Training Functional Translators 27

TRAINING FUNCTIONAL TRANSLATORS

Christiane Nord
Magdeburg

1. General remarks

Translator training institutions are shooting up like mushrooms

all over the world, and even in the ordinary language classroom
(e.g., at culture institutions like the British Council, Institut Français,
Goethe-Institut or Instituto Cervantes) students are demanding some
sort of basic training in (professional) translation. The problem is:
Who is going to do the teaching? So far, there is no institutional
training for translator trainers. Teachers of Mathematics or
Philosophy are trained in their respective Faculties, Language
Teachers are trained in Modern Language Departments or Faculties
of Second Language Acquisition, but persons applying for a position
as translator trainer in a Faculty of Translation and Interpreting
need no particular formal qualification, and if they needed one,
they would not know where to get it. This does not mean that they
are all bad translator trainers, but maybe life would be a little easier
for them (and for their students?) if they had had some kind of
special instruction and were not forced to re-invent the wheel of
translation pedagogy over and over again.
I went into translator training about 35 years ago, two weeks
after graduating as a translator. I had a few very inspired trainers
(some had been trained as translators, others as language teachers,
others were “just” native speakers with a juridical or technical
background) – but did this qualify me for translator training? It didn’t.
28 Christiane Nord

At first I tried to imitate the teachers I had liked best in my own

training, but then I felt this was not enough, and I started to develop
my own teaching methodology. I presume that most novice translator
trainers are still working along these lines today, and that, after
years of practice, all their (positive or negative) experience and
insights, their findings, their good ideas and original methods are
oft interred with their bones.
To save my own insights and experience from this fate, I would
like to expose them to discussion in the following article. After a
brief outline of my theoretical starting-point (2.), I will first analyse
what I consider to be the groundwork of any translational skills:
intercultural competence (3.) and then proceed to discuss the
relationship of practice and theory in translator training (4.). The
three sections that follow will tackle very practical aspects of
translator training: the selection of learning material (5.), teaching
and learning methods (6.), and quality assessment (7.). To conclude,
I will highlight a few areas where a cooperation between theory
(i.e. research done by teachers or students) and practice (i.e.
practising translators, commissioners, translation agencies, etc.)
could be beneficial to and help make the training of the trainers a
fully-fledged branch of applied translation studies.

2. What is a “functional translator”?

Talking about a “functional translator” is a very abbreviated

form of describing a professional translator who:
a) is aware of the fact that, in today’s translation practice,
translations are needed for a variety of communicative functions
(which are not always the same as that which the corresponding
source text may have been intended to achieve) (= professional
knowledge);
b) knows that the selection of linguistic and nonlinguistic signs
which make up a text is guided by situational and cultural factors,
Training Functional Translators 29

and that this principle applies to both source and target-cultural text
production (= metacommunicative competence);
c) is able to spot the “rich points” (Agar 1991, 168), where the
behaviour of the representatives of a particular pair of cultures or
diacultures in a given situation is so divergent that it may lead to
communication conflicts or even breakdowns, and finds ways and
means to solve cultural conflicts without taking sides (= intercultural
competence);
d) knows that, due to culture-specific conventions, apparently
similar or analogous structures of two languages are not always
used with the same frequency or in the same situation (= distribution)
by the respective culture communities, and that the use of the wrong
set of signs may severely interfere with the text’s functionality;
e) has the ability to produce a target text serving the desired
function even though the source text may be badly written or poorly
reproduced (= writing abilities);
f) knows how to use both traditional and modern (i.e. electronic)
translation aids and knowledge sources (= media competence);
g) has a good general education and a better specific knowledge
of the topic the source text is about (or knows how to compensate
efficiently for any lack of knowledge) (= research competence);
h) works fast, cost-efficiently, and to perfection, even under
high pressure (= stress resistence), and
i) knows what her/his translations are worth (= self-assertion,
from the practitioners’ point of view, and self-assurance or self-
confidence, as the trainers see it).
This is the profile practitioners and theoreticians, or rather,
trainers, more or less agreed upon at a Conference on Translation
Quality which took place in Leipzig last year. Of course, the
practitioners uttered a few more requirements, like skills in spe-
cific forms of translation (e.g., dubbing, voice-over, website trans-
lation, software localization), management and leading competence,
the ability to work in a team and to constantly adapt to changing
working conditions, revision skills, and the like, and they could not
30 Christiane Nord

make up their minds whether they preferred the generalist or the

specialist as far as factual knowledge is concerned. The trainers,
however, maintained the view that university training programmes
must be general enough to enable their graduates to take up a broad
range of activities, and specific enough to lay the foundations for a
fast acquisition of any kind of special skills after graduation. On the
whole, a functional translator is obviously a very versatile animal.

3. Teaching intercultural competence: pre-translational

language activities

And we have not even mentioned linguistic and cultural

competence, which, of course, should be perfect. It goes without
saying that a solid linguistic and cultural competence in both source
and target cultures is not the object of, but a prerequisite for,
translator training. If translation is taught too early, i.e. before the
students have reached a sufficient command of language and culture,
translation classes will degenerate into language acquisition classes
without the students (or the teachers) even realizing.
On the other hand, students entering translator training do not
normally come with sufficient language and culture competence,
so that they have to attend language classes before starting to
translate. In order to save time and effort, however, the development
of language and culture competence should be specifically designed
for translator training. As we all know, it does make a difference
whether somebody learns a language for such practical purposes
as, for example, finding their way in a foreign country without
starving or getting into all sorts of trouble, or in order to be able to
translate from or into this language. Apart from the ability to
communicate in the language (i.e. to understand texts that are read
out or written and to produce texts which are apt to serve certain
communicative purposes), translation requires a particular kind of
metacommunicative competence, i.e. the knowledge about how the
Training Functional Translators 31

two languages and cultures work and where the differences lie that
make it impossible just to “switch codes” in translation. Therefore,
language teachers working in a translator training programme should
be aware of the specificities of translational language use and take
them into consideration.
It is a frequent complaint that translation students have an
insufficient command of their own native language. Apart from the
development of foreign-language proficiency, translation-oriented
language classes may also lead to a better competence in the native
language if the contrastive perspective is introduced at a rather
early stage. This does not mean that I would like to revive the old
tradition of using translation as a teaching tool in foreign-language
acquisition (as was typical particularly of Latin and Greek classes).
On the contrary, grammar translation (or: “philological translation”)
should definitely be banned from the translation-oriented language
class. What is much more efficient is the contrastive analysis of
authentic, real-life texts, which shows that similar communicative
intentions are verbalized in different ways in the two cultures even
though the language system may allow the use of analogous
structures. This is what I would like to call “contrastive style
analysis”: students should be made aware of the norms and
conventions of communication in everyday settings before they start
translating structure-by-structure or word-by-word.
Parallel to the development of native and foreign language
competence, the students should gain some insight into the following
aspects of general text competence:
• text production as a purposeful, culture-bound activity (text
pragmatics)
• texts as means of communication used for specific pur-
poses and addressees
• the importance of cultural and world knowledge for both
text reception and production
32 Christiane Nord

• the extralinguistic restraints controlling text production (e.g.

legal norms, corporate language, marketing policies)
• LSP and terminology as particular forms of communication
in specific domains
In order to achieve these insights, the following exercises may
be found useful:
• analysis and comparison of texts and discourse produced for
different audiences (women – men, children – students – adults,
specialists – laypersons) or transmitted by different media (oral –
written, written in traditional media – written in internet chatgroups),
at different times (i.e. diachronical differences) or in different places
(i.e. diatopical differences within one language area), identifying
and evaluating text strategies,
• analysis and comparison of texts belonging to various text
types or genres, identification of text-type conventions
• identification of function markers in texts or text segments
• spotting text defects
• revision of faulty or unfunctional texts, revision of translated
or machine-translated texts, re-writing of deficient texts
• analysis of texts dealing with other cultures, identifying the
methods used for providing cultural background information
• paraphrasing utterances and identifying the difference in use
or communicative effect
• wordplay and punning, crossword puzzles (“creativity
exercises”)
• composing and structuring semantic fields, differentiating
synonyms, defining word meaning and usage
• restructuring sentences (complex into simple, and vice versa)
• rewriting texts according to stylistic rules or instructions
• rewriting texts for other audiences, purposes, media, places
etc. (= “intralingual translation”)
• summarizing or abstracting long texts
Training Functional Translators 33

• converting nonverbal text elements (figures, tables, sche-

matic representations, models) into verbal text (and vice versa),
especially in technical communication
• produce written texts on the basis of oral information (or vice versa)
• revise deficient texts (= “quality management”).
If these skills are acquised in the native language first and then
applied to the foreign languages, contrasting native and foreign texts
in a third step, the students will have learned a lot about translation
without having translated yet. At the same time, they have developed
their active and passive text competence both in the native and the
foreign languages.
Contrastive text competence is the ability to analyse the culture-
specific features of textual and other communicative conventions
in two cultures. What is needed here, is a number of general
parameters that may have different forms in the source and the
target culture, for example:
• textual macro-strategies or types of argument, i.e. how the
material is organized rhetorically (e.g., proceeding from general
to particular or vice versa, stating a position to take issue with,
BPSE = background, problems, solution, evaluation);
• theme-rheme progression (focus, emphasis, as in cleft
sentence structures);
• cohesive devices (e.g., linkages, signalling, structure
markers);
• metadiscourse, i.e. discourse that refers overtly to itself (i.e.
“As we saw earlier...”, “I will come back to this point later”, also
headings and subheadings indicating what is to follow in the text);
• attribution, i.e. the way things and phenomena are specified
in the text (e.g., by an adjective, a prepositional phrase, a relative
clause, a parenthesis);
• modalization, i.e. implicit expressions of speaker attitudes
(e.g., by subjunctive, modal particles, diminutives, word order), etc.
Text material should include mainly practice-oriented text types,
such as business communication, computer manuals, software,
34 Christiane Nord

product documentation, contracts, business and market reports,

patents, image brochures, operating instructions, students’ textbooks
or scholarly articles, “EU texts”, and the like.
• Teaching methods include
• parallel text analysis,
• bilateral and multilateral translation criticism,
• rewriting and text revision again.
It is important to note that contrastive text competence is not
based on systemic contrastive linguistics, but on a comparison of
“language in action”, where the focus is on the form, frequency,
and distribution of communicative acts.

4. From theory to practice and back to theory: the “pigtail

method” in the translator-training curriculum

To train functional translators as described above, trainers need

both practical and theoretical knowledge. They should know the
skills and abilities that are required in the profession (= practical
knowledge), and they should know how describe them using the
concepts and terms of some kind of theory (= theoretical
knowledge). To learn means to identify and recognize patterns of
behaviour, relating them to a systematic framework, and to teach
means to guide the students’ attention towards relevant features,
allowing them to discover the underlying regularities and giving
names to the discovered phenomena.
There is often a debate on whether to start with theory (in a kind
of land drill) or with practice (in a kind of swim-or-sink procedure).
Personally, I am in favour of what I call a pig-tail method: starting
out with a small portion of theory, which is then applied to practice,
where the need for more theory becomes obvious, which is then
satisfied by another portion of theory, and so on.
The land-drill procedure soon becomes sterile because when
the students start practising they will have forgotten what they have
Training Functional Translators 35

learnt in theory, and the swim-or-sink procedure has the great dis-
advantage of risking that the students acquire bad translation habits
which have to be cured afterwards.
The curricular structure of our training programme for technical
translators1 follows this pig-tail philosophy:
! 1 st to 3 rd semester: introduction to the theoretical and
methodological concepts of intercultural communication and
translation;
! 4th semester: introduction to translation practice of both general
and specialized texts, into the native and into the foreign
language, with constant references to the theoretical back-
ground;
! 5th semester: practical periods and/or university studies
abroad;
! 6th and 7th semester: practice and theory of specialized
translation, terminology, use of both traditional and electronic
translation aids and tools, practical part of the final exams;
! 8th semester: diploma thesis and colloquium (i.e. theoretical
part of the final exams).
The first theoretical phase includes the following activities:
• development of a (contrastive) language and culture
competence in two foreign languages and in the native language,
including the ability to produce texts for a variety of situations and
functions (see section 3),
• introduction to translation-relevant aspects of linguistics and
pragmatics in order to provide the concepts and terms needed for
text and discourse analysis, and
• the basic concepts of intercultural communication and trans-
lation theory.
The introduction to translation theory is basically practice-oriented
and deals with the most important aspects of professional transla-
tion, such as: translation as a purposeful activity, models of the
translation process, communicative functions of texts and transla-
36 Christiane Nord

tions, translation typologies, the role of norms and conventions in

translation, the translation brief, translational analysis of source
texts and target-culture parallel texts, translation problems and
strategies to solve them, translation aids (including dictionaries).
Since the course is compulsory for all students, independent of the
foreign languages they have chosen for their training, the main
languages used for examples and illustration are German and English
(which they all know), but frequent references to distant cultures
(Asia, Latin America) have proved to be of advantage to make the
students aware of cultural distance and of the culture-specificity of
their own behaviour. The theoretical concepts can also be intro-
duced (at least in part) in the pre-translational language courses.

5. How to design a translation task: source texts and target

texts

Before entering the practical stage of translator training, we

have to make sure that the students have reached a sufficient level
of language and culture competence, that they know how to use the
main translation aids and tools, and that their theoretical knowledge
of the basic concepts of translation and intercultural communication
enables them to comment on translation procedures and strategies
used by themselves or by others. If this is the case, translation
practice – duly combined with back references to the theoretical
groundwork, as suggested by the pig-tail model – should be geared
towards a systematic development of transfer competence. This
means that each translation task must be designed in such a way
that it does not raise too many or too complicated translation prob-
lems. From the second translation task onward, the proportion of
“familiar” translation problems that have been discussed before
should be larger than, or at least equal to, the proportion of “new”
translation problems.
Training Functional Translators 37

The difficulty of a translation task is influenced by the following

factors:
• the complexity and degree of specificity of the source text
(= source-text qualities),
• the number and quality of the translation aids provided with
the task or easily available (= available documentation),
• the translation brief which specifies the intended functions,
addressees, medium, quality standard, etc. of the target text (=
translation brief), and
• the knowledge resources, skills and abilities of the translating
person (= student’s level of competence).
If a translation task is to be feasible for a particular student or
group of students, this means
• that the source text should be selected bearing the students’
level of competence in mind (because a text which is too difficult is
not likely to motivate the students but rather will cause frustration
and a feeling of failure),
• that every translation task should be accompanied by a
translation brief (because it is easier to reach a well-defined goal
than to poke about in the fog of what the teacher may have thought
would be the target-text function), and
• that translation aids and tools (parallel texts, dictionaries,
glossaries, encyclopedic material, internet search machines etc.)
should be available and accessible during the translation process,
• the time limit and the required quality standard of the target
text should be geared to the degree of difficulty of the translation
task.
All of these factors may be used to increase or reduce the over-
all degree of difficulty in order to achieve a slower or more rapid
learning progression may be increased slowly but steadily (=
“learning progression”) by increasing the difficulty of one or more
parameters, according to the learning stage. If, for example, in the
initial phase, the students have to translate a source text which is
38 Christiane Nord

relatively complicated or of bad quality, there should at least be a

sufficient amount of documentation available and the translation
brief should not require a camera-ready equivalent translation but
perhaps just a rough translation giving the main arguments of the
text. In the advanced phase, however, the translation brief may ask
for a perfect translation even of a complex or badly written source
text. But beside perfection, efficiency, too, is a factor that has to be
taken into consideration: in a limited length of time, it is more
efficient to produce a decent translation of the whole source text
than a perfect rendering of only the first half.
On the whole, selecting texts for translation classes is not a matter
of adhering to rigid principles – nor is it a matter of mere intuition.
It is a fundamental requirement in translation teaching that only
authentic texts should be used as material, i.e. real texts-in-situation,
and that they should be practice-relevant. This means that in a culture
like Germany, where newspaper articles are hardly ever translated
because the big newspapers have their own correspondents all over
the world, newspaper texts play a secondary role in translation
classes, if any – they may be quite useful when dealing with
translation problems like culture-bound realities (realia) or citations.
All source texts have to be presented to the students in such a way
that as much information as possible is provided on the situation in
which the original is or was used in order to make the task more
realistic.

6. Translation projects: role-playing and acquiring

responsibility

Many of us may remember translation classes where a text was

translated sentence by sentence, discussing all or most of the par-
ticipants’ suggestions and questions and ending up – after a few
weeks! – with a translation that more or less conformed to the
teacher’s ideas of a “good” (or “correct” or “adequate” or
Training Functional Translators 39

“equivalent” or whatever standard was preferred at the time)

rendering (cf. Nord 1996, 313). The main problem was that the
text as a whole and as a purposeful instrument of communication
never came into focus. Donald C. Kiraly describes this situation as
follows:

...the traditional learning environment created for the teaching

of translation skills ... essentially involves a didactic
performance by the teacher, who believes that she has access
to the ‘correct’ translation, and who goes about filling in gaps
in the students’ knowledge so that they can also come up with
the ‘correct’ translation. In such a classroom, it is clearly the
teacher’s job to “teach” – i.e. to pass on knowledge, and the
students’ job to ‘learn’, i.e. to absorb the teacher’s knowledge.
(Kiraly 1997, 152).

In modern translation practice, team work and management skills

are qualifications required of any professional translator, whether
she works for a translation agency or free-lance (mostly in a group
of colleagues) or for a company. In the traditional translation
classroom, these qualifications cannot be acquired. Therefore,
translation practice during training should – at least in part – be
organized in projects where each student has the chance to play
various roles: that of client, or revisor, of terminologist, of
documentation assistent, of free-lancer, of an in-house translator
working for a translation company, etc. The teacher’s role is that
of a monitor and fire-brigade, but students learn to manage their
translation projects autonomously, and, to a certain degree, they
may even learn how to negotiate working conditions, fees or
deadlines. In some exceptional cases, students may even work on
real translation jobs required by real clients and get real money for
it. The Magdeburg students spend their fifth semester abroad, work-
ing as interns in some kind of intercultural setting, many of them
even have to perform translation jobs.
40 Christiane Nord

Of course, if we want to teach in projects, the traditional uni-

versity schedule (i.e. spending a certain amount of classroom hours
per week, say: Tuesday from 2 to 4 p.m., on a particular task) has
to be abandoned. But professional practice does not consist of spend-
ing two hours per week on one translation job, and two more hours
on another, and so on, until 10 little jobs have been finished after 3
or 4 months. Professional practice means deadline pressure, work-
ing through nights and Sundays, and having half a day off on Thurs-
day, if you are lucky. It is not necessary to organize translator
training completely by projects, but each student should at least
have had the experience of some project training, preferably in the
advanced phases of the programme. One advantage of project teach-
ing is that source texts may be longer (and thus more realistic!)
than those dealt with in a classroom setting.

7. Quality control: monitoring the learning progress

Along the lines of norms like ISO 9000ff. (1992) or DIN 2345
(1998), “quality control” and “quality management” are modern
buzzwords in professional translation settings (cf. Schmitt 1998,
395), which should also be considered – at least to a certain extent
– in translator training. In the translation projects, one role may be
that of quality manager – and in the classroom, students have to
become acquainted with the procedures of proof-reading and
revising their own translations and those produced by other transla-
tors making use of the linguistic and translatological concepts they
have learned in the preparatory course in order to justify their judg-
ments.
Monitoring takes various forms in the different stages of the
learning process. Using a top-down strategy which proceeds from
situational macrostructures to linguistic microstructures, pragmatic
adequacy is more important than linguistic correctness in the
introductory phase, whereas violations of stylistic and linguistic
Training Functional Translators 41

conventions and norms will carry more weight in the advanced

phases of the training programme. The grading of cultural and
linguistic errors depends on the influence they have on the function
of the target text (cf. Nord 1997a, 76f.). If a missing comma or a
spelling mistake leads to an inadequate interpretation of any of the
intended functions, it is no longer a mere deviation from a linguistic
norm but has pragmatic consequences (cf. Schmitt 1997, 306). In a
translation where the referential function is predominant, the
information given in the source text would have priority over any
other function or sub-function. But in a translation where the
appellative function is predominant, one might be justified playing
down or even omitting certain information if it obstructs the intended
appellative function.
Another criterion for the grading of mistakes may be the effort
needed to correct it in a revision process (cf. Schmitt 1997, 307). A
wrong term which has been used consistently and can be corrected
by a mere search-replace procedure of the text processing
programme may be considered less relevant than a sentence
structure reproduced from the source language which does not
conform to target-culture style conventions and can only be corrected
by restructuring the whole paragraph.

8. From practice to theory and back to practice:

application-oriented research in translator-training
institutions

As I mentioned before, translator trainers usually come from

various backgrounds. They may have been language teachers or
self-made translators or even bilingual engineers. This is not a bad
thing in itself, and it may even be an inspiring contribution to the
methodological discussions among the staff of a translator training
department if the profession is looked at from a variety of
perspectives. But for translator training it is not sufficient just to
42 Christiane Nord

produce good translations, nor is it enough to know everything about

language, pragmatics and linguistics (or even translation theory).
The interplay of theory and practice may be more important in this
area than anywhere else. Although translating as an activity has
been around for more than two thousand years, translation studies
is still striving for its recognition as a discipline in its own right.
Therefore, the “pig-tail” procedure may also render good results
for trainers: practitioners should not despise theory, while theore-
ticians might benefit from a “sabbatical” in a translation company,
which may lead them to more specific theoretical insights.
Moreover, in order to achieve the learning aims described in
section 3, we cannot rely on a large number of publications studying
all the aspects of language-bound and contrastive text competence.
Thus, there is a great need for application-oriented research in
translator training, especially with regard to corpus-based,
descriptive comparative studies on what is usually called „norms
and conventions“. Here is just a small glimpse on an extremely
rewarding field of investigation and a selection of the studies that
have been realized or are being worked on in translator training
institutions so far:
• text-type conventions, e.g. titles and headings in German,
English, French and Spanish (Nord 1993, 1994a, 1995); scientific
and technical texts in German and English (Göpferich 1995), aca-
demic rhetoric in English and Finnish (Mauranen 1993), pharma-
ceutical package inserts in Spanish and German (Nord 1999);
• style conventions, e.g. for the expression of modality in
French and German (Feyrer 1997), for attribution, reported speech,
cohesion etc. in Spanish and German (Nord 2001);
• conventions for the verbalization of certain communicative
(sub)functions, e.g. for metacommunication in German, French
and Spanish university manuals (cf. Nord 2000), topic-comment
structures in German and French encyclopedic texts (Hirsch 1995),
intertextuality (cf. Nord 1993, 189ff., Waismayer 2000), or refer-
ences to realities of another culture (cf. Odenthal 1995);
Training Functional Translators 43

• conventions of non-verbal behaviour in real-life or ficti-

tious situations, e.g. nonverbal or paraverbal behaviour in Alice in
Wonderland and some of its translations into German, French,
Spanish, Italian and Brazilian Portuguese (Nord 1994b, 1997b);
• translational conventions, e.g. how translators deal with
proper names or quotations, whether, in which cases and how often
they prefer source-culture reproduction to target-culture
adaptations, etc.
There are questions to study and corpora to analyze for many
generations of students and teachers to come. Today’s critical
students no longer silently agree if you tell them that this or that is
the way „you“ or „people“ express a particular function in a
particular text type or situation – they find their own ways of
expressing just as appropriate (or even better). And it is really not
very motivating to play the „age card“ (the teacher is always older
than the students, and therefore she/he is right!). By the way,
conventions are subject to change, so maybe the students are right,
and your own way of expressing yourself is completely obsolete or
at least hopelessly old-fashioned.
Therefore, the best method to motivate students (and trainers)
to take up application-oriented research is to discuss norms and
conventions of any kind of verbal or nonverbal behaviour and let
them see for themselves what they are like. And if the results of
these studies, however limited their range may be, flow back
directly into training, they will make better students and better
trainers, and translation classes more efficient.2
44 Christiane Nord

Notes

1. The following details refer to the four-year Programme for “Specialized Commu-
nication” at the University of Applied Sciences (Fachhochschule) of Magdeburg,
Germany, which started in 1964 and leads to a German Diploma degree corre-
sponding to a British Bachelor Honours or a Spanish Licenciatura.

2. This article will also be published as a chapter in Martha Tennent (ed.): Training
Translators for the New Millenium, Amsterdam: John Benjamins (2001).

References

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Din 2345: 1998-04: Übersetzungsaufträge. DIN EN ISO 9004-2: 1992-06:

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Leitfaden für Dienstleistungen.

Feyrer, Cornelia (1997) Modalität im Kontrast: Ein Beitrag zur übersetzungsorientierten

Modalpartikelforschung anhand des Deutschen und des Französischen, Frankfurt/
M.: Peter Lang.

Göpferich, Susanne (1995) Textsorten in Naturwissenschaft und Technik:

Pragmatische Typologie – Kontrastierung – Translation. Tübingen: Narr (= Fo-
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Hirsch, Claudia (1995): Die Thema-Rhema-Gliederung in deutschen und

französischen Fachtexten am Beispiel von Sachwörterbuchartikeln, unpubl. Di-
ploma Thesis, University of Hildesheim/Germany.
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Kiraly, Donald C. (1997) Collaborative Learning in the Translation Practice Class-

room, in: E. Fleischmann, W. Kutz, Peter A. Schmitt (eds.) Translationsdidaktik,
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Main: Peter Lang.

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texts, in H. Pürschel et al. (eds.) Intercultural Communication, Frankfurt: Peter
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in point, Target 7:2 (1995), 261-284.

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