading is shared

between tube and interior
columns

– Appropriate for buildings having

40 to100 storeys

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ADVANCED STRUCTURAL FORMS - 1

Braced tube structures

– Tubular system with

X - bracing over many stories

– Structure behaves under lateral

loads more like a braced - frame
reducing bending in the
members of the frames.

– Spacing of the columns can be

increased and depth of beams
will be less, thereby allowing
large size windows than in
conventional framed tube
structures
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ADVANCED STRUCTURAL FORMS - 2

Tube-in-Tube Structures

– A type of framed tube

consisting of an outer-framed
tube together with an internal
elevator/stair & service core.

– Outer and inner tubes act

jointly in resisting both gravity
and lateral loading in framed
buildings

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ADVANCED STRUCTURAL FORMS - 3

Other advanced structural forms:

• Bundled tube

• Bundled tube with belt truss

• Tapered bundled tube

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 LOADING

• Gravity loads (DL & IL – IS-875, Part-I & II)

• Wind load (WL – IS-875-1987,P-III), (SP64-2001)

• Earthquake load ( EL– IS-1893-2002,P-I), (SP22)

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Special Loads ( Concrete Structures )

Shrinkage, Creep and Temperature Effects

( IS 875 - Part 5, IS 456)

Shrinkage - The total shrinkage strain for design of RCC & PSC
structures shall be taken as 0.0003

Creep – Ultimate creep strain (RCC & PSC) may be estimated

from the following values of creep coefficient.
(i.e Ultimate Creep Strain / Elastic Strain at the age of loading)
Age at Loading Creep Coefficient
7 days 2.2
28 days 1.6
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1 year 1.1
Temperature Effects – Thermal Expansion
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion for Concrete with Basalt-
aggregate per deg. C αc = 0.8 to 0.96 X 10 -5
For Steel αs = 0.12 X 10 -4

Modulus of Elasticity Es = 2 x 105 N / mm2

Short term static modulus of elasticity (N/mm2) =
(Actual measured values may differ by +- 20 percent from the
values obtained from the above expression)

NOTE : In ordinary buildings, such as low rise buildings whose

lateral dimension do not exceed 45 m, the effects due to
temperature fluctuations, shrinkage and creep can be
ignored in design calculations.
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Other Forces and Effects
( related to safety and serviceability of the structure )
1. Foundation movement (IS 1904)
2. Elastic axial shortening
3. Soil and fluid pressures [IS 875 (Part 5)]
4. Vibration
5. Fatigue
6. Impact [IS 875 (Part 5)]
7. Erection loads [IS 875 (Part 2)] and
8. Stress concentration effect due to point load.

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STABILITY OF STRUCTURE : (WL & EL shall be treated as IL)

Overturning
The stability of a structure as a whole against overturning shall be
ensured so that –
Restoring moment > 1.2 times overturning moment due DL
+ 1.4 times overturning moment due IL.
NOTE : The anchorages & counterweights shall be provided for
overhanging members.
Anchorages & counterweights should be such that static equilibrium
should remain, even when overturning moment is doubled.
Sliding : Under the most adverse combination of the loadings -
Factor against sliding = 1.4 (min)
(In this case only 0.9 times DL shall be taken into account) 41
Lateral Sway
Under transient wind load the lateral sway at the top < = H / 500
(where H is the total height of the building)
For seismic.loading, refer IS 1893

Fire Resistance : IS 1641, IS 1642

Min. dimensions for RCC members for Fire Resistance

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Nominal Cover for Durability Requirements (IS 456 : 2000, Table 16)
Exposure Nominal Concrete Cover not Less Than
Mild 20 mm
Moderate 30 mm
Severe 45mm
Very severe 50mm
Extreme 75mm

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 Gravity loads (DL+LL)
Live Load magnitudes [IS: 875 - 1987 Part -II]
Occupancy U. D. L. Concentrated load
classification (kN/m2) (kN)
Office buildings
Offices and Staff rooms 2.5 2.7
Class rooms 3.0 2.7
Corridors, Store rooms 4.0 4.5
and Reading rooms
Residential buildings
Apartments 2.0 1.8
Restaurants 4.0 2.7
Corridors 3.0 4.5

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Arrangement of Imposed Load

Load Case LL on Adj.Span DL

LL on Adj.Span DL

Load Case LL on Alt.Span DL

Note : When LL < 75% of DL then DL & LL on all the span.

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 Reduction in Imposed Loads on Floors
Number of Floors ( Includ- Reduction in Total Distributed
ing the Roof) to be Carried Imposed Load on all Floors to
by Col./Footing under be Carried by the Col./Footing
Consideration under Consideration ( % )

1 0
2 10 %
3 20 %
4 30 %
5 to 10 40 %
Over 10 50 %

( NO reduction for any plant or machinery, storage material, warehouses & garages )
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 ILLUSTRATION :

100%
Reduction of
90%
U.D.L. Imposed
Floor Loads in 80%

Multi-storeyed 70%

Buildings 60%

For Design of 60%

Columns / Footings 60%

60%

60%

60%

50%

50%

50%

50%

50% 47
Control of Deflection of RCC Beams & Slabs
To control max. vertical deflection in BEAM
For span up to 10 m
Ratio of Span / Eff. Depth
Cantilever beam L/d <= 7 i.e. d > = L / 7
S. S. beam L / d < = 20* i.e. d > = L / 20
Continuous beam L / d < = 26* i.e. d > = L / 26
For span above 10 m * Multiplying Factor = 10 / span in m

To control max. deflection in SLAB (upto 3.5m span, LL=3 kN/m2)

S.S. slab L / d < = 28 i.e. d > = L / 28
Continuous slab L / d < = 32 i.e. d > = L / 32
Max. Deflection δmax. > Span / 250 to 350 or 20 mm
(Which ever is less)
Limiting vertical & horiz. Deflection for Steel Beam / Column
δmax. > Span or ht. / 325 48
 Wind load

• Most important factor that determines the design

of tall buildings over 10 storeys, where storey
height approximately lies between 2.7 – 3.0 m

• Appropriate design wind loads are estimated

based on:

– Static approach

– Dynamic approach

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Wind Effect on Structures

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 Wind Effect on Structures

TURBULENT WAKE
(RANDOM)
Wake

Random Vibrations due to Buffetting by Turbulent Wake of other structure

PERIODIC WAKE

Wake in case of
Low Rise Buildings

Wake

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Periodic Vibrations due to Buffetting by Periodic Wake of other structure
52
 Dynamic Wind Analysis
# For tall, long span and slender structures a ‘dynamic analysis’
of the structure is essential.
# Wind Gusts cause fluctuating forces on the structure
which induce large dynamic motions / oscillations.
# The severity of the wind-induced dynamic motions /
oscillations depends on - the natural frequency of vibration &
- the damping of the structure.
# Dynamic motions are induced in both directions -
- ‘along-wind’ direction as well as ‘across-wind’ direction.
# The ‘along-wind’ response of the structure is accounted for by
a magnification factor (‘gust factor’) applied to static forces.
# The ‘across-wind’ response requires a separate “dynamic -
analysis”.
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Provisions of IS 875: 1987 (SP-64, 2001) can be broadly classified as:

• Computation of design wind speed based on wind zone, terrain

category, topography and wind direction.
• Computation of design wind pressure.
• Computation of wind load using pressure coefficients.
(Pressure coefficients are applicable to design of structural
elements like walls, roofs and cladding.)
• Computation of wind load using force coefficients.
(Force coefficients applicable to the building frame / structural
frameworks as a whole)
• Computation of along-wind forces using gust factor method to
account for dynamic effect of wind. (Magnification factor applied to static forces)
• Evaluation of across-wind forces using wind tunnel - model
analysis. 54
 Wind Load on Steel Framed High Rise Building

280
Total steel
240
Weight of
steel (kg/m2) 200
160
Wind bracing
120

80 Columns
40
Floor framing
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Number of floors
Weight of steel in multi-storeyed buildings
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 Earthquake load
• Seismic motion consists of horizontal and vertical
ground motions
• Vertical motion is much smaller in magnitude and
factor of safety provided against gravity loads will
accommodate additional forces due to this motion

• Horizontal motion of ground causes most

significant effect on structure by shaking
foundation back and forth
• Mass of building resists this motion by setting up
inertia forces throughout structure.

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Earthquake load - 1

• Magnitude of horizontal shear force

depends on;
– Mass of building
– Acceleration of ground
– Nature of structure

• Earthquake load is estimated by;

– Seismic co-efficient method
– Response spectrum method

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Earthquake load – 2

(a) F = M a (b) F < M a (c) F > M a

Force developed by earthquake

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 Load Combination
• RCC Building Limit State Method
• Collapse Serviceability
• Load case 1 1.5 (DL+LL) DL+LL
• Load case 2 1.5 (DL+WL) DL+WL
• Load case 3 1.2 (DL+LL+WL) DL+0.8(LL+WL)

• Steel Building Working Stress Method

• Load case 1 (DL+LL) Total Load Cases
• Load case 2 (DL+LL+WL) = 11
• Load case 3 (DL+WL) with EL & TL

• * Replace WL by EL for Earthquake Load

• * Consider Temp. Load (TL) for each load case
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Thank You

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 BRACED FRAMES - METHODS OF
ANALYSIS FOR LATERAL LOADS
• Member Force Analysis
• Analysis of forces in a determinate triangulated
braced frame can be made by method of sections
• Drift Analysis
• Drift is a result of flexural and shear mode
contributions
• In low rise braced structures, shear mode
displacements are most significant
• In medium to high rise structures, higher axial
forces and deformations in columns, cause flexural
component is dominant

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Drift Analysis - 1

Virtual work drift analysis

• A force analysis of structure is carried out for

design lateral loads
– To determine axial force Pj in each member j
– To determine bending moment Mxj at sections x along
those members subjected to bending

• A second force analysis is then carried out with

structure subjected to only a unit imaginary
lateral load at the level N whose drift is required
– To give axial force pjN
– Moment mxjN at section x in the bending members

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Member Force Analysis - 2

N 1
N

N -1

x Typical
Mx x mxj
member j
j N
Pj pjN
x x

Member forces in a typical braced frame

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Drift Analysis - 3

Resulting horizontal deflection at N is;

j
 P   Mx 
 N   p jN   
 EA  j  m xjN   dx
 EI  j
0

• This method is exact and can easily be

systematised by tabulation

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 ANALYSIS OF FRAMES WITH MOMENT
RESISTANT JOINTS FOR LATERAL LOADS
• Methods employed for lateral load analysis of
rigidly jointed frames:
– Portal method
– Cantilever method
– Factor method

• Portal method and Cantilever method yield good

results only when the height of a building is
approximately more than five times its least lateral
dimension

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 Portal Method
• Satisfactory for buildings up to 25 stories
• Simplifying assumptions made in portal method:

– A point of contraflexure occurs at the centre of each beam

– A point of contraflexure occurs at the centre of each
column
– Total horizontal shear at each storey is distributed
between columns of that storey in such a way that each
interior column carries twice the shear carried by each
exterior column

• Above assumptions convert indeterminate multi-

storey frame to a determinate structure

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Portal Method - 1

Steps involved in analysis of frame;

• Horizontal shears on each level are distributed

between columns of that floor
• Moment in each column is equal to column shear
multiplied by half the column height
• Girder moments are determined by applying
moment equilibrium equation to joints
• Shear in each girder is equal to its moment divided
by half the girder length
• Finally, column axial forces are determined by
summing up beam shears and other axial forces at
each joint

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 Cantilever Method
• Gives good results for high-narrow buildings
compared to those from the Portal method and it
may be used satisfactorily for buildings of 25 to 35
storeys tall

• Simplifying assumptions:

– A point of contraflexure occurs at centre of each beam

– A point of contraflexure occurs at centre of each column
– Axial force in each column of a storey is proportional to
the horizontal distance of the column from centre of
gravity of all columns of storey under consideration

68
Cantilever Method - 1

Steps involved:
– Centre of gravity of columns is located
– Axial force in one column is assumed as F and axial
forces of remaining columns can be expressed in terms of
F by taking moments about centroid of columns of the
storey
– Beam shears are determined joint by joint from column
axial forces
– Beam moments are determined by multiplying shear in
beam by half span of beam
– Column moments are found joint by joint from beam
moments
– Column shears are obtained by dividing column moments
by half-column heights

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 Factor Method
• More accurate than either portal method or
cantilever method

• Based on assumptions regarding the

elastic action of the structure

• For application of Factor method, relative

stiffness (k = I/), for each beam and
column should be known or assumed

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Factor Method - 1

Application of Factor method involves following

steps:
– The girder factor g, is determined for each joint from the
following expression

g
 kc

k
 kc - Sum of relative stiffnesses of column members
meeting at that joint
 k - Sum of relative stiffnesses of all members meeting
at that joint
– Column factor c, is found for each joint from following
expression
c = 1-g
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Factor Method - 2

– At each end of every member, there will be factors from

step 1 or step 2. To these factors, half the values of
those at the other end of the same member are added

– Sum obtained as per above step is multiplied by relative

stiffness of respective members. This product is termed
as column moment factor C, for columns and girder
moment factor G, for girders

– Calculate column end moments

– Calculate beam end moments

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 ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS FOR
GRAVITY LOADS
• Simple Framing
– Shears and moments can be determined by statics

• Semi Rigid Framing

– Designed using techniques developed based on
experiments

• Rigid Framing
– Rigid frame buildings are analysed by one of approximate
methods to make an estimate of member sizes before
going to exact methods such as slope-deflection or
moment-distribution method

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 Substitute frame method

• A short version of moment distribution method

• Only two cycles are carried out in analysis and also

only a part of frame is considered for analysing the
moments and shears in beams and columns

• Assumptions for this method:

– Moments transferred from one floor to another floor are

small. Hence, the moments for each floor are separately
calculated
– Each floor will be taken as connected to columns above
and below with their far ends fixed.

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Substitute frame method - 1

0.6 

Stiff column frame Flexible column frames

Substitute approximate models for analysis of frames

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 Drift in Rigid Frames

• Lateral displacement of rigid frames subjected to

horizontal loads is due to following three modes:

– Girder Flexure
– Column Flexure
– Axial deformation of columns

• Sum of storey drifts from the base upward gives

drift at any level and the storey drifts can be
calculated from summing up contributions of all
three modes in that particular storey

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 COMPUTER ANALYSIS OF RIGID FRAMES

• A typical model of rigid frame consists of an

assembly of beam-type elements to represent both
beams and columns of frame
• Columns are assigned their principal inertia and
sectional areas
• Beams are assigned with their horizontal axis
inertia and sectional areas
• Torsional stiffnesses and shear deformations of
the columns and beams are neglected

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