Chapter 2

Dynamic Loading
MI-212
 Introduction to Fatigue in Metals
 Static conditions : loads are applied gradually, to give sufficient time
for the strain to fully develop.

 Variable conditions : stresses vary with time or fluctuate between

different levels, also called repeated, alternating, or fluctuating stresses.

 When machine members are found to have failed under fluctuating

stresses, the actual maximum stresses were well below the
ultimate strength of the material, even below yielding strength.

 Since these failures are due to stresses repeating for a large number of
times, they are called fatigue failures.

 When machine parts fails statically, the usually develop a very large
deflection, thus visible warning can be observed in advance; a fatigue
failure gives no warning!
 Fatigue Failure in Metals
 A fatigue failure arises from three stages
of development:
 Stage I : initiation of micro-cracks due to cyclic
plastic deformation (these cracks are not
usually visible to the naked eyes).
 Stage II : propagation of micro-cracks to initiation
macro-cracks forming parallel plateau like
fracture surfaces separated by longitudinal
propagation
ridges (in the form of dark and light bands
referred to as beach marks).
fracture
 Stage III : fracture when the remaining
material cannot support the loads.
Fracture Patterns of Fatigue
Failure
 Characterizing Fluctuating
Stresses
 Fluctuating stresses often of
sinusoidal patters due to the
nature of some rotating
machinery.

 The peaks of the wave are more

important than its shape.

 Fluctuating stresses are

described using a steady
component and an alternating
component.
Cyclic Loading
 Fatigue Life Methods in Fatigue
Failure Analysis
 Let N be the number of cycles to fatigue for a specified level of loading
 For 1≤ N ≤ 103, generally classified as low-cycle fatigue

 For N>103, generally classified as high-cycle fatigue

 Three major fatigue life methods used in design and analysis are
1. stress-life method : is based on stress only, least accurate especially for low-
cycle fatigue; however, it is the most traditional and easiest to implement for a
wide range of applications. Accurate for High cyl.
2. strain-life method : involves more detailed analysis, especially good for low-
cycle fatigue; however, idealizations in the methods make it less practical when
uncertainties are present. Involves analysis of plastic deformation at localized.
3. linear-elastic fracture mechanics method : assumes a crack is already
present. Practical with computer codes in predicting in crack growth with
respect to stress intensity factor
 Stress-Life Method : R. R. Moore
 The specimen shown is carefully machined
and polished, with final polishing in axial
direction.

 The most widely used fatigue-testing

device is the R. R. Moore high-speed
rotating-beam machine.

 Specimens in R.R. Moore machines are

subjected to pure bending by means of
added weights.

 Other fatigue-testing machines are

available for applying fluctuating or
reversed axial stresses, torsional stresses,
or combined stresses to the test specimens.
 S-N Curve
 In R. R. Moore machine tests, a
constant bending load is applied,
and the number of revolutions of
the beam required for failure is
recorded.

 Tests at various bending stress

levels are conducted.

 These results are plotted as an S-N

diagram.

 Log plot is generally used to

emphasize the bend in the S-N
curve.
S-N diagram from the results of completely reversed axial
 Ordinate of S-N curve is fatigue fatigue test. Material : UNS G41300 steel.
strength, Sf , at a specific number
of cycles.
 Characteristics of S-N Curves for
Metals
 In the case of steels, a knee
occurs in the graph, and beyond
this knee failure will not occur,
no matter how great the number
of cycles - this knee is called the
endurance limit, denoted as Se
UNS G41300 steel.
 Non-ferrous metals and alloys do
not have an endurance limit,
since their S-N curve never
become horizontal.
Aluminum Alloy

 For materials with no endurance

limit, the fatigue strength is
normally reported at N=5x108
 The Strain-Life Method
 The best approach yet advanced to explain the
nature of fatigue failure. However, it needs to
compound several idealizations, and so
uncertainties will exist in the results.

 A fatigue failure begins at a local stress raisers.

When the stress at these discontinuity exceeds
the elastic limit, plastic strain occurs.

 Bairstow using experiments to verify that elastic

limits of iron and steel can be changed by the
cyclic variation of stress.

 A stress-strain plot of controlled cyclic loads

could show the strength variation due to stress
repetitions.
 Manson-Coffin Relationship
• The total-strain amplitude is the sum of elastic and plastic strain

• is the fatigue strength coefficient, the true stress corresponding to fracture in

one reversal.
• is the fatigue strength exponent as the slope of the elastic-strain line.
• is the fatigue ductility coefficient, the true strain corresponding to fracture in
one reversal.
• is the fatigue strength exponent as the slope of the elastic-strain line.
Fatigue Life
 The Strain-Life Method
 Stress life approach is applicable to elastic limit or high cycle loading.
 Situation involving high stress, high temperature or stress
concentration, where significant plasticity is involved.
∆𝜖𝑝
 Loading is characterised by the plastic strain amplitude 2
.

𝜖𝑝
 Plot between log vs. log 2𝑁𝑓 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑏𝑒ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑟, which can be
2

further explained with Coffin Manson relationship

∆𝜀𝑝
𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
2
𝜀𝑓′ fatigue ductility coefficient ≈ 𝜀𝑓
C is fatigue ductility exponent (-0.5 to -0.7 for many metals.
 Stress Life Method
 Useful for high cycle figure.

 Applied stress within elastic range

 No plastic strain occurs, anywhere than at the tips of fatigue cracks.

 Stress life calculations are much simpler.

𝜎𝑓′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑠, 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
b= fatigue strength coefficient or Basquin’s exponent (≈ -0.05 to -0.12)
2𝑁𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒.
 Stress/ Strain Life Method

∆𝜀𝑝
Coffin Manson expression is used to express 2

Basquin Law (Stress life approach)

 Manson-Coffin Relationship
 The total-strain amplitude is the sum of elastic and plastic strain
 Transition in Analysis
 Strain Life Analysis:

If the amplitude of the total strain have significant plasticity component,

life time is likely very short. Low cycle fatigue.

 Stress Life Analysis:

If the stresses are low enough that the strain are elastic, the lifetime is

likely to be long.

 Transition State:

The transition life (2Nt) is found by setting the plastic strain amplitude

equal to the elastic strain amplitude.

Transition in Analysis
 Transition in Analysis
 If N>> Nt, the elastic strain is more dominant and strength will

control performance.

 If N<< Nt, plastic strain dominates, and ductility will control

performance.

 In most materials improvements in strength lead to reduction in

ductility, and vice versa.

These total life approaches represent crack initiation life in smooth
specimens. However, engineering materials contain inherent
defects. Therefore, these approaches can lead to overestimation of
useful life.
 Linear-Elastic Fracture Mechanics
Method
 Fatigue cracking consists
three stages

✓ Stage I : crack initiation, invisible

to the observer.

✓ Stage II : crack propagation, most

of a crack’s life

✓ Stage III : final fracture due to

rapid acceleration of crack
growth.
 Paris Law for Crack Growth
 Assuming a crack is discovered early in stage II, the crack
growth can be approximated by the Paris equation as

 ΔKI is the variation in stress intensity factor due to

fluctuating stresses.
crack length

material constants

number of cycles
Fatigue Varying Amplitudes
Palmgren Miner Linear Damage
 Common approach is the Palmgren-Miner linear damage summation rule.

2𝑛𝑖 𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝜎𝑎𝑖

𝑑= =
2𝑁𝑓𝑖 𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝜎𝑎𝑖

 Here, 2Nfi are number of cycles to failure at σai, d is the partial damage.

 Component fails when total damage equals 1.

𝑛𝑖
=1
𝑁𝑓𝑖
𝑖

It is assumed that the sequence of the loading has no significant impact on

the lifetime of the component. Practically, sequence will have significant
impact on the lifecycle of the component.
 Endurance Limit for Steels
 For steels, the endurance limit
relates directly to the minimum
tensile strength as observed in
experimental measurements.

 From the observations, the

endurance of steels can be
estimated as:
 Fatigue Strength : Basics
 Low-cycle fatigue considers
the range from N=1 to
about 1000 cycles.
 In this region, the fatigue
strength Sf is only slightly
smaller than the tensile
strength Sut .
 High-cycle fatigue domain
extends from 103 to the
endurance limit life (106 to
107 cycles).
 Endurance Limit Modifying
Factors
 The endurance limit of the rotating-beam specimen might differ from
the actual application due to the following differences from laboratory
tests.

 Material : composition, basis of failure, variability

 Manufacturing : method, heat treatment, fretting corrosion, surface

condition, stress concentration

 Environment : corrosion, temperature, stress state, relaxation times.

 Design : size, shape, life, stress state, stress concentration, speed,

fretting, galling

 Modifying factors of surface condition, size, loading, temperature,

and miscellaneous items are proposed by Marin to quantify these
differences.
 Marin Modification Factors on
Endurance Limit

 where
– = surface condition modification factor
– = size modification factor
– = load modification factor
– = temperature modification factor
– = reliability factor
– = miscellaneous-effects modification factor
– = rotary-beam test specimen endurance limit
 Surface and Loading Factors
 Surface Factor : the surface modification factor depends on the quality
of the finish of the actual part surface and on the tensile strength of the
part material. It can be calculated as

 Loading Factor : the axial and torsional loadings results in different

endurance limit than that of a standard rotating-bending test. The load
factor applies to other loading conditions as
 Temperature Factor
 At temperatures lower than room
temperature, brittle fracture of a
component needs to be considered first;
at operating temperatures higher than
room temperature, yield should be
investigated.

 If only tensile-strength data are available,

Fig.2-9 : yield stress drops with
polynomial fitting to the data could
temperature
provide the temperature factor at various
temperature values. For steels and
, we have

 If the rotating-beam endurance limit is

known at room temperature, we have
 Miscellaneous-Effects Factor
 The miscellaneous factor intends to account for the
reduction in endurance limit due to all other effects, such
as residual stresses, different material treatments,
directional characteristics of operations, and corrosion.

 One should also treat the miscellaneous-effect factor as a

reminder that these must accounted for, because actual
values of Kf are not always available.
 Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor
 The fatigue stress concentration factor from the existence of
irregularities or discontinuities in materials is defined a

• Let be the static stress concentration

factor, the relations between fatigue stress
concentration and the notch sensitivity is

for bending and axial loadings

Mid Range Stress
 The Effect of Mean Stress on Fatigue Life

Mean stress exist if the

loading is of a repeating or
fluctuating type.

a
Sy Yield line

Gerber curve
Se
Alternating
stress Goodman line

Sy Sut m
Soderberg line
Mean stress
The Effect of Mean Stress on Fatigue Life
Modified Goodman Diagram
a
Sy Yield line

Se
Alternating
stress Goodman line
C
Safe zone

Sy Sut m
Mean stress
 The Effect of Mean Stress on Fatigue
Life Modified Goodman Diagram
a
Sy Yield line

Se

Goodman line
C
Safe zone Safe zone

- m - Syc Sy Sut +m

Fatigue Failure Criteria for
Fluctuating Stresses
Fatigue Failure Criteria for Fluctuating
Stresses
ASME-elliptic

Gerber

modified Goodman

Soldergerg

Langer
Updated Equations