Winnipeg Talk April2009

Palindromic sequences in Number Theory
Amy Glen
The Mathematics Institute @ Reykjavík University
amy.glen@gmail.com
http://www.ru.is/kennarar/amy
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

@
University of Winnipeg
Amy Glen (Reykjavík University) Palindromes in Number Theory April 2009 1 / 48

Outline
1 Combinatorics on Words
Sturmian & Episturmian Words
2 Some Connections to Number Theory

Continued Fractions & Sturmian Words
Palindromes & Diophantine Approximation
Transcendental Numbers
Miscellaneous

Combinatorics on Words
Outline

Miscellaneous

Starting point: Combinatorics on words
Number Theory
Probability Theory Discrete Geometry
Discrete Theoretical
Dynamical Systems
Combinatorics on Words Computer Science
Topology Algorithmics
Theoretical Physics Automata Theory
Computability
Codes
Biology Logic
DNA sequencing, Patterns
algebra
Free Groups, Semigroups
Matrices
Representations
Burnside Problems

Number Theory
Dynamical Systems
Computability
Codes
Biology Logic
algebra
Matrices
Representations
Burnside Problems
A word w is a finite or infinite sequence of symbols (letters) taken from a

non-empty finite set A (alphabet).

Number Theory
Dynamical Systems
Computability
Codes
Biology Logic
algebra
Matrices
Representations
Burnside Problems
A word w is a finite or infinite sequence of symbols (letters) taken from a

non-empty finite set A (alphabet).
Example with A = {a, b, c}: w = abca, w ∞ = abcaabcaabca · · ·

Combinatorics on words: A brief history
Relatively new area of Discrete Mathematics

Early 1900’s: First investigations by Axel Thue (repetitions in words)

1938: Marston Morse & Gustav Hedlund

Initiated the formal development of symbolic dynamics.


This work marked the beginning of the study of words.


This work marked the beginning of the study of words.
1960’s: Systematic study initiated by M.P. Schützenberger.

Combinatorics on words: Complexity

Most commonly studied words are those which satisfy one or more
strong regularity properties; for instance, words containing many
repetitions or palindromes.


A palindrome is a word that reads the same backwards as forwards.
Examples: eye, civic, radar, glenelg (Aussie suburb).


The extent to which a word exhibits strong regularity properties is
generally inversely proportional to its “complexity”.


Basic measure: Number of distinct blocks (factors) of each length
occurring in the word.


Basic measure: Number of distinct blocks (factors) of each length
occurring in the word.
Example: w = abca has 9 distinct factors:
a, b, c, ab, bc, ca, abc, bca, abca.

| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z }
1 2 3 4

Combinatorics on Words Sturmian & Episturmian Words
Sturmian words
Theorem (Morse-Hedlund 1940)

An infinite word w is ultimately periodic if and only if w has less than n + 1
distinct factors of length n for some n.

Sturmian words

Sturmian words
Aperiodic infinite words of minimal complexity – exactly n + 1 distinct
factors of length n for each n.

Sturmian words

Sturmian words
Pioneering work by Morse & Hedlund in 1940 (symbolic dynamics).

Sturmian words

Sturmian words
Low complexity accounts for many interesting features, as it induces
certain regularities, without periodicity.

Sturmian words

Sturmian words
Points of view: combinatorial; algebraic; geometric.

Sturmian words

Sturmian words
References in: Combinatorics, Symbolic Dynamics, Number Theory,
Discrete Geometry, Theoretical Physics, Theoretical Computer Science.

Sturmian words

Sturmian words
References in: Combinatorics, Symbolic Dynamics, Number Theory,
Discrete Geometry, Theoretical Physics, Theoretical Computer Science.
Numerous equivalent definitions & characterisations . . .
Christoffel words: A special family of finite Sturmian words

3
Lower Christoffel word of slope 5

Christoffel words: Construction

3


3


3


3


3


3


3


3


3
a
L(5,3) = a


3
a a
L(5,3) = aa


3
b
a a
L(5,3) = aab


3
a
b
a a
L(5,3) = aaba


3
a a
b
a a
L(5,3) = aabaa


3
b
a a
b
a a
L(5,3) = aabaab


3
a
b
a a
b
a a
L(5,3) = aabaaba


3
b
a
b
a a
b
a a
L(5,3) = aabaabab

3
Lower & Upper Christoffel words of slope 5
a a
b b
a a
a
b b
a
a a
b b
a a
L(5,3) = aabaabab U(5,3) = babaabaa

From Christoffel words to Sturmian words

Sturmian words: Obtained *similarly* by replacing the line segment by a
half-line:
y = αx + ρ with irrational α ∈ (0, 1), ρ ∈ R.

From Christoffel words to Sturmian words

Sturmian words: Obtained *similarly* by replacing the line segment by a
half-line:
y = αx + ρ with irrational α ∈ (0, 1), ρ ∈ R.
√
5−1
Example: y= 2 x −→ Fibonacci word
a a b
a b
a a b
b
a a
f = abaababaabaababaaba · · · (note: disregard 1st a in construction)

√
5−1
Standard Sturmian word of slope 2 , golden ratio conjugate
Christoffel words: Historical notes
Before the 20th century:
J. Bernoulli, 1771 (Astronomy)
A. Markoff, 1882 (continued fractions)
E. Christoffel, 1871, 1888 (Cayley graphs)

Christoffel words: Historical notes
Before the 20th century:
J. Bernoulli, 1771 (Astronomy)
A. Markoff, 1882 (continued fractions)
E. Christoffel, 1871, 1888 (Cayley graphs)
After the 20th century:
J. Berstel, 1990
J.-P. Borel & F. Laubie, 1993

Christoffel words: Properties
Examples
Slope q/p 3/4 4/3 7/4 5/7
L(p, q) aababab abababb aabaabaabab aababaababab
U(p, q) bababaa bbababa babaabaabaa bababaababaa

Examples
Slope q/p 3/4 4/3 7/4 5/7
Properties
L(p, q) = awb ⇐⇒ U(p, q) = bwa

Examples
Slope q/p 3/4 4/3 7/4 5/7
Properties
|L(p, q)|a = p, |L(p, q)|b = q =⇒ |L(p, q)| = p + q

Examples
Slope q/p 3/4 4/3 7/4 5/7
Properties
L(p, q) is the reversal of U(p, q)

Examples
Slope q/p 3/4 4/3 7/4 5/7
Properties
L(p, q) is the reversal of U(p, q)
Christoffel words are of the form awb, bwa where w is a palindrome.

Christoffel words & palindromes
Theorem (folklore)
A finite word w is a Christoffel word if and only if w = apb or w = bpa
where p = Pal (v ) for some word v over {a, b}.

Theorem (folklore)
Pal is the iterated palindromic closure function:
Pal (ε) = ε (empty word) and Pal (wx) = (Pal (w )x)+
for any word w and letter x.

Theorem (folklore)
Pal is the iterated palindromic closure function:
Pal (ε) = ε (empty word) and Pal (wx) = (Pal (w )x)+
for any word w and letter x.
v + : Unique shortest palindrome beginning with v .

Palindromic closure: Examples
(race)+ =

(race)+ = race

(race)+ = race car

(race)+ = race car
(tie)+ =

(race)+ = race car
(tie)+ = tie

(race)+ = race car
(tie)+ = tie it

(race)+ = race car
(tie)+ = tie it
(tops)+ =

(race)+ = race car
(tie)+ = tie it
(tops)+ = top s

(race)+ = race car
(tie)+ = tie it
(tops)+ = top spot

(race)+ = race car
(tie)+ = tie it
(tops)+ = top spot
(ab)+ =

(race)+ = race car
(tie)+ = tie it
(tops)+ = top spot
(ab)+ = aba

(race)+ = race car
(tie)+ = tie it
(tops)+ = top spot
(ab)+ = aba
Pal (aba) =

(race)+ = race car
(tie)+ = tie it
(tops)+ = top spot
(ab)+ = aba
Pal (aba) = a

(race)+ = race car
(tie)+ = tie it
(tops)+ = top spot
(ab)+ = aba
Pal (aba) = a b

(race)+ = race car
(tie)+ = tie it
(tops)+ = top spot
(ab)+ = aba
Pal (aba) = a b a

(race)+ = race car
(tie)+ = tie it
(tops)+ = top spot
(ab)+ = aba
Pal (aba) = a b a a

(race)+ = race car
(tie)+ = tie it
(tops)+ = top spot
(ab)+ = aba
Pal (aba) = a b a a b a

(race)+ = race car
(tie)+ = tie it
(tops)+ = top spot
(ab)+ = aba
Pal (abc) = a b a c a b a

(race)+ = race car
(tie)+ = tie it
(tops)+ = top spot
(ab)+ = aba
Pal (race) =

(race)+ = race car
(tie)+ = tie it
(tops)+ = top spot
(ab)+ = aba
Pal (race) = rarcrarerarcrar

(race)+ = race car
(tie)+ = tie it
(tops)+ = top spot
(ab)+ = aba
L(5, 3) = aabaabab = aPal (aba)b

(race)+ = race car
(tie)+ = tie it
(tops)+ = top spot
(ab)+ = aba
L(5, 3) = aabaabab = aPal (aba)b
L(7, 4) = aabaabaabab = aPal (abaa)b

Sturmian words: Palindromicity
Theorem (de Luca 1997)

An infinite word s over {a, b} is a standard Sturmian word if and only if
there exists an infinite word ∆ = x1 x2 x3 · · · over {a, b} (not of the form
uaω or ubω ) such that
s = lim Pal (x1 x2 · · · xn ) = Pal (∆).

n→∞


s = lim Pal (x1 x2 · · · xn ) = Pal (∆).

n→∞
∆: directive word of s.


s = lim Pal (x1 x2 · · · xn ) = Pal (∆).

n→∞
∆: directive word of s.
Example: Fibonacci word is directed by ∆ = (ab)(ab)(ab) · · · .

Recall: Fibonacci word
a a b
a b
a a b
b
a a
√
5−1
Line of slope 2 −→ Fibonacci word

a a b
a b
a a b
b
a a
√
5−1
∆ = (ab)(ab)(ab) · · · −→ f = a

a a b
a b
a a b
b
a a
√
5−1
∆ = (ab)(ab)(ab) · · · −→ f = ab

a a b
a b
a a b
b
a a
√
5−1
∆ = (ab)(ab)(ab) · · · −→ f = aba

a a b
a b
a a b
b
a a
√
5−1
∆ = (ab)(ab)(ab) · · · −→ f = abaa

a a b
a b
a a b
b
a a
√
5−1
∆ = (ab)(ab)(ab) · · · −→ f = abaaba

a a b
a b
a a b
b
a a
√
5−1
∆ = (ab)(ab)(ab) · · · −→ f = abaabab

a a b
a b
a a b
b
a a
√
5−1
∆ = (ab)(ab)(ab) · · · −→ f = abaababaaba · · ·

a a b
a b
a a b
b
a a
√
5−1
∆ = (ab)(ab)(ab) · · · −→ f = abaababaaba · · ·
Note: Palindromic prefixes have lengths (Fn+1 − 2)n≥1 = 0, 1, 3, 6, 11, 19, . . . where
(Fn )n≥0 is the sequence of Fibonacci numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . . ,
defined by: F0 = F1 = 1, Fn = Fn−1 + Fn−2 for n ≥ 2.
A generalisation: Episturmian words

{a, b} −→ A (finite alphabet) gives standard episturmian words.
Theorem (Droubay-Justin-Pirillo 2001)

An infinite word s over A is a standard episturmian word if and only if
there exists an infinite word ∆ = x1 x2 x3 · · · over A such that
s = lim Pal (x1 x2 · · · xn ) = Pal (∆).

n→∞



s = lim Pal (x1 x2 · · · xn ) = Pal (∆).

n→∞
Example: ∆ = (abc)(abc)(abc) · · · directs the Tribonacci word:



s = lim Pal (x1 x2 · · · xn ) = Pal (∆).

n→∞

r=a



s = lim Pal (x1 x2 · · · xn ) = Pal (∆).

n→∞

r = ab



s = lim Pal (x1 x2 · · · xn ) = Pal (∆).

n→∞

r = aba



s = lim Pal (x1 x2 · · · xn ) = Pal (∆).

n→∞

r = abac



s = lim Pal (x1 x2 · · · xn ) = Pal (∆).

n→∞

r = abacaba



s = lim Pal (x1 x2 · · · xn ) = Pal (∆).

n→∞

r = abacabaa



s = lim Pal (x1 x2 · · · xn ) = Pal (∆).

n→∞

r = abacabaabacaba



s = lim Pal (x1 x2 · · · xn ) = Pal (∆).

n→∞

r = abacabaabacabab



s = lim Pal (x1 x2 · · · xn ) = Pal (∆).

n→∞

r = abacabaabacababacabaabacaba



s = lim Pal (x1 x2 · · · xn ) = Pal (∆).

n→∞

r = abacabaabacababacabaabacabac



s = lim Pal (x1 x2 · · · xn ) = Pal (∆).

n→∞

r = abacabaabacababacabaabacabac abaabaca · · ·



s = lim Pal (x1 x2 · · · xn ) = Pal (∆).

n→∞

r = abacabaabacababacabaabacabac abaabaca · · ·
Note: Palindromic prefixes have lengths ((Tn+2 + Tn + 1)/2 − 2)n≥1
= 0, 1, 3, 7, 14, 27, 36 . . . where (Tn )n≥0 is the sequence of Tribonacci
numbers 1, 1, 2, 4, 7, 13, 24, 44, . . . , defined by:
T0 = T1 = 1, T2 = 2, Tn = Tn−1 + Tn−2 + Tn−3 for n ≥ 3.
Some Connections to Number Theory
Outline

Miscellaneous

Some Connections to Number Theory Continued Fractions & Sturmian Words
Continued fractions
Every irrational number α > 0 has a unique continued fraction expansion
1
α = [a0 ; a1 , a2 , a3 , . . .] = a0 +
1
a1 +
1
a2 +
a3 + · · ·
where the ai are non-negative integers, called partial quotients, with a0 ≥ 0
& all other ai ≥ 1. The n-th convergent to α is the rational number:
pn
= [a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , an ], n ≥ 1.
qn

Continued fractions
1
α = [a0 ; a1 , a2 , a3 , . . .] = a0 +
1
a1 +
1
a2 +
a3 + · · ·
pn
= [a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , an ], n ≥ 1.
qn
Example:
√
Golden ratio (conjugate): τ̄ = 1/τ = 5−1 2 = 0.61803 . . . = [0; 1, 1, 1, . . .]
1
Convergents: 11 = 1, 1
= 12 , 23 , 35 , 58 , . . . , FFn−1 , ...
1+ 1 n

Continued fractions
1
α = [a0 ; a1 , a2 , a3 , . . .] = a0 +
1
a1 +
1
a2 +
a3 + · · ·
pn
= [a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , an ], n ≥ 1.
qn
Example:
π = [3, 7, 15, 1, 292, 1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 3, 1, 14, 2, . . .]
Convergents: 3, 22/7, 333/106, 355/113, . . .
Note: 2[1, 1, 1, 3, 32] = 355/113 = 3.14159292 ≈ π . . . → v. good approx.

Standard Sturmian words: CF-based construction

Suppose α = [0; d1 , d2 , d3 , . . .].
To the directive sequence (d1 , d2 , d3 , . . .), we associate a sequence
(sn )n≥−1 of words defined by
dn
s−1 = b, s0 = a, sn = sn−1 sn−2 , n ≥ 1.
For all n ≥ 1, sn−1 is a prefix of sn and the standard Sturmian word cα
corresponding to the line of slope α through (0, 0) is given by
cα = limn→∞ sn .


Suppose α = [0; d1 , d2 , d3 , . . .].
dn
s−1 = b, s0 = a, sn = sn−1 sn−2 , n ≥ 1.
Example: Recall the Fibonacci word is f := cα with α = [0; 1, 1, 1, 1, . . .].
s−1 = b, s0 = a, and sn = sn−1 sn−2 for n ≥ 1 −→ |sn | = Fn+1


Suppose α = [0; d1 , d2 , d3 , . . .].
dn
s−1 = b, s0 = a, sn = sn−1 sn−2 , n ≥ 1.
f = ab s1 , length F2 = 2


Suppose α = [0; d1 , d2 , d3 , . . .].
dn
s−1 = b, s0 = a, sn = sn−1 sn−2 , n ≥ 1.
f = aba s2 , length F3 = 3


Suppose α = [0; d1 , d2 , d3 , . . .].
dn
s−1 = b, s0 = a, sn = sn−1 sn−2 , n ≥ 1.
f = abaab s3 , length F4 = 5


Suppose α = [0; d1 , d2 , d3 , . . .].
dn
s−1 = b, s0 = a, sn = sn−1 sn−2 , n ≥ 1.
f = abaababa s4 , length F5 = 8


Suppose α = [0; d1 , d2 , d3 , . . .].
dn
s−1 = b, s0 = a, sn = sn−1 sn−2 , n ≥ 1.
f = abaababaabaab s5 , length F6 = 13


Suppose α = [0; d1 , d2 , d3 , . . .].
dn
s−1 = b, s0 = a, sn = sn−1 sn−2 , n ≥ 1.
f = abaababaabaababaababa s6 , length F7 = 21


Suppose α = [0; d1 , d2 , d3 , . . .].
dn
s−1 = b, s0 = a, sn = sn−1 sn−2 , n ≥ 1.
f = abaababaabaababaababa · · ·


Suppose α = [0; d1 , d2 , d3 , . . .].
dn
s−1 = b, s0 = a, sn = sn−1 sn−2 , n ≥ 1.
In general:
|sn | = qn+1 for all n


Suppose α = [0; d1 , d2 , d3 , . . .].
dn
s−1 = b, s0 = a, sn = sn−1 sn−2 , n ≥ 1.
In general:
sn = Pal (v )xy for some v ∈ {a, b}∗ and {x, y } = {a, b}


Suppose α = [0; d1 , d2 , d3 , . . .].
dn
s−1 = b, s0 = a, sn = sn−1 sn−2 , n ≥ 1.
In general:
cα = Pal (ad1 bd2 ad3 bd4 · · · ) E.g. f = Pal (abababa . . .)


Suppose α = [0; d1 , d2 , d3 , . . .].
dn
s−1 = b, s0 = a, sn = sn−1 sn−2 , n ≥ 1.
In general:
cα = Pal (ad1 bd2 ad3 bd4 · · · ) E.g. f = Pal (abababa . . .)
Many nice combinatorial properties of cα are related to the CF of α.
Some Connections to Number Theory Palindromes & Diophantine Approximation
Basics of Diophantine Approximation

Diophantine Approximation is concerned with the approximation of
real numbers by rational numbers.


How good is an approximation of a real number ξ by a rational
number p/q?


number p/q?
Rudimentary measure: |ξ − p/q| → the smaller the better.


number p/q?
A more sophisticated measure: Comparison of |ξ − p/q| to the size of q
(in terms of some function φ(q)).


number p/q?
Typically, it is asked whether or not an inequality of the form
|ξ − p/q| < φ(q) has infinitely many rational solutions p/q.


number p/q?
Relation to continued fractions:
Best rational approximations to real numbers are produced by
truncating their CF expansions.


number p/q?
Relation to continued fractions:
Best rational approximations to real numbers are produced by
truncating their CF expansions.
CF theory → for every irrational number ξ, the inequality
|ξ − p/q| < 1/q 2 always has infinitely many rational solutions p/q.
Roy 2003, 2004: Introduced a “palindromic prefix method” in the

study of simultaneous approximation to a real number and its square.


Roy’s work inspired Fischler (2006) to study infinite words with

“abundant palindromic prefixes”.



Also of interest in Physics in connection with the spectral theory of
one-dimensional Schrödinger operators. [Hof, Knill, Simon 1995]



Important notion is palindromic complexity – the number of distinct
palindromic factors of each length.



Important notion is palindromic complexity – the number of distinct
palindromic factors of each length.
Fischler introduced palindromic prefix density . . .

Palindromic prefix density

Let w = w1 w2 w3 · · · be an infinite word (with each wi a letter).


Let (ni )i ≥1 be the seq. of lengths of the palindromic prefixes of w.
Note: (ni )i ≥1 is an increasing sequence if w begins with arbitrarily
long palindromes.


long palindromes.
Fischler (2006): The palindromic prefix density of w is defined by

ni +1 −1
dp (w) := lim sup
i →∞ ni
with dp (w) := 0 if w begins with only finitely many palindromes.


long palindromes.

ni +1 −1
dp (w) := lim sup
i →∞ ni
Note: 0 ≤ dp (w) ≤ 1 for any infinite word w.


long palindromes.

ni +1 −1
dp (w) := lim sup
i →∞ ni
Note: 0 ≤ dp (w) ≤ 1 for any infinite word w.
If w = v ∞ = vvvvv · · · (purely periodic), then

1 if v = pq for some palindromes p, q
dp (w) =
0 otherwise.

Palindromic prefix density . . .

Question: What is the maximal palindromic prefix density attainable by a
non-periodic infinite word?
Answer:
Theorem (Fischler 2006)
1
√
For any infinite non-periodic word w, we have dp (w) ≤ τ (= ( 5 − 1)/2).


Answer:
1
√
Fischler’s bound is optimal . . .


Answer:
1
√
Fischler’s bound is optimal . . .

The Fibonacci word f = abaababaaba · · · , whose sequence of palindromic
prefix lengths is given by:
(ni )i ≥1 = (Fi +1 − 2)i ≥1 = 0, 1, 3, 6, 11, 19, 32, . . . ,
has maximal palindromic prefix density amongst non-periodic infinite
words. That is:

Fi +2 − 2 −1
dp (f) = lim sup = 1/τ.
i →∞ Fi +1 − 2
Palindrome prefix density . . .
There is an easy formula to compute dp (cα ). [de Luca 1997]

Not so for standard episturmian words. But it can be verified that . . .


Any standard episturmian word satisfies ni +1 ≤ 2ni + 1 for any i.

Recall: The Tribonacci word r = abacabaabacababacab · · · has
palindromic prefix lengths

Ti +2 + Ti + 1
(ni )i ≥1 = −2 = 0, 1, 3, 7, 14, 27, 36 . . .
2 i ≥1


Any standard episturmian word satisfies ni +1 ≤ 2ni + 1 for any i.

Recall: The Tribonacci word r = abacabaabacababacab · · · has
palindromic prefix lengths

Ti +2 + Ti + 1
(ni )i ≥1 = −2 = 0, 1, 3, 7, 14, 27, 36 . . .
2 i ≥1
Fischler 2006: Introduced a natural generalisation of standard

episturmian words . . .

Fischler’s words with abundant palindromic prefixes
Definition (Fischler 2006)

An infinite word w is said to have abundant palindromic prefixes if the
sequence (ni )i ≥1 is infinite and satisfies ni +1 ≤ 2ni + 1 for any i ≥ 1.


Fischler gave an explicit construction of such words, as well as those

which satisfy ni +1 ≤ 2ni + 1 for sufficiently large i.



Construction is similar to that of iterated palindromic closure Pal for
standard episturmian words.



Any standard episturmian word has abundant palindromic prefixes, but

not conversely.



Any standard episturmian word has abundant palindromic prefixes, but

not conversely.
Example: (abcacba)∞ = abcacbaabcacbaabcacba · · · has abundant
palindromic prefixes, but it is not standard episturmian.

A further generalisation: Rich words

Glen-Justin (2007): Initiated a unified study of finite and infinite words
that are characterized by containing the maximal number of distinct
palindromes, called rich words.


Characteristic property: All ‘complete returns’ to palindromes are
palindromes.


palindromes.
Examples
aaaaaa · · ·


palindromes.
Examples
aaaaaa · · ·
abbbbbb · · ·


palindromes.
Examples
aaaaaa · · ·
abbbbbb · · ·
abaabaaabaaaab · · ·


palindromes.
Examples
aaaaaa · · ·
abbbbbb · · ·
(abcba)(abcba)(abcba) · · ·


palindromes.
Examples
aaaaaa · · ·
abbbbbb · · ·
Sturmian and episturmian words


palindromes.
Examples
aaaaaa · · ·
abbbbbb · · ·
Sturmian and episturmian words
Infinite words with abundant palindromic prefixes
Some Connections to Number Theory Transcendental Numbers
Transcendental continued fractions

Long-standing Conjecture (Khintchine 1949)
The CF expansion of an irrational algebraic real number α is either
eventually periodic (iff α is a quadratic irrational) or it contains arbitrarily
large partial quotients.


Alternatively: An irrational number whose CF expansion has bounded

partial quotients is either quadratic or transcendental.



Liouville (1844): Transcendental CF’s whose sequences of partial
quotients grow very fast (too fast to be algebraic)



Liouville (1844): Transcendental CF’s whose sequences of partial
quotients grow very fast (too fast to be algebraic)
Transcendental CF’s with bounded partial quotients:
Maillet (1906)
9
>
Baker (1962, 1964)
>
>
>
>
Shallit (1979)
>
>
=
Davison (1989) transcendence criteria from DA
Queffélec (1998)
>
>
>
>
Allouche, Davison, Queffélec, Zamboni (2001)
>
>
>
;
Adamczewski-Bugeaud (2005)
Transcendental continued fractions: Examples
Let ξa,b := [0; a, b, a, a, b, a, b, a, a, b, a, . . .] where the sequence of

partial quotients is the Fibonacci word on positive integers a, b.


Any Fibonacci continued fraction is transcendental.


More generally:
Theorem (Allouche-Davison-Queffélec-Zamboni 2001)

Any Sturmian continued fraction – of which the partial quotients forms a
Sturmian word on two distinct positive integers – is transcendental.


More generally:

Proved by showing that Sturmian continued fractions admit very good

approximations by quadratic real numbers.


More generally:


In particular, they used the fact that any Sturmian word begins with
arbitrarily long squares (words of the form XX = X 2 ).


More generally:


Example: f = aba · ababaabaababaababaabaababaaba · · ·

More generally:


Example: f = abaab · abaabaababaababaabaababaaba · · ·

More generally:


Example: f = abaababa · abaababaababaabaababaaba · · ·

More generally:


Example: f = abaababaabaab · abaababaabaababaaba · · ·
Transcendental continued fractions . . .
In fact: Any irrational number having a CF expansion with sequence of

partial quotients forming a recurrent rich infinite word is either quadratic or
transcendental by . . .


Theorem (Adamczewski-Bugeaud 2007)

If the sequence of partial quotients (an )n≥0 in the CF expansion of a
positive irrational number ξ := [a0 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . .] begins with arbitrarily
long palindromes, then ξ is either quadratic or transcendental.



Palindromes must begin at a0 .



Palindromes must begin at a0 .
Proof of theorem rests on Schmidt’s Subspace Theorem (1972).

Some Connections to Number Theory Miscellaneous
Further work
Continued fractions provide a strong link between:
arithmetic/Diophantine properties of an irrational number α,
and symbolic/combinatorial properties of Sturmian words of slope α.

Further work
Strict episturmian words (or Arnoux-Rauzy sequences) naturally

generalise and extend this rich interplay. [Rauzy 1982, Arnoux-Rauzy 1991]

Further work

Recall: Directive word of cα is determined by the CF of α.

That is: If α = [0; d1 , d2 , d3 , d4 . . .], then cα = Pal (ad1 bd2 ad3 bd4 · · · ).

Further work


Likewise, the directive word of a k-letter Arnoux-Rauzy word is
determined by a multi-dimensional continued fraction expansion of the
frequencies of the first k − 1 letters. [Zamboni 1998, Wozny-Zamboni 2001]

Further work


Likewise, the directive word of a k-letter Arnoux-Rauzy word is
determined by a multi-dimensional continued fraction expansion of the
frequencies of the first k − 1 letters. [Zamboni 1998, Wozny-Zamboni 2001]
Deep properties studied in the framework of dynamical systems, with

connections to geometrical realisations such as Rauzy fractals.
Thank you!

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Palindromic sequences in Number Theory

Department of Mathematics and Statistics

Amy Glen (Reykjavík University) Palindromes in Number Theory April 2009 1 / 48

2 Some Connections to Number Theory

Amy Glen (Reykjavík University) Palindromes in Number Theory April 2009 2 / 48

2 Some Connections to Number Theory

Amy Glen (Reykjavík University) Palindromes in Number Theory April 2009 3 / 48

Starting point: Combinatorics on words

Probability Theory Discrete Geometry

Amy Glen (Reykjavík University) Palindromes in Number Theory April 2009 4 / 48

Starting point: Combinatorics on words

Probability Theory Discrete Geometry

A word w is a finite or infinite sequence of symbols (letters) taken from a

Amy Glen (Reykjavík University) Palindromes in Number Theory April 2009 4 / 48

Starting point: Combinatorics on words

Probability Theory Discrete Geometry

A word w is a finite or infinite sequence of symbols (letters) taken from a

Amy Glen (Reykjavík University) Palindromes in Number Theory April 2009 4 / 48

Combinatorics on words: A brief history

Relatively new area of Discrete Mathematics

Amy Glen (Reykjavík University) Palindromes in Number Theory April 2009 5 / 48

Combinatorics on words: A brief history

Relatively new area of Discrete Mathematics

Early 1900’s: First investigations by Axel Thue (repetitions in words)

Amy Glen (Reykjavík University) Palindromes in Number Theory April 2009 5 / 48

Combinatorics on words: A brief history

Relatively new area of Discrete Mathematics

Early 1900’s: First investigations by Axel Thue (repetitions in words)

1938: Marston Morse & Gustav Hedlund

Amy Glen (Reykjavík University) Palindromes in Number Theory April 2009 5 / 48

Combinatorics on words: A brief history

Relatively new area of Discrete Mathematics

Early 1900’s: First investigations by Axel Thue (repetitions in words)

1938: Marston Morse & Gustav Hedlund

Amy Glen (Reykjavík University) Palindromes in Number Theory April 2009 5 / 48

Combinatorics on words: A brief history

Relatively new area of Discrete Mathematics

Early 1900’s: First investigations by Axel Thue (repetitions in words)

1938: Marston Morse & Gustav Hedlund

1960’s: Systematic study initiated by M.P. Schützenberger.

Amy Glen (Reykjavík University) Palindromes in Number Theory April 2009 5 / 48

Combinatorics on words: Complexity

Amy Glen (Reykjavík University) Palindromes in Number Theory April 2009 6 / 48

Combinatorics on words: Complexity

Amy Glen (Reykjavík University) Palindromes in Number Theory April 2009 6 / 48

Combinatorics on words: Complexity

Amy Glen (Reykjavík University) Palindromes in Number Theory April 2009 6 / 48

Combinatorics on words: Complexity

Amy Glen (Reykjavík University) Palindromes in Number Theory April 2009 6 / 48

Combinatorics on words: Complexity

a, b, c, ab, bc, ca, abc, bca, abca.

Amy Glen (Reykjavík University) Palindromes in Number Theory April 2009 6 / 48

Theorem (Morse-Hedlund 1940)

Amy Glen (Reykjavík University) Palindromes in Number Theory April 2009 7 / 48

Theorem (Morse-Hedlund 1940)

Amy Glen (Reykjavík University) Palindromes in Number Theory April 2009 7 / 48

Theorem (Morse-Hedlund 1940)

Amy Glen (Reykjavík University) Palindromes in Number Theory April 2009 7 / 48

Theorem (Morse-Hedlund 1940)

Amy Glen (Reykjavík University) Palindromes in Number Theory April 2009 7 / 48

Theorem (Morse-Hedlund 1940)

Amy Glen (Reykjavík University) Palindromes in Number Theory April 2009 7 / 48

Theorem (Morse-Hedlund 1940)

Amy Glen (Reykjavík University) Palindromes in Number Theory April 2009 7 / 48