The Z transform techniques

The Z transform has the same role in discrete systems that the Laplace transform
has in analysis of continuous system. The Z transform is the principal analytical
tool for single-loop discrete-time systems.

The Z transform

The Z transform is to discrete-time systems what Laplace transform is to

continuous- time system. Conceptually, the symbol Z can be associated with time
shifting in difference equation in the same way that S can be associated with
differentiation in a differential equation.

The Z transform of a Time Function

The discrete-time function f*(t) can be Laplace transformed

∞
L{f*(t) }=∫f*(t)e-stdt
0
We shall sometimes use the notation

L{f*(t) }= F*(s)
The function f*(t) is regarded as taking value zero except at instants where t=kT,
where k takes only integral values.
∞ ∞ ∞
∫ -st
f*(t)e dt = ∑f(kT)e -skT
= ∑f(kT)(esT) -k
0 k=0 k=0

The Z transform of f(t) is defined as being equal to the Laplace transform of f*(t):
that is
Z{f(t) }=L{f*(t) }
if Z{ f(t) } is designated F(z) then
∞
F(z) = F*(s) = ∑ sT -k
f(kT)(e )
k=0
∞
sT
finally, if we define z=e , then F(z) = ∑
k=0
f(kT)z
-k

ENG640 – Control Systems Design : Hassan Parchizadeh, Dr. Barry Haynes Page 1
Example : find the Z-transform of unit-step function f(t) = u(t)
where f(t) = 0 when t < 0 and f(t) = 1 when t ≥ 0.

Solution
For discrete form f(t) = f(kT) = u(kT) which is unity for all values of K
∞
F(z) = ∑ -k
f(kT)z = 1 + z
k=0
-1
+ z-2+ z-3+ z-4+ ........... (1)

k=0
∑ -k -1 -2 -3 -4
z-1 F(z) = z-1 f(kT)z = z + z + z + z + ........... (2)

Subtract (2) from (1) F(z) - z-1 F(z) = 1 => F(z)(1 - z-1) = 1

1 z
Therefore F(z) =
1-z -1 =
z-1

Example : find the Z-transform of a exponential function where f(t) = 0 when

t < 0 and f(t) =e-at when t ≥ 0.

solution

For discrete form f(t) = f(kT) =e-akT

∞

F(z) = ∑f(kT)z-k = 1 + e -aT

z-1 + e-2aT z-2+ e-3aT z-3+ e-4aT z-4+ ...........
k=0

F(z) = 1 + e-aT z-1 + e-2aT z-2+ e-3aT z-3+ e-4aT z-4+ ........... (1)

e-aT z-1 F(z) = e-aT z-1 + e-2aT z-2+ e-3aT z-3+ e-4aT z-4+ ........... (2)

Subtract (2) from (1)

F(z) - e-aT z-1 F(z) = 1 => F(z)(1 - e-aT z-1) = 1
1 z
Therefore F(z) = -aT -1 =
1-e z z - e-aT

Problem 1: Find the Z-transform of polynomial function ak

where f(t) = 0 when t < 0 and f(t) = ak when t ≥ 0.

Problem 2: Find the Z-transform of unit-ramp function where f(t) = 0 when t < 0
and f(t) = t when t ≥ 0.

ENG640 – Control Systems Design : Hassan Parchizadeh, Dr. Barry Haynes Page 2
The Z transform of a Laplace Function

Another method of deriving the Z-transform of a time function, is to transform f(t)

into G(s) and then derive the equivalent G(z), using the following method :-

Assume G(s) = N(s)/D(s), where D(s) has a finite number of distinct roots. Then
p
G(z) = ∑ D’(x
N(x ) n
) 1–en
1
XnT
z-1
n=1
Where D’ = dD(s)/ds and Xn, n=1,….,p are the roots of equation D(s) = 0.

Example: find the Z-transform of f(s) = 1/s. ( note : f(s) = £u(t), the step function).

Solution N(s) =1, D(s) = s, D’(s) = 1 , n= 1 and x1= 0.

p 1
N(xn) 1 1 1 1 z
G(z) = ∑ D’(xn) 1 – e z-1
XnT = ∑ 1 1–e z 0T -1 =
1– z -1 =
z– 1
n=1 n=1

Example: find the Z-transform of f(s) = 1/(s+a). ( note : f(s) = L f(t) =e-at ).

solution N(s) =1, D(s) = s+a, D’(s) = 1 , n= 1 and x1 = -a.

p 1
N(xn) 1 1 1 z
G(z) = ∑ D’(xn) 1 – eXnT z-1 = ∑ 1 1 – e-aT z-1
=
z – e-aT
n=1 n=1

Problem : Can you find the Z-transform of (i) f(s) = 1/(s2+3s+2) (ii) 1/s2 (ramp).

Some Properties of Z transforms

1. Linearity Z[f1(t) + f2(t)] = Z[f1(t)] + Z[f2(t)] = F1(z)+ F2(z)

2. Multiplication by a constant Z[a * {f(t)}] = a * Z[f(t)] = a * F(z)

3. Shift property Z[f(k + n)T] = znF(z) and Z[f(k - n)T] = z-nF(z)

4. Initial-value theorem Lim f(kT) = lim F(z)

K
0 z
∞
5. Final-value theorem Lim f(kT) = lim(1 – z-1)F(z)
K
∞ z
1
ENG640 – Control Systems Design : Hassan Parchizadeh, Dr. Barry Haynes Page 3
 Laplace Time function z-transform Modified z-transform
transform f(t) t>0 f(z) f(z,m)
f(s)
1 z 1
u s (t )
s z −1 z −1

1 Tz mT T
t 2 +
s2 ( z − 1) ( z − 1) ( z − 1) 2

2 T 2 z ( z + 1)  m2 2m + 1 2 
T2
2
t − + 
s3 ( z − 1) 3  ( z − 1) ( z − 1) 2 ( z − 1) 3 

1 z e − amT
− at
e z − e − aT
s+a z − e − aT

1
− at
Tze − aT (
Te − amT e − aT + m( z − e − aT ) )
( s + a) 2 te ( z − e − aT ) 2 ( z − e − aT ) 2

a 1 − e − at z (1 − e − aT ) 1 e − amT
−
s( s + a ) ( z − 1)( z − e −aT ) ( z − 1) ( z − e − aT )

1 1 1  z z  1  e − amT e −bmT 
(e − at − e −bt )
−
(b − a)  ( z − e −aT ) ( z − e −bT )   − 
( s + a )( s + b) (b − a )  ( z − e − aT ) ( z − e −bT ) 
(b − a )
a (1 − e − aT ) z
t−
1
(1 − e − at )
Tz
− T amT − 1 e − amT
2
s (s + a) + +
a ( z − 1) 2 a ( z − 1)( z − e − aT ) ( z − 1) 2 a ( z − 1) a ( z − e − aT )
a z sin(aT ) z sin(amT ) + sin(1 − m)aT
2 2 sin(at ) 2
s +a z − 2 z cos(aT ) + 1 z 2 − 2 z cos(aT ) + 1
s z ( z − cos(aT )) z cos(amT ) − cos(1 − m)aT
cos(at )
2 2
s +a z 2 − 2 z cos(aT ) + 1 z 2 − 2 z cos(aT ) + 1
b z sin(bT )e − aT
e − at sin(bt ) e − amT ( z sin(bmT ) + e − aT sin(1 − m)bT )
2 2
( s + a) + b z 2 − 2 z cos(bT )e − aT + e − 2 aT z 2 − 2 z cos(bT )e − aT + e − 2 aT

s+a z ( z − cos(bT )e − aT ) e − amT ( z cos(bmT ) + e − aT cos(1 − m)bT )

e − aT cos(bT )
( s + a) 2 + b 2 z 2 − 2 z cos(bT )e − aT + e − 2 aT z 2 − 2 z cos(bT )e − aT + e − 2aT

ENG640 – Control Systems Design : Hassan Parchizadeh, Dr. Barry Haynes Page 4
Example: find the Z-transform of f(t) to generate sin(3t) at intervals 0f 0.1 Sec.

Solution Using Z transform table

-1
Z sin(aT ) Z sin(3T ) 0.29552Z
0.29552Z
Z { Sin(at) } = 2 = 2 = 2 =
Z – 2Z cos(aT) + 1 Z – 2Z cos(3T) + 1 Z – 1.910673Z + 1 1 – 1.910673Z-1 + Z-2

Example: find the Z-transform of D(s) given below with a sampling time of 0.1
Sec. 6
D(s) = 2
s + 5s + 6
Solution
6 A B As + 3A + Bs + 2B s(A + B) + (3A + 2B)
D(s) = = + = =
(s + 2)(s + 3) (s + 2) (s + 3) [………………....] [………………….....]

therefore (A + B) = 0 and (3A +2B) = 6

A = -B and 3A +2(-A) = 6 => A = 6 and B = -6

-1
6 6
6z 6z 0.4674 z
D(s) =
(s + 2)
-
(s + 3) Z {D(s)}= z – e-2T
-
z – e-3T
= -1
1 – 1.5595 z + 0.6065 z
-2

Using T = 0.1 second

Example: find the Z-transform of the continuous plant below being supplied with
samples from a digital controller through a ZOH DAC with a sampling time T=0.1
Sec.
3(s + 2)
Impulses DAC Gp(s ) = Continuous
From the s(s + 4) Output from
Micro T The system

Impulses
To the
Micro

ENG640 – Control Systems Design : Hassan Parchizadeh, Dr. Barry Haynes Page 5
Solution
-sT
(1 - e )
D(s)= ------------
s

Using partial fraction

G(s ) = ( 1 - e-sT ) x [ 3/2
s2
+
3/8
s
_ 3/8
s+4
]
-1
G(z) = Z{( 1 - e-sT ) x [ 3/2
s2
+
3/8
s
_ 3/8
]} = (1- z ) Z{[ 3/22 +
3/8 _ 3/8
]}
s+4 s s s+4

-1 -2
3/2 Tz z _ 3/8 z 0.27363 z – 0.224178 z
G(z) = ( z – 1 ) [ + 3/8 ]
=
z (z – 1)2 z–1 z – e-4T -1 -2
1 – 1.67032 z + 0.67032 z

Using T = 0.1 second

Use of modified Z transforms (including time delays)

Up to this point it has been assumed that negligible time elapses between sampling
the error and producing the corresponding input voltage to the input of the plant.
For example, in a ship autopilot sampling at 10 seconds, makes the milliseconds
spend on computation insignificant. In an aircraft however, with an autopilot
sampling, say, every 50 milliseconds, the computation time is a significant
proportion of the sampling interval. The delay would therefore have to be included
in the mathematical model of the system as ‘dead time’ or ‘transport lag’. The
modified transform is seen to contain a parameter m; this relates to the amount of
delay that must be accounted for. Let the dead time be TD seconds and p as a
proportion(fraction) of the sampling interval, that is
TD = ( n + p)T And m of modified table m= 1- p

TD TD

t t
T T T T T
n=0 n=4

The fractional portion of the delay is then treated in the manner described above
and the integer portion is accounted for by multiplying the result by z-n.
ENG640 – Control Systems Design : Hassan Parchizadeh, Dr. Barry Haynes Page 6
Example: find the Z-transform of the continuous plant below being supplied with
samples from a digital controller through a ZOH DAC with a sampling time T=0.5
Sec and having a finite delay TD of : (i) 0.2 seconds, and (ii) 1.8 seconds.

Impulses -TDs Continuous

From the DAC G(s ) = e Output from
Micro s The system
T
Impulses
To the
Micro

solution -sT -TDs

-sT -TDs
1-e e (1- e ) e
G(s ) = s x =
s
s2

-1 -TDs
-1
G(z) = ( 1 - z ) Z {e }= (1- z )
Z m{ 1
}
s2 s2

i) T = 0.5, TD = 0.2 therefore TD = ( 0 + p ) T => 0.2 = (0 + p) 0.5 => p = 0.4

and m = 1 – 0.6 => m = 0.6

-1 T -1 0.5
G(z) = ( 1 - z ) [ (zmT
– 1)
+
(z – 1)2
]
=(1- z ) [ (z0.3– 1) + (z – 1)2 ]

ii) T = 0.5, TD = 1.8 therefore TD = ( n + p ) T => 1.8 = (3 + p) 0.5 => p =

0.3 and m = 1 – 0.3 => m = 0.7

-1 -3 -1 0.35 0.5
G(z) = ( 1 - z )z [ (zmT +
T
]
= (1- z ) z -3[ (z – 1)
+
(z – 1)2
]
– 1) (z – 1)2

Note : z-3 which is because of n=3.

ENG640 – Control Systems Design : Hassan Parchizadeh, Dr. Barry Haynes Page 7
Problem: find the Z-transform of the continuous plant below being supplied with
samples from a digital controller through a ZOH DAC with a sampling time T=1
Sec and having a finite delay TD of : (i) 0.3 seconds, and (ii) 3.5 seconds.

Impulses -TDs Continuous

From the DAC G(s ) = e Output from
Micro s2 The system
T
Impulses
To the
Micro

Relationship between Z and difference Equations

Whereas continuous systems are described by differential equations, discrete

systems are described by difference equations. The difference equations show the
relationship between the input signal e(k) and the output signal u(k).

Example: find the difference equation of D(z) given below:

-1
u(z) 0.4674 z
D(z) = = -1 -2
e(z) 1 – 1.5595 z + 0.6065 z

solution
-1 -2 -1
u(z)[ 1 – 1.5595 z + 0.6065 z ] = e(z) x 0.4674 z
-1 -2 -1
u(z) –1.5595 u(z) z + 0.6065 u(z) z = 0.4674 e(z) z

u(n) – 1.5595 u(n-1) + 0.6065 u(n-2) = 0.4674 e(n-1)

u(n) = 1.5595 u(n-1) – 0.6065 u(n-2) + 0.4674 e(n-1)

Problem : find the difference equation of D(s) given below by finding D(z) :
3(s + 2)

s (s + 4)

ENG640 – Control Systems Design : Hassan Parchizadeh, Dr. Barry Haynes Page 8