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Migoń P. (2013) Weathering and Hillslope Development. In: John F. Shroder (ed.) Treatise on Geomorphology,
Volume 4, pp. 159-178. San Diego: Academic Press.

© 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

 Author's personal copy

4.10 Weathering and Hillslope Development

P Migoń, University of Wroc"aw, Wroc"aw, Poland
r 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

4.10.1 Introduction 159

4.10.2 Fundamentals 160
4.10.2.1 Weathering-Limited and Transport-Limited Slopes 160
4.10.2.2 Short-Term and Long-Term Controls and Feedback 160
4.10.2.3 Working Definitions 161
4.10.3 Weathering and Rock Slope Evolution 161
4.10.3.1 Strength of Weathered Rock Masses 161
4.10.3.2 Weathering-Induced Rock Slope Failures 163
4.10.3.3 Caprock Failures above Weathered Base 164
4.10.4 Deep Weathering and Landslides 166
4.10.4.1 Deep Weathering Profiles and their Properties 166
4.10.4.2 Landslides in Weathered Terrains 168
4.10.4.3 Geomorphic Signatures of Mass Movements in Weathered Materials 168
4.10.5 Weathering and Slope Landforms 170
4.10.5.1 Boulders and Boulder Fields 170
4.10.5.2 Tors 173
4.10.5.3 Flared Slopes 176
4.10.6 Conclusions 176
References 177

Abstract

Weathering plays an important role in the evolution of hillslopes. It decreases strength of a rock mass and hence contributes
to slope failures by fall, slide, or topple. Accelerated weathering of soft rock under hard caprock disturbs slope equilibrium
and results in long-term escarpment retreat. In deeply weathered terrains, patterns of mass movements are directly related to
the weathering grade. Minor mid-slope landforms such as boulders, tors, and flared slopes are in most instances products
of differential weathering and removal of weathering products. The significance of weathering is conceptualized in the
traditional distinction between weathering-limited and transport-limited slopes.

4.10.1 Introduction for a large-scale rockslide. Hence, weathering is an important

Weathering plays a key role in hillslope evolution, and the
relationships between rock alteration processes, gravity-driven
processes, and slope morphology are manifold. First, wea-
thering weakens the rock and decreases its strength, which
results in the lowering of slope gradient. Therefore, in wea-
thered landscapes slope surfaces are generally less inclined and
topography more subdued than in areas built of the same kind
of rock, but little weathered. Second, weathering acts primarily
along discontinuities (joints, bedding planes, faults, cleavage
surfaces, etc.), loosening an otherwise tight rock mass. De-
pending on slope inclination, liberated discontinuity-bound
rock fragments may remain in place, contributing to the
development of a debris-mantled slope or may move down-
slope through fall or slide. In specific instances, advanced
alteration along a major discontinuity surface may set a stage
Migoń, P., 2013. Weathering and hillslope development. In: Shroder, J.
(Editor in Chief), Pope, G.A. (Ed.), Treatise on Geomorphology. Academic
Press, San Diego, CA, vol. 4, Weathering and Soils Geomorphology,
pp. 159–178.
process to shape rock–slope morphology. Third, deep wea-
thering changes geomechanical characteristics throughout
rock mass and contributes to an increased susceptibility to
landsliding. Spatial and temporal patterns of landslides are
commonly related to the patterns of deep weathering. This is
why, with due caution, the latter can be used to predict the
former. Fourth, at the local scale, it is the slope morphology
that influences the patterns of weathering and soil formation.
Mid-slope hollows and footslopes focus water and are moist
microenvironments, within which the efficacy of weathering
processes is expected to be higher. Fifth, weathering and
evacuation of weathering products are directly responsible for
the origin of different hillslope landforms, among which solid
rock residuals – tors – are the most obvious example.
This chapter focuses on two tightly related subjects. On the
one hand, weathering control on hillslope processes will
be reviewed. An argument will be developed that an under-
standing of preconditioning of bedrock by weathering is cru-
cial in any attempts to explain and predict the pathways of
slope evolution. On the other hand, landforms resulting from
in situ weathering and subsequent displacement of weathered

Treatise on Geomorphology, Volume 4 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374739-6.00075-0 159

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160 Weathering and Hillslope Development

material will be shown in the context of overall hillslope

morphology. It is also to be argued that, in retrospect, these
landforms can be used to infer the role of weathering in
shaping hillslopes in the long term.

4.10.2 Fundamentals

4.10.2.1 Weathering-Limited and Transport-Limited

Slopes
Classic models of hillslope evolution, such as those by W.M.
Davis or L. King, did include weathering as one of the con-
(a)
trolling parameters, but were more preoccupied with the
general change of form through time rather than involved
detailed analysis of the effects of weathering on process and
form. It is fair to say that Davis (1899) envisaged a progressive
increase in the depth of waste cover and fining of its texture,
which in turn should have led to the reduction of slope gra-
dient. However, as pointed out by Parsons (1988) and many
others, his scenario, as well as other general models of the
time, were based on intuition and reasoning rather than any
empirical data, particularly about the processes involved. The
major conceptual advance in considering weathering as a
factor in slope evolution was the distinction between wea-
thering-limited hillslopes and transport-limited hillslopes,
formulated in full in the 1970s (Carson and Kirkby, 1972), but
(b)
traceable back to the pioneer work of G.K. Gilbert from the
late nineteenth century. Weathering-limited hillslopes are de- Figure 1 Different types of slopes and different weathering
fined as those where the rate of weathering controls, through processes acting on them. (a) Bare rock slope of a granite inselberg
the rate of supply of loose material available for transport, the in the Namib Desert, with physical weathering dominant. (b) Mantled
evolution of slope form through time (Figure 1(a)). In an and vegetated slope underlain by chemically altered saprolite, Serra
extreme case, if no material is made available by weathering, do Mar, Brazil. Rock slope failures are common in the first example,
no change takes place. Some bare slopes built of very massive whereas deep-seated slides occur on the latter.
and resistant rock may be considered as examples. Transport-
limited hillslopes, by contrast, are those where the efficacy
of transport processes controls the rate of change. One can steady state in landform evolution. However, although the
imagine a slope underlain by a thick mantle of weathered diffusion models work well in soil-mantled landscapes, their
material, yet low-angle and heavily vegetated. Under these application to slopes underlain by thick saprolitic covers
conditions, surface processes are severely suppressed and is more problematic because saprolite thickness is unlikely
no change may occur despite huge material availability. to remain constant over time (Phillips, 2010). Although the
However, transport limitations have to be considered with thickness of regolith can be measured relatively easily, to es-
respect to appropriate timescales. A mantled slope may remain tablish the rates of weathering front advance is much more
stable over short term, but fail through an episodic high- challenging. Measurements of cosmogenic radionuclides such
magnitude geomorphic event such as landslide (Figure 1(b)), as 10Be in saprolites and bedrock (Dixon et al., 2009) should
triggered by heavy rainfall or an earthquake. be helpful in extending models of slope evolution to areas
Parsons (1988) criticized such a dichotomy and argued with thick weathering mantles.
that these are all but two end-members of a broad spectrum.
Instead, he suggested to consider detachment control and
offered a detachability continuum approach. The rate of slope
4.10.2.2 Short-Term and Long-Term Controls and
change is a function of both material availability and transport
Feedback
capacity. Interestingly, an increased rate of weathering does
not necessarily increase material availability for transport. This It is important to distinguish between short-term and long-
is because of pedogenic processes that result in the formation term relationships between form and process in hillslope
of soil crusts and cohesive clays. Rates of weathering and the evolution. Many approaches to process–response modeling
thickness of regolith, critical to establish the status of a hill- are underlain by an assumption that form is controlled by
slope, whether weathering- or transport-limited, are the key process. In fact, although this stance is defensible for long
ingredients of diffusive mathematical models of hillslope timescales, it is not necessarily correct in short timescales.
development (Carson and Kirkby, 1972), which again can be With respect to the latter, it is generally observed that occur-
traced back to the work of Gilbert (1909) and his concept of rences, rates, and effects of surface processes are controlled by
 Author's personal copy
the preexisting slope morphology, including factors such as
steepness, length, curvature, and others. Relationships be-
tween hillslope form and weathering patterns aptly illustrate
these feedbacks. Since water availability is critical to most
weathering processes, sites that collect more water may be
expected to undergo faster and more efficient weathering.
Conversely, surfaces that shed water will remain less affected.
In the context of hillslope morphology, two settings warrant
particular attention: footslopes and mid-slope hollows.
Enhanced footslope weathering is hypothesized for a range
of spatial scales, from individual rock outcrops (Twidale and
Campbell, 1992) to large intramontane basins (Bremer,
1975). Pedestal rocks, flared slopes of inselbergs, marginal
troughs around residual hills and specific relationships within
some basins, with some residual relief in the middle, are
offered as corroborating geomorphic evidence. In certain areas
it was possible to demonstrate that bedrock is indeed wea-
thered to a greater depth at the slope/plain junction. For ex-
ample, such distribution patterns have been documented for
deeply disintegrated granites – grus (Migoń and Thomas,
2002).
Slope hollows (or zero-order basins) generate attention
mainly because they commonly become loci of landslides
(Dietrich et al., 1986; Fernandes et al., 2004). They may vary
in origin. Some may be inherited from the Pleistocene, but
others owe their form to recent landslides in weathered bed-
rock. The resultant depressions influence subsequent water
and sediment movement on slopes. Not only is there gradual
filling of the hollows by material brought in by creep, wash,
and shallow sliding, but weathering continues under hollows
due to runoff diversion from the surrounding slopes. The next
landslide removes the fill and reestablished saprolite, deep-
ening the hollow and producing scalloped hillslope topo-
graphy. Geomorphology of slope hollows is discussed more
extensively in Section 4.10.4.
4.10.2.3 Working Definitions
Relationships between weathering and hillslope evolution
have to be considered separately for rock slopes, where wea-
thering is nonsaprolitic, and mantled slopes, where thick
weathered mantles may form (Figure 1). These two basic
slope categories are defined as follows.
Rock slopes are inclined surfaces built of solid rock, with
no regolith and soil cover, except for some localized dis-
continuous patches. However, individual boulders may rarely
rest on solid rock pedestals if slope angle allows them to re-
main stable. Rock slopes may be vertical or even overhanging,
as is common along coastal cliffs or in glaciated high moun-
tains, but they may have a very low angle (less than 101), too.
Likewise, their height may vary by a few orders of magnitude,
from a mere few meters to more than 500 m. Rock slopes are
typically associated with aprons of material derived from rock
face and accumulated at the base of the slope, termed scree or
talus. For a more extensive discussion of rock slopes, the
reader is directed to Selby (1993).
By contrast, mantled slopes are those within which
unweathered bedrock outcrops are either scarce or entirely
absent and the topographic surface is cut across unlithified
Weathering and Hillslope Development 161
materials. These in turn may be derived straight from
in situ weathering, subject to limited downslope movement
(colluvium) or completely allochthonous with respect to
bedrock, brought in by aeolian or glacial processes. The
thickness of the mantle, also traditionally called a regolith,
may be very variable, from less than a meter to more than
100 m. Taylor and Eggleton (2001) discussed different aspects
of regolith geology, geochemistry, and geomorphology.
In the following sections, rock slopes and types of failures
associated with them are presented first, followed by a dis-
cussion of landslides in weathered materials.
4.10.3 Weathering and Rock Slope Evolution
4.10.3.1 Strength of Weathered Rock Masses
Weathering is an important factor in the evolution of rock
slopes, as they get set up for various types of slope failures.
Generally, failures occur when applied stress exceeds the
strength of the material and this may be achieved in two ways.
Strength may remain constant but stress increases, either in-
stantaneously or gradually, leading to fall, slide, or topple
from a rock slope. Typical situations include earthquakes,
during which transient stresses induced by seismic waves tra-
velling in the shallow subsurface are so high that previously
stable slopes fail (Keefer, 1984). Progressive fluvial undercut-
ting of a rock slope at a meander bend may also result in an
ultimate crossing of tensile strength threshold.
Conversely, stress may remain approximately constant but
strength decreases until it falls beneath the threshold of sta-
bility. Reasons for decreasing material strength may vary.
Short-term or seasonal changes in pore–water pressure, related
to rainfall distribution in time, impact on rock mass strength
and many slope failures occur either in association with heavy
rainfall episodes (e.g., arrival of typhoons) or during more
prolonged rainy seasons. Weathering is another factor con-
tributing to diminishing rock strength over time and it does so
through a number of interactions with the rock:
• weakening of fabric by boundary and intra-granular crack
development, repetitive volume changes arising from ther-
mal expansion/contraction and hydration/dehydration;
• dissolution of cement, most evident if cement is carbonate,
but siliceous and clayey cement are affected too, albeit at a
slower rate;
• dissolution of soluble minerals such as calcite or gypsum;
• preferential rock alteration along fractures, particularly
along fault lines, where fault gouges and breccia are par-
ticularly prone to weathering and clayey material may be
susceptible to swelling; and
• joint opening and enlargement due to salt and freeze–thaw
weathering, both involving alien crystal growth (salt,
water/ice) in the voids and cracks.
Weathering operates at different scales (Viles, 2001) but it
is the scale of a rock mass that is most relevant to rock slope
failures. Characteristics of a rock mass include, in addition to
lithology (mineralogy, fabric, and arrangement of mineral
constituents) and resultant intact strength, the presence of
discontinuities of different origin and age, their geometric
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162 Weathering and Hillslope Development

properties, and the presence of water (Figure 2). To account Bieniawski (1989) and particularly relevant to geotechnical
for all these features, different approaches have been proposed applications (Table 1), where it is used widely. It is less useful
to obtain a reasonably complete picture of rock mass strength. in geomorphological research, as it involves determination of
One of these is the rock mass rating (RMR) developed by intact rock strength through geotechnical experimental tests

Regular joint spacing

Irregular joint spacing

Slickensided
joint

Joint surfaces may be

smooth or rough

Joints of variable
orientation

Discontinuous
joints

Presence of
groundwater
Infilled joint
Figure 2 Rock mass properties affecting rock mass strength.

Table 1 Rock mass rating system

Parameter Range of values

Intact rock strength 4250 100–250 50–100 25–50 5–25 1–5 o1

(uniaxial compres-
sive strength, in
MPa)
Rating 15 12 7 4 2 1 0
Drill core quality 90–100% 75–90% 50–75% 25–50% o25%
Rating 20 17 13 8 3
Discontinuity spacing 4200 cm 60–200 cm 20–60 cm 6–20 cm o6 cm
Rating 20 15 10 8 5
Conditions of Very rough Slightly rough Slightly rough Slickensided Soft gouge 45 mm thick
discontinuities surfaces surfaces surfaces surfaces or
gouge
o5 mm thick
Not continuous Separation Separation Separation Separation 45 mm
o1 mm o1 mm 1–5 mm
No separation Slightly wea- Highly wea- Continuous Continuous
thered walls thered walls
Unweathered
wall rock
Rating 30 25 20 10 0
Groundwater Completely dry Damp Wet Dripping Flowing
Rating 15 10 7 4 0

Source: Based on Bieniawski, Z.T., 1989. Engineering Rock Mass Classifications. Wiley, New York, 251 pp.
 Author's personal copy
Weathering and Hillslope Development 163

Table 2 Rock mass strength classification

Parameter Strength

Very strong rock Strong rock Moderately strong Weak rock Very weak
rock rock

Intact rock strength (R-value 100–60 60–50 50–40 40–35 35–10

determined by N-type
Schmidt hammer)
Partial rating 20 18 14 10 5

Degree of weathering Unweathered Slightly weathered Moderately weathered Highly Completely

weathered weathered
Partial rating 10 9 7 5 3
Joint spacing 43 m 1–3 m 0.3–1 m 0.05–0.3 m o 0.05 m
Partial rating 30 28 21 15 8
Joint orientation Steep dip into the Moderate dip into the Horizontal or nearly Moderate dip Steep dip out
slope; cross joints slope vertical (in hard out of the of the slop
interlock rock) slope
Partial rating 20 18 14 9 5
Joint width o 0.1 mm 0.1–1 mm 1–5 mm 5–20 mm 4 20 mm
Partial rating 7 6 5 4 2
Joint continuity and infill None continuous Few continuous Continuous, no infill Continuous, Continuous,
thin infill thick infill
Partial rating 7 6 5 4 1
Groundwater outflow None Trace Slight (o25 l per min Moderate Great
per 10 m2) (25–125 l (4125 l
per min per min
per 10 m2) per 10 m2)
Partial rating 6 5 4 3 1
Total rating 91–100 71–90 51–70 26–50 o26

Source: Based on Selby, M.J., 1980. A rock-mass strength classification for geomorphic purposes: with tests from Antarctica and New Zealand. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie N.F.
24, 31–51.

(uniaxial compressive strength or point-load strength) and
rating of drill core quality, assessed on the basis of the degree
of fracturing recorded in a drill core.
To overcome both inconveniencies, Selby (1980) modified
the RMR approach and suggested a rock mass strength (RMS)
approach instead, which can be applied without any expensive
equipment, except the Schmidt hammer (see Day and Goudie,
1977; Goudie, 2006). The RMS approach consists of in-parallel,
semiquantitative determination of seven parameters and their
subsequent rating to obtain a numerical value characterizing
the rock mass (Table 2). The final score is dimensionless but
allows for comparison of different rock masses. Among the
parameters taken into account, some have direct relationship
with the susceptibility of rock to weathering and the current
state of weathering. Intact strength reflects the fabric of the
rock and the presence of intergranular voids and hence, how
prone to weakening of the fabric a given rock type is. The
‘weathering’ parameter is assessed qualitatively; using charac-
teristics of weathering grade (see Table 3) and describes the
current state of the near-surface portion of the rock. Joint
spacing and orientation are inherent features of a rock
mass, but both joint width and continuity/infill are related
to weathering. With the progress of weathering, fractures be-
come more open, adjacent cracks may join, and products of
joint–wall alteration accumulate along discontinuities. In
effect, cohesion and friction angle decrease and the shear
strength of joint surfaces diminishes markedly in comparison
to intact rock, especially if infilling clays are smectites, which
have high water-adsorption capacity. Altogether, the RMS rat-
ing for weathered rock may be significantly lower than that for
its unweathered counterpart, particularly if dealing with rather
weak, densely jointed rock masses.
4.10.3.2 Weathering-Induced Rock Slope Failures
Decrease of rock mass strength may lead to rock slope failures
and these may be of different types, broadly divided into two
groups. One involves detachment of individual rock frag-
ments, one by one, and their subsequent movement down-
slope, by free fall, sliding, and/or bouncing, depending on
slope angle and available energy. The detachment itself usually
occurs as a result of expansion of salt, ice, or plant roots in
cracks and joints. Sorted scree aprons below rock faces build
up in this way. The second group includes mass movements
involving simultaneous transfer of large rock masses, from
a few cubic meters to thousands of cubic meters in volume
(e.g., Wieczorek, 2002). These large-scale rock slope failures
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164 Weathering and Hillslope Development

Table 3 Weathering grades for deeply weathered rock masses

Ruxton and Berry (1957) Geological Society (1997)

Description Formal name Weathering Weathering Formal name Description

zone code zone code

Structureless sandy clay or Residual debris I VI Residual soil All rock material converted to
clayey sand, up to 30% of soil; original structure and
clay, dominance of quartz fabric destroyed; large
and kaolin change in volume
Few rounded corestones, Residual debris with IIa V Completely All rock decomposed and
less than 10% of the corestones weathered disintegrated but original
section area, less than 5% structure and fabric still
of clay largely intact
Much of the original rock IIb IV Highly More than 50% of rock
structure preserved, weathered decomposed and
corestones occupy 10 to disintegrated; fresh or
50% of the section area weakened rock locally
present, including as
corestones
Dominance of rectangular Corestones with III III Moderately Less than 50% of rock
corestones (50–90%), residual debris weathered decomposed and
surrounded by residual disintegrated; rock
matrix discolored and partly
weakened; corestones may
be common
More than 90% is solid rock, Partially weathered IV II Slightly Discoloration as the main
minor amounts of debris rock weathered sign of change, mainly
along fractures, iron along discontinuities; some
staining may be present weakening of fabric
No visible signs of rock Bedrock IB Faintly Slight discoloration along
weathering weathered major discontinuities
IA Fresh No visible signs of
weathering

are classified as rock slides, rock-mass falls, rock avalanches,
and topples (Selby, 1993). Although the geomorphic impact
and resultant landforms may be similar – chaotically arranged
piles of boulders mantling the lower slope and extending onto
valley floors or pediments, the contribution of weathering to
each type of movement is different.
Rock slides occur along major preexisting discontinuity
surfaces and involve sliding movement of the rock mass above
this boundary surface. Failure planes are generally structural
surfaces, such as schistosity planes in metamorphic rocks,
bedding planes in sedimentary rocks, or sheeting surfaces in
igneous rocks, inclined down the slope and broadly parallel to
the topographic surface. Shear strength along partings is a
critical parameter and rock slides are initiated when its value is
significantly reduced. Reduction of shear strength often results
from various weathering processes: secondary clay accumu-
lation within joints, dissolution along joint surfaces, or dis-
integration of asperities.
Rock-mass falls are displacements of large volumes of
rock, which may be internally fractured themselves, but are
separated from the rest of the rock mass by a major failure
surface, commonly stepped, following many individual joint
surfaces. Reasons for such massive failures are generally sought
in processes other than weathering, such as seismic triggers,
elevated cleft-water pressures, and propagation of stress release
fractures parallel to cliff faces. However, weathering may be a
contributing factor, especially if it is concentrated at the base
of rock slope. This is common in arid areas, where slope/plain
junctions are the sites of enhanced salt weathering. In an in-
selberg terrain around Al-Quwayra in south Jordan, Goudie
et al. (2002) documented huge alcoves, up to 10 m high and
50 m wide, and showed their increased levels of salinity. At the
same time, rock slopes of the sandstone inselbergs bear evi-
dence of multiple rock-mass falls, some involving detachment
from a free face as much as 80 m high. Young et al. (2009)
discussed at length reasons of rock slope failures in sandstones
and noticed substantial strength reduction with an increasing
content of water. By whatever reason, in poorly fractured rock
masses, with one joint set parallel to the rock face, undercut-
ting by weathering may lead to massive slab failures.
4.10.3.3 Caprock Failures above Weathered Base
In the examples described above it is ongoing weathering of
rock mass building the rock slope that ultimately brings it to
cross the stability threshold. The failures just discussed occur
within lithologically homogeneous rock slopes or their seg-
ments, although failed masses may travel far beyond such
segments. A separate group concerns rock slopes in layered
structures, where a massive, resistant top rock layer (caprock)
overlies mechanically much weaker rock units below. This
 Author's personal copy
Weathering and Hillslope Development 165

Figure 3 Hard caprock and weaker, weathering-prone rock units below, partially mantled with products of caprock failures. Near Moab,
Utah, USA.

Figure 4 Enhanced weathering in silty layers beneath conglomerate caprock and unstable overhangs, Danxiashan, south China.

situation is typical in dissected plateaus developed on ancient
sedimentary basins, where massive well-cemented sandstones
or limestones occur above poorly lithified sandstones, shales,
or calcarenites, creating a considerable geomechanical contrast
(Figure 3). Similar conditions may occur in volcanic terrains,
where lava flows or ignimbrites (welded tuffs) overlie poorly
consolidated pyroclastic deposits or weak sedimentary layers.
Generally, caprock supports very steep, even vertical slopes,
which grade into much less inclined surfaces (15–351) in
underlying units. In these cases, in addition to weathering of
caprock itself, it is alteration of the weaker units below which
influences caprock slope evolution. Weathering mechanisms
operating under caprock may be variable and site specific. The
presence of water is essential and a perched aquifer generally
exists beneath permeable, jointed caprock. Weak units are not
uncommonly clayey and much less permeable, hence forced
subsurface drainage toward escarpments and seepage at the
caprock/underlying rock boundary occurs, which may be very
efficient (Howard and Kochel, 1988; Oberlander, 1989). Re-
petitive wetting and drying, freezing and thawing, dissolution
and clay alteration disaggregate the subcaprock unit and re-
arrange its structure, weakening support for caprock itself. All
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166 Weathering and Hillslope Development
these processes cause slope recession in the weaker unit, re-
sulting in the development of an overhang in caprock. This
will remain temporarily stable, but eventually tensile stresses
will exceed the critical strength and rock-mass fall will occur
(Figure 4).
Consequences for caprock are different if the weaker clayey
units beneath it deform plastically and show flow-like be-
haviour. They may do so under the weight of caprock and
because of an increase in water content and pore-water pres-
sure. As the clays are squeezed out, jointed caprock compart-
ments begin to separate from each other, change position, and
lose stability. The most common type of movement of caprock
blocks is forward toppling, but backward toppling (sagging)
may occur as well. In extreme examples, long-distance, kilo-
meter-scale gliding of caprock blocks over deformable clays
and siltstone is possible. Instances of mass movements along
caprock escarpments affected by substratum weathering and
deformation are known from all around the world, including
the Colorado Plateau, the Sydney Basin, the Isle of Portland
in Great Britain, Ethiopian Highlands, Bohemian Massif, and
many other localities (see Oberlander, 1989; Young et al.,
2009).
4.10.4 Deep Weathering and Landslides
4.10.4.1 Deep Weathering Profiles and their Properties
Landsliding is a ubiquitous geomorphic process and occurs in
many different settings and environments, but its particular
intensity is recorded in deeply weathered terrains (see Chapter
4.8). Thick weathered mantles abound in humid low latitudes
and it is these tropical and subtropical hilly to moderately
Figure 5 Damage to a building in effect of a slide in deeply weathered granite, south China. Photo courtesy of Xu Hongen.
mountainous regions that are notorious for landslides of dif-
ferent types, not uncommonly disastrous in their effects
(Figure 5). The best known examples come from heavily ur-
banized, high-relief settings such as Hong Kong or Rio de
Janeiro, but in fact extensive tracts of countryside in Mexico,
the Caribbean region, Venezuela, eastern Brazil, equatorial
Africa, India, and southeast Asia are molded by landslides
developed in thick saprolites (Thomas, 1994). Away from the
intertropical belt, landslides in weathered materials occur too,
especially in easily weatherable mudstones and deeply dis-
aggregated granite (grus). The nature of mass movement in
weathered rock depends on many factors, but primarily on the
extent of deep weathering and properties of weathered mass.
Therefore, basic characteristics of deep weathering profiles
need to be considered first.
The notion of ‘deep weathering’ refers to instances of
thorough in situ disintegration and decomposition of parent
rock that penetrates throughout the rock mass to a depth of
at least a few meters, but generally much more than this.
For example, granite-derived grus is typically 5–20 m thick
(Migoń and Thomas, 2002), whereas more decomposed clay-
rich saprolites may be up to 30–40 m thick (Thomas, 1994;
Taylor and Eggleton, 2001). In stable cratonic settings, subject
to deep weathering for millions of years, complete weathering
profiles are commonly in excess of 100 m (Ollier, 2010). In the
context of mass movements it is important to note that deep
weathering is widespread in hilly, low-latitude landscapes, not
just under extensive tropical plains.
In places such as Serra do Mar mountains in southeast
Brazil or Hong Kong and the adjacent Guangdong province of
China thicknesses of weathered mantles more than 50 m have
been widely reported (Thomas, 1995; Shaw, 1997; Lan et al.,
2003). Despite considerable variability in thickness it has long
 Author's personal copy
been observed that weathering mantles commonly show clear
vertical differentiation, particularly well displayed in granite.
They are recognizable in the field, through the variable per-
centage of little weathered rock compartments (corestones),
visibility of original structural features such as joints, and
color change, and these differences generally correspond with
geochemical and mineralogical characteristics, with the per-
centage of neoformed minerals growing upward. An import-
ant structural feature is the weathering front that separates
fresh and weathered rock and may be very sharp, although a
gradational transition is more often observed. These obser-
vations led Ruxton and Berry (1957) to propose a formal
subdivision of granite weathering profiles, which included five
principal classes (Table 3; Figure 6). Later work refined their
concept and a sixfold division was proposed (Dearman et al.,
1978), which has been widely adopted (Geological Society,
1997; Table 3). Although devised for granite and allied rocks,
the concept of zonation of weathering profiles is universal and
applicable to all types of rocks, even if some horizons or
structural features may be poorly or not at all represented in
specific field examples. It is important to note that weathering
profiles are not necessarily complete, in the sense that all
structural horizons are present at any given location. These
situations are explained in two ways. First, weathered mantles
observed nowadays may be all but relicts of much thicker
profiles existing in the past, which have been partly destroyed
(beheaded) due to accelerated surface erosion. If this is the
case, we speak about truncation of a profile and the material
I
IIa
IIb
III
IV
Figure 6 Zoning of weathering profile following coding system by
Ruxton and Berry (1957). Further explanation in the text and Table 3.
Based on Migoń (2010).
Weathering and Hillslope Development 167
eroded can be found in adjacent sedimentary basins in the
form of clay-rich deposits. Second, weathering profiles may
have never reached the stage of an ideal, complete sequence
and they failed to do so because of two reasons. Either
environmental conditions were unsuitable for mineralogical
alteration to advance beyond a certain threshold (e.g., in cold
climate), or steepness of terrain and efficient surface erosion
prevent attaining higher level of mineralogical change. The
latter possibility appears to explain numerous instances
of apparently incomplete weathering profiles on igneous
rocks in steep tropical and subtropical terrains (e.g., Migoń
and Alcántara-Ayala, 2008).
Not only structural differentiation and mineralogical
change is observed within deep weathering profiles. It has
been demonstrated that physical properties of saprolites
change too, bearing on the susceptibility of saprolitic ma-
terials to landsliding. Upper parts of weathering profiles are
typically more fine-grained, with the percentage of silt and clay
increasing. In mature saprolites clay-size material may account
for 70–80% of the total by weight, with kaolinite present in
major quantities. In less advanced profiles, or in those subject
to truncation, the percentage of clay may be less and the
dominant clays may be from the illite and smectite families.
Further properties that change due to weathering are porosity
and permeability, crucial for the ability to transmit and hold
water within the saprolite. In originally massive rocks such as
granite, porosity may increase from 1% to 2% in fresh rock to
more than 25% in the completely decomposed one, whereas
in granular sedimentary rocks the respective change may
be from 5–10% to 30–40%. Simultaneously, bulk density
decreases. Physical changes in turn influence geomechanical
properties of saprolites. The decrease of strength may be
demonstrated in the field, applying different crude tests for
material strength (using penetrometer, Schmidt hammer, and
the like), but is most evident if compressive strength is
measured experimentally (Figure 7). However, with respect to
saprolites, intact strength has to be distinguished from joint
strength. Weathered joint planes are not only structural
Max value
160
Uniaxial compressive strength (Mpa)
140 Mean value
120 Min value
100
80
60
40
20
0
I II III IV V VI
Weathering grade
Figure 7 Decrease of rock intact strength due to weathering, based
on data from Arel and Tugrul (2001).
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168 Weathering and Hillslope Development
discontinuities within saprolites; but they are also often in-
filled by kaolinitic clays and the infill may be from less than a
millimeter to a few centimeters thick. For moderately de-
composed granite and volcanic rocks, joint strength is only
0.5–0.8 of intact strength but both parameters equal for highly
decomposed rocks (Au, 1996). Significant decrease of strength
along relict joints points to structural discontinuities as
potential slip surfaces in saprolitic materials. In addition, relict
fractures are not uncommonly indurated or slickensided,
acting thereby as efficient barriers to groundwater circulation.
4.10.4.2 Landslides in Weathered Terrains
Reduction in strength of saprolitic materials with respect to
that of fresh rock makes the former susceptible for landsliding,
even if fresh rock is hardly ever affected by landslides, as is the
case of granites and massive volcanic rocks. However, the style
of landsliding varies and shows distinct relationship with the
weathering grade and properties of weathered rock masses
(Figure 8). Early stages of weathering, typified by alteration
focused along discontinuity planes and opening of major
fractures due to tensile stress (grades I–II, see Figure 6), are
associated with rock slides and rock falls, depending on local
slope gradient. In either case, shear strength of the rock along a
parting is significantly reduced (Au, 1996). Secondary clay
accumulations within dilation joints, which may be very thin
but laterally very extensive, also contribute to slope failures in
an otherwise massive rock. Catastrophic slope collapses on the
hillsides of granite or gneissic domes are typical gravitational
phenomena causally related to incipient weathering. At more
advanced stages of deep weathering (grade III), with a mantle
of grus (arène) or stony loam is present under the slope sur-
face, shallow debris slides are preferentially generated. In ter-
rains where the mantle of grus is thin (a few meters), and the
weathering front separating grus from solid rock is sharp,
slides may occur at this interface because the weathering front
provides a barrier to groundwater movement, resulting in the
development of ephemeral perched water-tables during rain-
storms. Hence, the rather thin grus above the interface
Rotational
slides I
Earthflows
IIa
Debris
IIb
slides
III
Debris flows
Corestones
Boulder
falls IV joint
traces
Rock slope
failures
Figure 8 Generalized relationships between types of mass
movement and weathering grade in deeply weathered rocks. Based
on Migoń (2010).
becomes saturated and the pore-water pressure rises above the
limit of material stability. Numerous examples of slope in-
stability in granite-derived grus have been described from
mountainous regions of Japan. Steep slopes and efficient
erosion do not allow for thick weathered mantles to develop
and grus is widespread instead. This material is fairly
stable when dry, but conditions drastically change during
heavy rainfall episodes brought in by seasonal tropical storms.
Grus becomes quickly saturated and begins to slide down
along available slip surfaces. Slope-parallel microsheeting
facilitates mass movement. In metamorphic rocks (gneiss,
schist), relict schistosity planes are ready slip planes, especially
if oriented parallel to the slope. Chigira (2001) observed that
in many instances landsliding was widespread in grus and less
extensive in more weathered material, which appears coun-
terintuitive, given progressive decrease of rock mass strength
with weathering. However, two factors play a role here. First,
zones of localized weakness (relict joints, rock/grus inter-
faces), hence potential sliding surfaces, are common in grus
but poorly represented in more homogeneous clayey sapro-
lites. Second, disintegrated granite, by virtue of its higher mass
strength, can support slopes that are steeper than those de-
veloped in fine-grained saprolites. These steep slopes are more
prone to abrupt yielding induced by an extreme precipitation
event, whereas gentler slopes underlain by heavily weathered
granites release stress through creep and shallow soil flow,
which occur in a steadier manner.
The style of landsliding changes again if weathered rock
reaches grades IV and V. These rock masses, with few corestones
left and significant percentages of secondary clays, are typically
affected by rotational slides (slumps). The development of
curved failure surfaces is facilitated by the homogenization of
the saprolite and disappearance of joint-related discontinuities.
The relationships between the type of landslide and wea-
thering grade are further influenced by local relief. If a hillside
affected by mass movement, whether a debris slide or a slump,
is long and steep enough, and topographic and hydrological
conditions are conducive, then an initial slide may transform
into a flow-type phenomenon. Geomorphological settings
favoring the transformation are hillslope hollows and valley
floors occupied by streams present at the time of failure. After a
slide reaches a local watercourse, the content of water in the
sediment increases, the pore-water pressure builds up and the
sliding mass liquefies. Devastating debris flows that frequently
affect built-up footslope areas in Rio de Janeiro (Coelho Netto,
1999; Fernandes et al., 2004), Hong Kong (Ng et al., 2002), or
coastal Venezuela (Larsen and Wieczorek, 2006), are the result
of transformation of initial slides in weathered material and
their confinement within narrow, steep gradient valleys. In more
weathered terrains, colluvium from rotational slides may liquefy
and continue moving as earthflows, spreading wide over the
available footslope space. The wide depositional surfaces below
the landslide scars in multiconvex terrain are the product of this
type of transformation (Coelho Netto, 1999; Migoń, 2009).
4.10.4.3 Geomorphic Signatures of Mass Movements in
Weathered Materials
The relationships between deep weathering patterns, mass
movement, and hillslope morphology are complex and
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involve a range of feedback. The preexisting topography dic-
tates the spatial pattern of mass movements, including the
location of slope failures, the travel path, and the run-out
distance. However, landslides and other types of mass move-
ment play a major role themselves in shaping the topography
of weathered terrain, creating new landforms, and providing
new avenues for sediment transfer. In addition, they leave
geomorphic signatures, which may persist over long time,
helping to identify ancient landslides and hence to evaluate
landslide hazard. Thus, mapping the geomorphological record
of past mass movement is a valuable contribution to wider
hazard and risk assessment.
Geomorphological consequences of landslides in the
weathered terrain may be considered in terms of both hill-
slope form and process. Mass movement effects are essentially
erosional in the upper/middle section of a slope and de-
positional in the lower slope and in the valleys below, but will
differ depending on the type of mass movement taking place.
If weathered mantles are thin, shallow landslides are capable
of complete stripping of regolith and the former weathering
front is revealed as a rock slope facet (Figure 9). Landslide
scars formed in this way are not necessarily very deep but may
be laterally extensive, coalescing into large rock slope units,
and long-lived since reestablishment of vegetation and soil on
a bare steep rock surface may take tens, and perhaps hundreds
of years. Thus, slides within a saprolitic cover are important
contributors in episodic dome excavation from the weathered
mantle, consistent with the two-phase evolution of residual
hills (see Chapter 4.8). This model of dome evolution was
advocated by Hurault (1963) using evidence from Guyana
and further examples were offered from Serra do Mar in Brazil
(De Ploey and Cruz, 1979). Debris slides in the upper slope
may transform into debris flows that shape the morphology of
Figure 9 Bare rock slopes exposed by landslides. Note blocky talus, partly overgrown, at the footslope. Near Petropolis, south-east Brazil.
Weathering and Hillslope Development 169
lower slopes and adjacent valleys floors. Landform inventories
produced by debris flows in deeply weathered terrain do not
differ from those produced by debris flows in other landscape
settings, for instance in high-mountain terrain. However, the
structure of associated levees reflects the nature of the saprolite
subject to stripping. If corestones were abundant in the wea-
thered mantle, then boulder-rich levees would easily form,
with densely packed boulder ridges built by individual roun-
ded blocks up to 4–5 m long as in the Veladero granite massif,
Mexico (Lugo et al., 2002).
In highly weathered hilly areas, where deeper rotational
slumps prevail over near-surface debris slides, hemispherical
slope hollows become the dominant landform. The density of
such hollows may be considerable, pointing to the significance
of landslides in landform evolution. Shroder (1976) mapped
landslides in the deeply weathered and moderately dissected
Nyika Plateau in Malawi, Africa, and recorded 235 individual
landslides over an area of 277 km2. One classic area to study
the origin and evolution of landslide-produced slope hollows
is the inland side of Serra do Mar in south-east Brazil, par-
ticularly around the town of Bananal (Coelho Netto, 1999;
Figure 10). Hollows vary in size, but are generally less than
100 m across and their main scarps are 10–15 m high. Like-
wise, their shapes are different, from broad and smooth to
deeper and abruptly narrowing at the lower end. Many are
structurally controlled and their elongation follows the pre-
dominant joint direction.
The position of hollows within the slope varies. Some
are located close to the footslope and their floors connect
with depositional surfaces around the hills, whereas others
are disconnected from the footslope and may be described
as ‘hanging.’ The latter, however, commonly grade into funnel-
shaped elongated depressions that provide a link to the
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170 Weathering and Hillslope Development
Figure 10 A landslide-related rampa complex in the vicinity of Bananal, south-east Brazil.
footslope. Footslopes below slope hollows are typically de-
veloped as low-angle (o51) fans and aprons built of land-
slide-derived colluvial material may further connect with
alluviated valley floors, local relief permitting. The thickness of
colluvial units may exceed 10 m, whereas the extent of these
depositional units may reach a few hundred meters, indicating
a long and complex erosional and depositional history, with
recurrent landslides, probably extending back well into the
Pleistocene (De Meis and Monteiro, 1979; Modenesi, 1988).
The association of landforms described above is so inseparable
that locally it is described using a single name. In south-east
China a term benggang is in use and literally means a ‘col-
lapsing hill’ (Xu, 1996), whereas in south-east Brazil such
hollow-and-footslope fan pairs are referred to as rampa
complexes, whereas the depositional surfaces themselves are
called rampas (De Meis and Monteiro, 1979).
The occurrence of landslides sets the stage for further
geomorphic processes, effective because of high erodibility of
weathered material if compared with solid rock. Among them,
gully erosion is worth particular attention as it works side-by-
side with landsliding. Generally, funnel-shaped transitional
zones used by earthflows and footslope fans built of poorly
consolidated material favor the subsequent development of
gully networks (Coelho Netto, 1999). Gullied slope hollows
and valley floors are a common sight in deeply weathered
terrains, such as south-east Brazil or southeast Asia. Gully
extension, in turn, promotes seepage, tunnel erosion, and
slope undermining, triggering new landslides, albeit on a ra-
ther local scale. Finally, the preweathered hillslope material
detached by landslides and carried away by earthflows and
sediment-laden ephemeral streams reaches valley floors,
causing widespread alluviation and valley filling. It is thus
evident that the geomorphic role of landsliding in the devel-
opment of weathered hillslopes extends far beyond the spatial
scale of individual slope units affected by movement.
4.10.5 Weathering and Slope Landforms
Weathering dictates patterns of mass movement, the main
through rather indirect contribution of weathering to hillslope
evolution (see Chapter 4.17). Notwithstanding this fact, there
are different minor landforms present within the slopes,
which may be directly attributable to rock breakdown and
alteration. Among them, boulder fields, tors, and flared slopes
are the most conspicuous and have the widest distribution.
Moreover, they may have more than one origin.
4.10.5.1 Boulders and Boulder Fields
Boulder fields are defined as slope units, in which the topo-
graphic surface is made of closely spaced large rock fragments,
with virtually no finer material in between (Figure 11). Jointed
bedrock in situ may not be visible, being mantled by a boulder
blanket a few meters thick, but in other instances boulders
may be strewn over a rock platform. No universally agreed
threshold of minimum boulder size exists, but the length of
0.5 m is a reasonable limit and most papers report about
boulders of this size or larger. A distinction is sometimes made
between boulder fields and block fields. In the former, indi-
vidual rock fragments are rounded, whereas angular shapes
typify the latter. Boulder fields occur on slopes of different
inclination, from as little as a few degrees to nearly 451. They
may also cover nearly flat summit surfaces and the phrase
‘mountain-top detritus’ is then occasionally used (Ballantyne
and Harris, 1994).
The size of individual boulders is controlled by the
spacing of discontinuities in the parent rock. The largest are
known from poorly jointed granites and these may exceed
10 m in length, although the length of 1–2 m is much more
common. Other rock types producing large boulders include
 Author's personal copy
Figure 11 Quartzite block field produced by predominant physical weathering under cold-climate conditions, Ještěd, Czech Republic.
granodiorites, gabbro, rhyolites, quartzites, and massive
sandstones. By contrast, densely jointed and fissile rocks, such
as schist or mudstone, rarely disintegrate into boulders. The
dominant size of boulders determines the structure of an en-
tire boulder blanket. If boulders are large, a few meters long,
and little finer material is available, then spaces between the
boulders cannot be easily filled and hence remain empty. In
certain instances, these voids may be so big and inter-
connected that their penetration by humans is possible. Such
shallow underground labyrinths are commonly referred to as
caves of nonkarstic origin. In Sweden, boulder caves in mas-
sive granites are known to exceed 1 km long in total and
similar lengths are reported from some boulder caves in
sandstone terrains in the Czech Republic. However, if the size
of individual fragments hardly exceeds 1 m, boulder blankets
are more densely packed.
There appears to be a relationship between boulder angu-
larity and lithology. Fine-grained igneous and metamorphic
rocks preferably weather into sharp-edged fragments, whereas
coarse igneous and sedimentary rocks tend to produce roun-
ded shapes, best known from granite areas. This is attributed
to more efficient grain-by-grain breakdown in coarse and
granular materials.
Boulder-mantled slopes and block fields are produced by
different surface processes. Some are definitely unrelated to
weathering such as talus slopes derived from rock fall or slide,
with subsequent disintegration of the failed mass on impact.
Others may be of glacial origin (boulder trails). Rapid cooling
of lava and resultant thermally induced rock breakdown may
also result in the formation of extensive boulder-mantled
slopes. Finally, some block fields are suspected to originate
from particularly severe seismic events accompanying degla-
ciation, as hypothesized with respect to certain localities in
Fennoscandia (Mörner, 2003).
However, the majority of boulder-mantled slopes appear to
be a result of in situ weathering, although three evolutionary
Weathering and Hillslope Development 171
pathways are possible. One scenario involves combination
of differential subsurface weathering and selective erosion
and is particularly applicable to regularly jointed rock masses.
Weathering is focused along water-bearing fractures and,
over time, differentiation of the rock mass into an orthogonal
lattice of thoroughly disintegrated zones and little weathered
compartments in between occurs (Figure 12). The latter
are named corestones and have been noted in excavations
as early as the late eighteenth century (Twidale, 1978).
Corestone-rich weathered mantles may be many meters
thick (see Chapter 4.8), with corestones present
at different depths within a profile. As a general guidance,
one may expect large, cubic corestones near the weathering
front, somewhat smaller but more rounded corestones in
the middle part of a profile, and least voluminous but
nearly perfectly spherical compartments in the top part
(Ruxton and Berry, 1957). Such a distribution would be
consistent with the assumption that time is the key factor
controlling the progress and effects of deep weathering.
However, rock inhomogeneities, whether related to mineral
composition or fracture density, interfere and may upset
simple relationships between duration of weathering and the
degree of alteration. Hence, corestones may concentrate in
particular horizons within weathering profiles, not necessarily
at the base, close to the weathering front. In the scenario
discussed, differential weathering leading to the origin of
corestones is generally considered as the first phase. Boulder
fields are the result of the second phase, which involves the
removal of fine material by running water from between cor-
estones, leaving the latter in place but now exposed at the
surface. It may be hypothesized that in the course of long-
term weathering and stripping, exposed boulders will pas-
sively settle down concurrently with general landscape low-
ering, to eventually form a continuous boulder blanket. This
model of boulder field origin bears close affinities to models
of two-stage origin of inselbergs (see Chapter 4.8) and tors (see
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172 Weathering and Hillslope Development

Figure 12 Corestone-rich weathering profile in granite, Mi"ków, south-west Poland.

(a) (b)

Figure 13 Differential weathering of syenite around Aksum, Ethiopia: (a) general view of a footslope boulder field and (b) close up of structural
predisposition of boulder production by weathering.

below). Reasons for acceleration of surface
erosion that outpaces deep weathering may be different,
or even site-specific. In the Mojave Desert of southwest
US, a shift from more humid conditions toward aridity in
the late Miocene was offered as an explanation (Oberlander,
1972), but in the granite areas of the Meghalaya plateau
in northwest India rapid stripping and boulder excavation can
be attributed to recent human impact, widespread deforest-
ation, and surface wash during torrential rains (Prokop,
2007).
However, boulder fields in deserts are not necessarily the
evidence of past humid conditions and major environmental
change. In the central Namib Desert, around Gobabeb, the
granite landscape is dominated by spherical and half-spherical
boulders, as well as low bedrock convexities, rising from an
essentially rock-cut plain, with no deep weathering present.
Here, structural predisposition of granite to produce rounded
shapes is observed, further enhanced by flaking and exfoliation
after exposure. Figure 13(a) shows another boulder field, de-
veloped on syenite, likely formed in this way. Coexistence of
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Weathering and Hillslope Development 173

massive and foliated compartments (Figure 13(b)) indicates 4.10.5.2 Tors

primary differentiation within the rock itself, subsequently ex-
ploited by near-surface processes of weathering and erosion.
The essence of the third model is superficial rock break-
down in situ, with no contribution from either deep wea-
thering or preexposure structural differentiation. The resultant
boulder fields are composed of angular rather than rounded
material and are particularly widespread on plateau surfaces
and gently inclined slopes in high latitudes and high altitudes,
hence considered as typical periglacial landforms. A variant
of the above is a block slope, whose gradient may be up to
30–401 and bedrock is completely hidden beneath the stone
blanket (Figure 11). Various processes of physical weathering
are generally called for to explain cold-climate boulder fields,
mainly freeze–thaw and thermal weathering, with the debate
continuing about the actual role of each (see Chapter 4.15).
The structure of periglacial block fields is further modified by
frost heaving and sorting, as well as downslope movement in
the presence of cementation ice.
Tors belong to the most intriguing landforms within slopes
(see Chapter 4.8). The word is of local Cornish origin but
derives from the Old Welsh ‘twr’ or ‘twrr,’ meaning a heap or
pile. It was long used to describe castellated granite outcrops
rising from the moorlands of Dartmoor and Bodmin Moor in
south-west England and formally defined by Linton (1955:
470) as ‘solid rock outcrops as big as a house rising abruptly
from the smooth and gentle slopes of a rounded summit or
broadly convex ridge.’ The definition, origin, and significance
of tors, as well as their relation to inselbergs, were particularly
debated in the late 1950s and 1960s (see Migoń, 2006: 85–87,
102–105 for review) and a consensus finally emerged that tors
are outcrops of solid rock rising from a regolith-veneered
surface or rock platform, whether flat or sloping, which are
composed of more than one individual compartment (boul-
der), but are too small to be considered
as separate hills. Tors have global distribution and are not

8
9
6

21
7 10 11
12
20
1 2 3
13

4 22 23
19

5
14
15

16

17
24
18
25

26

(a)

(b) (c) (d)

Figure 14 (a) Worldwide tor distribution and selected examples of granite tors; (b) castellated tor in the Karkonosze Mts, south-west Poland;
(c) Haytor, Dartmoor, south-west England; (d) massive domical tor in Serra da Estrela, Portugal. Tor localities: 1 – Sierra Nevada, 2 – Idaho,
3 – Laramie Range, 4 – Mojave Desert, 5 – Acapulco, 6 – Cairngorms, 7 – Dartmoor and Bodmin Moor, 8 – Aurivaara, northern Sweden,
9 – southern Finland, 10 – Harz, 11 – Bohemian Massif, 12 – Massif Central, 13 – Iberian Peninsula, 14 – Nigeria, 15 – Uganda, 16 – Tanzania,
17 – Zimbabwe, 18 – Swaziland, 19 – Aravalli Range, 20 – Khangai Mountains, 21 – south-east Mongolia, 22 – Korean Peninsula, 23 – Japanese
Alps, 24 – Devil’s Marbles, central Australia, 25 – Bega Basin, 26 – South Island of New Zealand.
 Author's personal copy
174 Weathering and Hillslope Development
Fractured rock mass
Weathering mantle
Figure 15 Model of tor evolution due to selective weathering and stripping.
Figure 16 Bouldery tor exposed in a quarry, after loose weathering products have been removed for road building purposes, Mylliem,
Meghalaya, north-east India. Photo courtesy of Agneiszka Latocha.
confined to any specific climatic zone (Twidale, 1982; Migoń,
2006). Nor are they endemic to granite terrains although
classic examples have been indeed reported from granite up-
lands of Europe (Dartmoor and Cairngorms – Great Britain,
Massif Central – France, Harz – Germany, Karkonosze – Pol-
and/Czech Republic, Serra da Estrela – Portugal (Figure 14).
The origin of tors is generally considered a two-phase
process, hence similarly to the origin of certain boulder fields
as reviewed above. This evolutionary scenario is linked with
the name of David Linton, but the concept can actually be
traced much further back in time (Twidale, 1978). As Linton
(1955: 476) put it: ‘‘A tor is a residual mass of bedrock pro-
duced below the surface level by a phase of profound rock
rotting effected by groundwater and guided by joint systems,
followed by a phase of mechanical stripping of the incoherent
products of chemical action’’ (Figure 15). The key evidence
validating the theory is the presence of tor-like solid rock
masses surrounded by friable products of in situ disinte-
gration, revealed in many grus excavations, road cuts, and
quarries all over the world (Figure 16). This scenario is easily
acceptable for low residuals, but needs refinement if very big
tors, 410 m high, are considered. First, the examples of yet-to-
be-exposed tors show these features as a few to ten meters high
at most, whereas many tors are imposing residuals exceeding
20 m high. Second, the sides of certain tors exhibit features
typical for rock face/soil cover junction such as flared slopes
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Weathering and Hillslope Development 175

(see below), now standing high above the surrounding Thus, although the appearance of a tor is a poor and rather
ground surface. Third, elevated parts of tall tors bear traces of unreliable clue to its geomorphic history, it is beyond doubt
protracted subaerial weathering and show a rich assemblage of that weathering processes are fundamental in shaping the
microforms (weathering pits, karren, tafoni), which are absent tors at every stage of their history. They continue to be active
or much less developed in their lower parts. These observations on exposed tors and work toward their destruction. Selective
suggest that the process of tor exposure may be episodic and
proceeds through a few cycles of deep weathering and strip-
ping, with the top part having been exposed much earlier.
Not all tors have necessarily evolved according to the two-
phase model. Palmer and Neilson (1962) came up with an
alternative explanation, later known as a one-phase model.
They conceded that molding of tors would have occurred
entirely at the topographic surface and no preceding sub-
surface weathering (‘phase one’) was involved. However, in
detail, periglacial tors would have been shaped in three
distinct phases. First, stripping of any preexisting regolith
by solifluction and exposure of solid granite occurred. Later
granite is subject to frost action and breaks down along
partings to form block fields. Finally, downhill movement of
released blocks by solifluction would expose a castellated tor.
The evidence in favor of this proposal includes the presence of
angular boulders around many tors, angular shapes of the tors
themselves, and widespread occurrence of solifluction de-
posits on adjacent slope surfaces. Paucity or absence of deep
weathering in the surrounding has also been cited but this is
not decisive. In fact, the lack of thick saprolites is consistent
with the two-phase model of tor origin. Today it is argued that
many tors, especially in Europe, have had complex history. For
example, Gerrard (1988) suggested that the tors of Dartmoor
have their roots in the pre-Quaternary period, when domes
and valleys formed and deep weathering operated, but details
of their morphology have been sculpted in the periglacial
environment of the Pleistocene. In other areas, for example, in
the Bohemian Massif of Central Europe, tors of different ori-
gin coexist, pointing to the polygenesis of the present-day Figure 18 Flared slope of a granite boulder, Serra da Estrela,
geomorphic landscape (Demek, 1964). Portugal.

Figure 17 A mushroom-like sandstone tor due to differential weathering of bedded and massive layers, Sto"owe Mts., south-west Poland.
 Author's personal copy
176 Weathering and Hillslope Development
weathering of tor surfaces leads to the origin of curious
landforms such as perched blocks (balanced rocks) and ped-
estal rocks, understood as residuals consisting of two parts:
a wide cap resting on a narrow pillar. The latter are most
common in bedded sandstones and conglomerates, where
weathering exploits differences between adjacent units
(Figure 17). Minor weathering landforms such as pits and
pans, tafoni, and karren (see Chapter 4.7) commonly develop
on tor surfaces, in some places rising to imposing dimensions.
Dzulynski and Kotarba (1979) presented a conceptual model
of how the evolution of weathering pans may reduce an up-
standing tor to a low rock platform.
Phase 1
Runoff
Footslope deposits
Phase 2 - Accelerated weathering in footslope setting;
downward and inward migration
of weathering front (I > IV)
Runoff
I II
III IV
Phase 3 - Removal of weathering products
and exposure of flared slope
Runoff
Flared slope
Figure 19 Model of flared slope development as envisaged by
Twidale (1962).
4.10.5.3 Flared Slopes
Flared slopes are smooth concavities in the scarp-foot zone of
hill-slopes or boulders, particularly widespread in granite
terrains but present in other rock types as well (Figure 18).
These basal concavities show a wide range of dimensions, even
along a single outcrop. They may be as low as 0.5 m, but
spectacular overhangs more than 10 m high are also known,
such as the 14-m high and nearly 100-m long Wave Rock
at Hyden Hill in Western Australia. They can be of a much
localized occurrence, and may also be present virtually all
along the perimeter of a hill, for example, at the Pildappa Hill,
Eyre Peninsula, Australia, where they make up 95% of the
lower slopes (Twidale, 1962). Many pedestal rocks have their
lower slopes flared and gradations are observed from flared
slopes to overhangs of basal tafoni and scarp-foot caves on
the one hand, and to gently sloping rock slope surfaces on
the other.
Although basal concavities are comparably minor surface
features, they are regarded as important indicators of geo-
morphic evolution of an area. This is because their origin is
generally ascribed to enhanced subsurface weathering at the
rock slope/footslope junction, the latter being either sedi-
ment-mantled or developed across saprolite (Figure 19).
Runoff from exposed rock slopes supplies water to sediment/
saprolite, creating a local microenvironment of aggressive
weathering, leaving the bare rock surface above little affected
by weathering. With the passage of time, this contrasting be-
havior would cause significant steepening of the rock–regolith
boundary surface around an outcrop. Subsequent stripping of
loose material reveals the concavity. Subsurface, two-phase
origin of flared slopes implies that landforms within which
they occur have developed through at least one cycle of
differential weathering followed by evacuation of regolith.
Multiple flared slopes, at different heights above the base, have
been used as the evidence of long-term surface lowering
and episodic exposure of rock compartments (Twidale and
Bourne, 1975).
Flared slopes may continue to develop after exposure, as
attested by widespread flaking and exfoliation within the
concavities. Indeed, Ollier and Bourman (2002) argued that
flared slopes should not be uncritically assumed to be of
subsurface initiation and may develop solely by subaerial
processes, through slope retreat and preferential weathering at
the slope base. Whichever the model, though, it is evident that
these curious and sometimes truly spectacular features owe
their origin and appearance mainly to weathering rather than
any other geomorphic process.
The examples discussed above do not exhaust the range of
hillslope geomorphic features, which result from differential
weathering. These include various types of caverns (tafoni,
bedding caves), joint-guided clefts, mid-slope benches, rock
arches, and hoodoos (see Chapter 4.7).
4.10.6 Conclusions
This chapter demonstrated the direct bearing of rock wea-
thering processes on patterns and pathways of hillslope evo-
lution. The relationship between weathering and surface
 Author's personal copy
processes has been formally recognized in the concept of
weathering-limited slopes and transport-limited slopes, con-
trasted with each other by means of relative efficacies of pro-
cesses involving disaggregation of material and movement
of this material downslope. Although such a dichotomy is
an oversimplification, it remains a useful starting point to
examine how weathering influences the evolution of slope
morphology in different timescales.
Weathering controls mass movement processes operating
within a hillslope, dictating their nature and rate with which
they occur. If bedrock alteration proceeds at a fast rate and
reaches deeply beneath the surface, rate of change of slope
morphology increases. Hillslope processes influence hillslope
form, which may become characteristic for certain environ-
ments. For example, if weathered mantle is thin and surface
creep is the dominant process of mass transfer, convex
hilltops may form. However, if weathered mantle is thick and
landslides are common, scalloped hillslope topography with
channelless hollows will develop. In the short-term though,
process–form relationships may also be reverse. It is an in-
herited hillslope form that controls patterns of weathering and
eventually, mass wasting.
Weathering–transport–form linkages may be examined for
both rock slopes, where physical weathering plays the major
role, and mantled slopes, where chemical weathering operates
efficiently. In either case, the role of weathering consists in
preparation, through various mechanisms of disintegration
and decomposition, rock material for transport. An important
factor here is the rock itself and characterization of rock mass
properties, whether little or thoroughly weathered, is essential
if pathways of hillslope evolution are to be understood and
predicted.
It has been shown that various categories of rock fall and
rock slide operate within rock slopes, whereas landslides,
earthflows, debris flows, and gully erosion mold slopes
underlain by weathered materials. Each of these mass-wasting
processes leaves behind erosional and depositional landforms,
which add to the complexity of hillslope morphology. How-
ever, careful analysis of these landforms, coupled with exam-
ination of footslope deposits, may allow for back-analysis and
recognition of the process, even if that has not been observed
directly. Here, geomorphology has a major role to play in
hazard assessment and in extension of observational record
into the more distant past, often essential to derive mean-
ingful magnitude–frequency relationships.
Several classic landforms are products of slope evolution
in weathered materials, including famous tors and boulders.
Although other origins are possible, the majority of these in-
spiring landforms is produced by removal of weathered rock
from slope surfaces.
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Biographical Sketch

Piotr Migoń is professor of geography at the University of Wroc"aw, Poland, where he is Head of Department of
Geography and Regional Development. He was a Royal Society Fellow based at the University of Oxford, UK, in
1995–1996, and a Fulbright Fellow based at the University of California, Santa Cruz, in 2003. He served as the
Secretary of the International Association of Geomorphologists (IAG) in 1997–2001 and currently (2009–2013) is
one of its three vice-presidents. His principal subject of research is how geological structures influence landforms
and surface processes. Other explored issues include weathering, mass movement in mountain terrains, and long-
term landform evolution. Piotr Migoń is also involved in various geo-conservation activities and in promotion of
geomorphology. His publication record includes ‘Granite Landscapes of the World’ (Oxford University Press,
2006), a textbook on geomorphology published in Poland (2006), coediting of ‘Encyclopedia of Geomorph-
ology’ (Routledge, 2004) and numerous papers in international journals, including Geomorphology, Catena,
Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, and Earth-Science Reviews. His last publication is the edited volume
‘Geomorphological Landscapes of the World’ (Springer, 2010), which contains 36 chapters describing the most
fascinating geomorphic sceneries from all around the world.