Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Caitlin Shaw
14005992
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of the West
School of Sociology
1
Contents
Acknowledgments 3
Executive Summary 4
Introduction 5
Literature review 7
Methodology 16
Results 22
Discussion 29
Conclusion 36
References 38
Appendices 50
2
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the participants who took the time to aid me in my sociological Commented [E2]: Format it squared?
on this long venture and has shared her expertise. I would also like to express my gratitude
and thanks to my mother, father, sisters and Tegan Nichols for all their encouragement and
support.
3
Executive Summary
This study examines the public perception of male victims of domestic abuse and considers
whether or not intimate partner family abuse against men is considered to be a significant
problem or prominent crime. The research is based on a review of the key literature in the
field of gender based violence and domestic abuse studies, as well as literature on same-sex
abuse and male victims. I also conducted primary research from an online, self-completing,
abuse victims. I was interested in exploring whether or not there are stereotypical views of
victims and perpetrators and gendered views of domestic abuse. I also asked participants
about perceptions of support services for male victims and what sort of support they
believed they would get. The survey also addressed general societal attitudes to domestic
abuse. The historical background presented in the literature review indicates that it has
been an ongoing issue for many years and the existing literature discusses the reasons why Commented [E3]: Rethink wording of this sentence? ‘It is
an on-going issue with an extensive history’ maybe?
female abusers appear to be a contentious concept. This study found data that corroborates
with the existing literature, suggesting that there is a stereotype of victims and that male
victims often go unrecognized, these were the views raised by my participants. The results
from the survey were analysed using thematic analysis to pinpoint, examine, and record the
themes that appear in relation to the phenomena of male victims of domestic abuse.
Introduction
Domestic abuse is defined as the abuse committed by one partner against the other within Commented [E4]: Two lots of abuse
an intimate relationship. It is recognised that both women and men can be victims and that
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it occurs in both heterosexual and homosexual unions. Domestic abuse encompasses, but is
not limited to, incidents of threatening behaviour, violence or abuse. Violence or abuse can
take the form of psychological, physical, sexual, financial or emotional harm (Home Office,
2016). Domestic abuse occurs across all societies irrespective of age, gender, race or
sexuality. However, the official statistics show that it consists mainly of violence committed Commented [E5]: Rethink wording
by men against women (World Health Organisation, 2016). Despite the majority of victims
being female, and the majority of perpetrators being male, the World Health Organization
(2013) and national bodies such as the Home Office and Police recognise that men are also
Domestic abuse has traditionally been understood as the crime perpetrated by men against
women, and the issue of female perpetrated abuse has perhaps been one of the most
confrontational and controversial debates since research into domestic abuse began. This
dissertation outlines some of the theories that contribute to this controversy. For instance,
men against women. This can be explained by the fact that most theories support the view
that domestic abuse is an instance of the use of violence to maintain dominance over
abuse remains a significant and often ignored issue, which requires further exploration
(WHO, 2005). This requirement for further exploration is what inspired me and forms the
This dissertation will be investigating the perceptions held by the public around the
dissertation will consider whether domestic abuse committed against men is regarded to be
5
a significant problem or a prominent crime. This dissertation will also explore the current Commented [E6]: You’ve already said this
intimate partner crime as a way understanding acts of it; it will look at how domestic abuse
has perhaps largely been coined as a women’s issue and discuss the potential presence of
invisibility of male victims. The stereotype often invoked when one mentions domestic
(Dutton & White, 2013; Seelau & Seelau, 2005; Harris & Cook 1994; Sorenson & Taylor,
2005). As a result, the primary focus of this dissertation is upon the effect gender role
stereotypes have had upon how domestic abuse is perceived. This also involves looking at
The research study aims to present and explore the perceptions of the research participants
in terms of how they view male victims of domestic abuse. It also aims to discover how
exactly these perceptions have emerged and particularly how societal beliefs have
influenced these. I imagined that many people get their views and curate their opinions
from the mass media, in the form of domestic abuse stories being cover in television dramas
and in the news headlines. As a result, I also explored these questions with my research
participants.
Literature Review
6
Introduction
This chapter aims to explore the concept of the often overlooked crime of female-on-male
domestic abuse (BMA, 2014) and consider the existing research of male victims of domestic
abuse. This chapter will also discuss the different themes discovered, starting with domestic
abuse arguably being portrayed primarily as a women’s issue, and the stereotyping of
domestic abuse, both of which can lead to assumptions being made about ‘victims.’ The
literature review will discuss the history and prevalence of male victims of domestic abuse
and how there appears to be discrepancies between the perception of male and female
victims. Straus et al (1980) was one of the few studies conducted which argued that female
violence existed at a higher rate than previously thought, by using the Straus Conflict Tactics
Scale, a methodology that has been hotly contested, which will be explored further later.
For the purpose of transparency, it is worth noting that this dissertation does acknowledge
that females make up the majority of victims of domestic abuse, with four times as many
women being killed by a current or former partner in the UK (ONS, 2016) as men, and
women being victims in 73% of domestic violence incidents (Home Office, 2016).
Domestic abuse is the abuse of one partner within an intimate relationship and is
recognised that both women and men can be victims, in both heterosexual and homosexual
partner (Refuge, 2017). This can encompass but is not limited to “any incident of
emotional) regardless of gender, age or sexuality” (Home Office, 2016). Domestic violence
occurs across all societies regardless of age, gender, race or sexuality, with the official
7
statistics showing that it consists predominantly of violence by men against women (World
Historical perspective
Historical evidence suggests that violence between intimate partners has occurred as long
as relationships have existed (Dobash & Dobash, 1979). It was not until the early 1970s that
family violence was viewed as a serious social problem (Dutton, 1994; Pleck, 1987). The
history of domestic abuse has been linked to a patriarchal societal view of women being
In the 1800s, there was a belief that a woman belonged to a man. Violence was a tool of
legitimate control (Duquette-Hoffman, 2016). Central to this patriarchal belief was the ‘rule
of thumb’ which permitted husbands to hit their wives as long as they used a stick no
thicker than their thumb (George, 1994). Despite this, there were laws in place in the 19th
century condemning men who committed acts of violence against their wives to prison
sentences and public flogging. Despite this evidence of punishment of male perpetrators, Commented [E7]: Restructured slightly
there is little historical evidence of women being publicly punished. George (1994) argues
that this can be explained by a fear of violating patriarchal norms concerning violence
committed by women. A direct result of a patriarchal society and its norms, male victims
have always been negatively perceived; historically, men who were victims of assault by
their wives were made into objects of social derision (Davidson, 1977.) We can trace a
Medieval practice called ‘charivari’, including a ‘Skimmington ride’ which involved riding the
victim around town, seated backwards on a donkey, punching himself in his genitals whilst
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Gender and Domestic Abuse
Research undoubtedly shows that domestic violence is a deeply gendered issue that
severity, and consequence from the violence experienced by men. According to research,
women suffer more repeated incidences of abuse, which are more severe and more likely to
be life threatening (Refuge, 2017). Metropolitan Police statistics show that male violence
2009 study based on police reports - which accounted for the dynamics of domestic violence
incidents - found that women committed 5% of domestic violence in heterosexual Commented [E8]: Restructured a bit
relationships (Refuge, 2017). Research conducted by the ONS (2016) suggests that around
four percent of men had experienced abuse from their partner in the last year, which is
“A women’s issue”
For decades, domestic abuse has been viewed as a women’s issue (Dutton & White, 2013.)
Victims are typically viewed in popular discourse - and arguably in responses from the state Commented [E9]: Is this what you mean? It wasn’t clear
- as female with male perpetrators. Research has consistently focussed on women as victims
and men as perpetrators (Barber 2008: Crawford-Mechem et al, 1999; Dobash & Dobash,
1977-78, 1980, 1992.) Indeed, Lewis and Sarantakos have argued that male victims are
consider as “either non-existent or been trivialised” (2001). This is most clear in Sarantakos Commented [E10]: Restructure
(1999) study, which states that “public interest and concern have exclusively focused on
women, leading to feminisation of domestic abuse, and implying an invisibility of the male
victim” pg. 231. Because of limited resources, risk factors and precautions concentrate Commented [E11]: Do you need to format this?
primarily upon on female victims, because of the perception that they are at a higher risk
9
than male victims. Consequently, the lack of focus on male victims in existing literature,
owing to their being a minority (or being perceived as a minority), could be considered
This ‘feminisation of domestic abuse’ means that the male in a violent relationship is
perceived as solely the aggressor and more capable of causing harm. Dutton and White
(2013) asserted that these set of beliefs result in a “Gender Paradigm”, pertaining to a set of
guiding assumptions shared within a group (Dutton, 1994). Dutton (1994) describes feminist
theory around domestic abuse as a paradigm. He offers a theory that suggests we should Commented [E12]: Broken it down for clarity
view all social affiliations through the “prism of gender relations and holds in a Neo-Marxist Commented [E13]: Do you need to explain this further?
view… that all men (the bourgeoisie) hold the power advantage over women (the
proletariat) in patriarchal societies… that all domestic abuse is either male physical abuse to
maintain the power advantage or female defensive violence, used for self-defence” (Dutton
and Nicholls, 2005; 664). This paradigm has grown in domestic abuse literature that frames
domestic abuse as solely, or primarily, as male perpetrated and used as a means of control,
Feminist Perspective
In addition to Dutton’s (1994; 2005) works, Ann Grady (as found in Hoyle, C. & Young, R.
2002) asserts that it is because of the dominance of this feminist perspective on domestic
abuse that we face a stereotype of victims as female. Ann Grady suggests that the
prevalence of the female victim in the domestic abuse debate exists because of feminist
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that dictates women are the victims and men the aggressors. “This stereotype perpetuates a
social perception of domestic violence as an offence committed by men against women. The
application of this stereotype directly informed by the feminist analyses of domestic abuse.
Indeed, the majority of response is at its greatest within domestic abuse response agencies,
as they have been most agencies, such as refuges and helplines, have been established as a
direct result of the need to support ‘battered women’” (Grady, A Cited in Hoyle, C. & Young,
R 2002: 81-82).
Gender discrepancies within domestic abuse perpetrators have been subject to lengthy
discussion (Hester, 2012). One of the most confrontational and controversial issues that
have arisen since research into domestic abuse began is the matter of female-on-male
abuse (Hines et al, 2007.) This is because most theories support the notion of domestic
abuse occurring as a result of using violence to maintain dominance over women (Duquette-
Hoffman, 2016) in a patriarchal society (Johnson, 1995). Gender is a key feature in domestic
abuse (Stark, 2007) in heterosexual relationships because of the existence of idealized forms
of masculinity and femininity. (Connell, 1988). The stereotype implied when one mentions
victim (Dutton & White, 2013; Seelau & Seelau, 2005; Harris & Cook 1994; Sorenson &
Taylor, 2005). These gender stereotypes affect our perceptions of the severity of domestic
of victims endures, with most studies regarding domestic abuse focusing mainly on female
victims (Drijber & Reijenders, 2013), with cases of domestic abuse in non-prototypical cases,
such as female on male, are often over looked (Seelau & Seelau, 2005). Additionally, Fiztroy
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(2001) argues that the perception of female perpetrators is minimized, since many believe
‘women could not do such a thing.’ Current literature explores the idea that if an average
person in the street was asked for an example of a domestic abuse perpetrator, the most
likely response was OJ Simpson (Dutton & White 2013, p.6) giving evidence of a gender
disparity. It is worth noting that this is again a study based in the US, but I am expecting to Commented [E14]: And racial? Maybe mention that you
know it could seem racial but that isn’t the main thrust of
your study
replicate these findings in my UK-based research. This is seen further in Sorenson & Taylor’s
2005 random digit dialled survey of 3,679 laypersons which found that actions, identical in
Sorenson & Taylor’s study supports the gender paradigm. The layperson’s perception was
that if a man committed an identical action as a woman, it was viewed more negatively and
more abusive than when committed by the woman (Arias & Johnson, 1989;Harris & Cook
1994). Male victimization seems to be viewed less seriously than female victimisation,
towards a man as less dangerous and less potentially harmful to the victim (White & Dutton,
2013). The research conducted by Seelau and Seelau (2005) demonstrates that perceptions
stereotypes: that women are seen as weak and vulnerable, and men as dominant (Poorman,
2002). Seelau & Seelau asked male and female undergraduates to read domestic abuse
cases which varied by victim and perpetrators gender. Results showed that the victim’s
gender was the most potent predictor of responses, with male-on-female violence being
considered as the most serious and requiring intervention. Yet again, this perception that
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Seelau & Seelau discussed Poorman et al (2002) study, which showed indications that the
laypersons were more concerned about domestic abuse committed by males. This led them
to recommend higher sentencing for male perpetrators; they recommended only the
women to press charges. These judgements are consistent with gender-role stereotypes
Male underreporting
Barber (2008) reports that the view of men as victims of domestic abuse is not studied as
much as it is for women; most incidents of reported domestic abuse involve male-on-female
underreporting (O’Leary, 2016), with only 25% of all physical assaults being reported (ONS,
2016). Little is known about the nature of incidents where the English police record men as
victims and women as perpetrators. Hester’s 2012 study was commissioned to fill this gap. It
was suggested that men are less likely than women to report such incidents due to fear of
embarrassment or ridicule, and the lack of available support services. Often men are less
likely to view domestic abuse committed by a woman as an actual crime (Stets and Straus,
1992). Of course, women also do not report domestic abuse for similar reasons. Hester
found that men are also less likely to have life threatening injuries, less likely to fear for their
lives, and less likely to be stalked after a relationship ends. Stets and Straus (1989)
conducted a survey in which they asked men if they had ever been victims of domestic
abuse and if they had if they reported it to the police. The 1985 survey showed that less
than 1% who had been victims reported it to the police and only 2% were likely to call a
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friend or relative for help. Stets and Straus asserted that the reasons for this failure to
report to the police were that out of the 368 participants: 49% felt fear of not being taken
seriously; 31% felt shame; and 35% held the belief that the police could not do anything to
help. Dutton & White (2013) argue that male victims have reported finding difficulty in
locating services specific to their needs, as the majority of helplines and shelters are
targeted towards female victims. Despite the reality of male victimhood, men still suffer
great difficulty coming forward and reporting it. The British Crime Survey found that men
routinely tend not to report partner abuse to the police because they consider the incident
‘not worth reporting’ (Smith et al, 2010: 67). Women are twice as likely as men to report
being physically injured (Tjaden & Thoennes, 2000). We can parallel this with the reinforced
notions of gender and ‘manhood.’ From a young age boys are taught to be strong and
‘macho’ - the idea of a grown man being a fragile and vulnerable victim is rather taboo.
Equally, male socialisation diminishes the likelihood of men reaching out for help. Men are
socialized to bury their problems under a ‘private veil’ (Goldberg, 1979). This is why many
victims feel “less of a man” and suffer in silence. Research carried out by McKeown and Kidd
(2002) on male victims of domestic violence highlights that male victims face a society that
is heavily influenced with the belief that ‘women are the only victims and men are the only
perpetrators of domestic violence’. Of course, this is compounded by the fact that the
majority of victims are women; 89% of victims are female (Refuge, 2017).
Straus (1999) study was one of the few studies conducted to argue that female violence
existed at higher rates than previously thought by using the Straus Conflict Tactics Scale
(CTS), a set of scales which measure the prevalence and frequency of verbal and physical
violence between partners. Straus (1999), by using the CTS, revealed the controversial
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findings that male partners in intimate relationships are physically abused at least as often
as are their female counterparts (Gelles & Straus, 1988; Steinmetz & Lucca, 1978) and that
there are signs that women are equally as violent as men. It suggested that men are just as
likely to be victims as women. When this data began to surface, female-on-male violence
violence” (1995), or that was women acting in self-defence (Saunders, 1986, 1988, 2002;
Johnson, 2008).
This adds to the long and heated debate in the current literature to whether domestic abuse
is gender symmetrical, that is, whether men and women commit it equally. Research
conducted by Archer (2002) and Kimmel (2002) argues a reality that the distinctions lay in
the methodology. It argues that whether or not domestic abuse is gender symmetrical can Commented [E15]: Broke up for clarity
be a product of the instruments being used. For example, David Fontes found that when he
looked at the archival cases of reported abuse, males made up between 5% and 15% of
victims (McLeod, 1984.) However, when looking at the vast majority of the randomized
survey research, one finds that men and women were assaulting each other at nearly the
same rate, with men the victims in between 35%-50% of domestic assaults (Steinmetz 1978;
In addition, studies that have relied on the CTS often come back with the result
heterosexual women and men are equally as abusive and violent and domestic abuse can be
termed as what Straus (1999) coined ‘mutual combat’. These CTS findings, unsurprisingly,
are at odds with medical and legal findings that show that woman make up the majority of
victims. Feminist advocates cite large bodies of evidence from these medical and legal
agencies and national victimisation, all of which indicate that females are more likely to be
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victims. These findings dispute CTS researchers claims of ‘mutual combat’ or of gender
Methodology
This research has used qualitative methods, focussing on words and meaning rather than
numbers (Bryman, 2016) to provide a detailed description of the research topic. I have
gather rich descriptive data, investigating the public perception of male victims of domestic
abuse. The research design chosen is that of an exploratory research design; exploratory
research takes place where there is little or no prior knowledge of a phenomenon (Jones,
2015). Exploration was an attractive option as “it helps move current methodological
discussions beyond listing the pros and cons associated with a set of tired, over simplified,
either- or choices” (Stebbins, 2001; 5). As put forward by Stebbins, I adopted the opinion
understanding of the ideas emerging from the existing research. The chosen sampling
method for this research is partly of convenient sampling, in addition to snowball sampling.
Qualitative research tends to revolve around the notion of purposive sampling, “a form of
way, so that those sampled are relevant to the research questions being posed” (Bryman,
2012; 714). The chosen sampling method for this research is a snowball sample and
convenience. Snowball sampling is arguably the most widely employed method of sampling
in qualitative research across the social sciences (Noy, 2008). “A sampling procedure may be
defined as snowball sampling when the researcher accesses informants through contact
that is provided through other informants” (Noy, 2008; 330). In addition to using the
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method of snowballing, I adopted a convenience, non-probability sampling due to limited
population’ (Kelley et al, 2003; 264). Despite drawbacks of this method and the issue of bias
(Finch & Fafinski, 2012), it means the sampling population is readily available and easily
accessible, and that the time and costs are small compared to other methods (Finch &
recommended by Creswell (1998) for this type of study. A smaller sample is typically
required for qualitative analyses, but large enough to obtain feedback for most or all
perceptions (Creswell, 1998). The population sample includes both male and females of
different ages.
Qualitative research is said to have three noteworthy features, holding an inductive view of
theory and research, that “the former is generated from the latter” (Bryman, 2016, pp.375).
know what we know” (Crotty, 1998, pp.8). It is described as interpretivist, stressing “the
world by its participants (Bryman, 2016, pp. 375). Indeed, it is related to an ontological
position, “the study of being” (Crotty, 1998, pp.10), or “the nature of reality” (Lincoln and
Guba, 1985, pp. 37). This ontological position, described as ‘constructionist’, “implies that
social entities are outcomes of the interactions between individuals, rather than the
phenomena ‘out there’ and separate from those involved in its construction” (Bryman,
in turn, subjectivity is key, especially the subjectivity of the researcher when it comes to
data interpretations.
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The survey is an online open-ended survey, taking the form of several questions designed to
gain rich descriptive data. Open-ended questions are associated with qualitative data and
thematic analysis and are useful in providing fuller and more heterogeneous set of
responses (Stoneman & Sturgis, 2013) in addition to providing information about current
states of affairs (Denscombe, 2014). This research chose open-ended questions over close-
ended questions because of their numerous differences. Close-ended questions limit the
respondent to a set of answers being presented, whilst open-ended questions allow the
respondent to express opinion without being led by the researcher (Foddy, 1993). Open-
ended surveys provide a solution to this problem associated with measuring public opinion
One main reason open-ended survey questions were adopted for this research is outlined
by Sproull (1988) who asserts that qualitative data in form of open-ended survey questions
are often elicited in research to gather new information about a topic and to explore
different dimensions of respondent’s experiences. The biggest appeal of this form of data is
that it can provide somewhat rich descriptions of respondent’s reality at a low cost to the
researcher (Jackson & Trochim, 2002). Qualitative data faces criticisms for being too
subjective - usually due to findings relying too much upon the researcher’s view about what
is important and significant (Bryman, 2012; 405). This kind of data faces criticism for being
hard to replicate due to its unstructured nature, lack of any standard procedure and often
being relied upon the researcher’s skill, resulting in it being almost impossible to conduct a
true replication (Bryman, 2012; 405). In comparison to interviews or focus groups, two
research designs I could have used, open-ended surveys offer greater anonymity to
respondents and can arguably elicit more honest responses (Erickson & Kaplan, 2000).
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Furthermore, open-ended survey questions are able to capture diverse responses, often
responses the researcher had not considered (Miles & Huberman, 1994).
do not answer questions correctly and the subjective analysis decision by the researcher can
affect the reliability and validity of the results (Krippendorff, 1980). This aspect of self-
administration when using an online survey may affect the quality of responses (Reja et al,
2003). There is no risk of interviewer bias or social desirability bias respondents as the
answers are anonymous and they are not in the presence of the researcher (Reja et al,
misunderstandings of questions (Reja et al, 2003). Additionally, selection bias may become
present, as Bryman (2016) suggested greater effort from respondents can result in the
respondents being put off which can affect the respondent rates. In the same way,
respondents may not be motivated enough to complete the entirety of the questions
without interaction from another person or may abandon the survey (Reja et al, 2003).
My decision to use an online based research design had several logically reasons. My use of
the maximum number of participants in the smallest time period and is cost-effective for
the researcher (Denscombe, 2014) as the researcher is able to cut out printing costs, and
spend little time physically handing out physical copies of the survey, which will result more
efficient data processing. In this day and age, the majority have Internet access through
social media or email. Furthermore, as Sue and Ritter (2012) assert that, because of the
internet’s large role everyday lives, there is little evidence that using the internet would
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Data collection for this piece of research started by creating an online survey on a
specialised survey website called Qualtrics. Following this, using a snowball and convenience
sampling method, I shared the link of the survey on Facebook on 10th February 2017 and
through email requesting that the respondents share the link on through their Facebook
page and email. I closed the survey on 10th March 2017 and received 30 respondents. Once
the data was gathered, I was faced with the decision of how to analyse the data (Aronson,
1995).
Data analysis was the final stage of the research process, and was an important one.
Qualitative data analysis involves a level of subjectivity on the researcher’s part, due to the
interpretation of the data they take may be different to another. I used thematic analysis to
analysis my data. Thematic analysis identified all data that relates to a pattern that has
already been classified (Aronson, 1992). I organised the data prior to analysis, getting
everything in same format. The second step would be to collate the data into data map to
see the overview (see appendix 4), to see any visible gaps in responses and to see the links.
All the data that fits under the specific pattern is identified and placed with the
fragments of ideas or experiences, which often are meaningless when viewed alone”
(Leininger, 1985; 60). I pieced together the themes that emerge from the responses into a
Due to the chosen research area of domestic abuse being such a sensitive area, it is of the
utmost importance that the research follows the ethical guidelines and the researcher
needs to implement measures to prevent harm coming to the participants. In terms of the
ethical guidelines the best place for sociologists to go is the British Sociological Association
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(BSA). The BSA’s statement of ethics is one of a set of guideline on a variety of aspects of
professional sociology. The purpose of the BSA statement of ethics is to make the members
aware of ethical issues that may arise throughout the research process and to encourage
them to take responsibility for their own ethical practice (BSA, 2002). In addition to the BSA
ethical guidelines, it was important to take into consideration the University if the West of
England policy of ethical conduct. The university’s code of good research conduct
Integrity (Universities UK, 2012). By following these guidelines should result in promoting
excellent research which conforms to the highest possible standards of integrity (UWE,
2014). Following those guidelines should mean promoting excellent research and
conforming to the highest levels of intensity (UWE, 2014). It was important that I completed
the FREC ethics review checklist and risk assessment form which was approved by both the
supervisor and the module leader. This resulted in my research fulfilling the criteria for low
risk research as I did not interview vulnerable individuals and participants and I were not at
The first measure implemented by the researcher to protect the participant’s wellbeing is
providing the 24-hour national domestic violence Freephone helpline to provide support for
was that no under-eighteens participated in the research. A key guideline from the BSA is
that of anonymity; the survey does not require any personal data like their name from the
allocated fake names to each respondent to further anonymity (See Appendix 5). By
distributing the survey by using the internet, there was an additional advantage of
anonymity (Crow & Semmens, 2006). The survey asked for informed consent from each
21
respondent, and made him or her aware that they had the option to withdraw their data at
Results
The purpose of this study was to explore public perceptions of male victims of domestic
abuse. It was to ask research participants whether they believed domestic abuse against
men is a significant problem or considered as a prominent crime and what sort of sources
influence their perceptions in this area. This chapter will discuss the key themes generated
by the thematic analysis of my data and will discuss the three overarching themes produced
abuse.
The data collection produced a sample of thirty with the age range of 18 to over 25. From
the thirty respondents, the majority were female with 73% female (27% male.) The largest Commented [E16]: Isn’t this obvious? Or do you need to
say that none of the respondents were gender-neutral?
24 being the minority response group, both making up 6.67% of the data.
My analysis process produced three overarching themes of the public perception. Theme
one is the role of social stigma. Theme two is “gender expectations”, or the influence of
stereotyping. Theme three is a question of equal status and the consideration that,
regardless of gender, domestic abuse perpetrators are posited equally in immoral standing. Commented [E17]: Broke up for clarity
The theme and role of social stigma captures the way participants understood the impact of
societal influence in how male victims are perceived. It probes their feelings in terms of the
research aim to discover if they believe that agencies such as the police are neutral to all
victims and whether or not this, along with societal attitudes, impacts male victims and
22
levels of male underreporting. The theme of “gender expectations” explores the influence
victims often is shaped and influence by prevailing gender stereotypes. The third theme of
equal status relates most directly to my research question, as all participant’s responses
identified that female-on-male as a crime of equal status but recognised that is less
prominent than-on-female, which does mirror the available official statistics on recorded
crime.
This theme offers clearly shows the impact of societal influence on the perception of male
victims, including beliefs about masculinity and physical power and strength, for example:
Many participants responded that they perceived a “widespread belief that men are viewed
“Expectation from men in society to be strong and manly. Being hurt or upset is a sign of
weakness… women are seen as being weaker and gentle so if a man is being bullied by a
“May be less likely to come form due to embarrassment or feeling unmasculine” (Janice
Rotner).
“Worry about not being seen as a man, being ridicule by others” (Lorna Luptom).
Furthermore, a number of participants asserted that these societal influences would likely
be reproduced by the experience male victims believe they will experience if they report the
23
Research participant Janice Rotner, aged 20-21 believed that if a male did report domestic
abuse they would likely find that, compared to women victims, the police are : “Not as
sensitive to men”.
“If a man is seen as a victim they are told to ‘man up’” (Ben Wilde).
“Think the police take male-on-female abuse more seriously” (Lizzie May).
Respondent Tom Wambold aged 22-23 said that he believed that men reporting domestic
abuse would feel “shame and embarrassment”. In fact, this was reported by no less that ten
of my research participants who used the same terms in their response; it was therefore a
“I think the male would also feel ‘less manly’ and ashamed to come forward – they would
rather brush it under the carpet than risk being embarrassed or judged” (James Lapson).
Lily Donovan aged 22-23 felt that the police: “Might laugh or dismiss a male victim coming
forward”.
Additionally, the role of stigma presented itself in the way that the respondents perceive
Respondent Sarah Ringwald believed that social stigma made male victims “fear not being
taken seriously.”
Furthermore, respondent Steph Fox perceived that social stigma would result in male
victims fearing reporting to the police since “societal attitudes are replicated in police
action”. This was reinforced by a number of other respondents such as Connor Koopman
aged 23-24, who asserted male victim would fear not being taken seriously, “possibly as
24
most police officers are men, and some men tend to look down on other men who are
I shall now move on to look at the second theme that arose in my findings, which was the
theme of equal status. My participants thought that domestic abuse was always serious,
regardless of the sex of the perpetrator or victim, but they also believed that male-one-
This theme provides an understanding that all forms of abuse whether male perpetrated or
female perpetrated is equal with respondent Moya Cozens who firmly establishes this
theme: “Yes if you mean it is equally wrong, all violence is abhorrent”. [sic] Commented [E18]: Use this if the quote is grammatically
incorrect but you don’t want to tamper with it
Respondent James Lapson summed up the feelings of a lot of my respondents when he said
that violence in a relationship is always going to hurt and that the sex of the perpetrator was
irrelevant to the seriousness of the crime: “a punch is a punch no matter who throws it”.
Indeed, this was reported by many of my research participants such as Lily Donovan who
believed that “any form of abuse within a relationship is just as terrible no matter what
gender”.
There is more evidence to support the view that the public perception of domestic violence
is of equal status; all the participants responded that the prosecution for both male and
female perpetrators should be the same and carry the same sentence.
Respondent Connor Koopman states his belief “that the prosecution of female perpetrators
25
Unsurprisingly, given the official statistics, participants showed awareness, that despite
believing that the abusive act is equal in status, the statistics show higher prevalence rates
Within this theme of equal status was also a theme of prominence, despite abuse being
viewed as equal in severity and in terms that it is wrong. However, numerous participants
abuse. For example, Rebecca Lew said that the “first image to come to mind is a male-on-
female”. This was reported by a number of participants using similar terms in their
responses such as Tegan Haines, an 18-19 year old female who wrote, “women are
perceived more as the victim”. Furthermore, Lily Donovan, aged 22-23 supported this
This concerns my overall research question, which is to gain an understanding of the public
perception of male victims of domestic abuse, and consider how this perception is influence
All but six participants responded with a male perpetrator when asked for an example of
domestic abuse perpetrator they had witnessed in the media, consistent with the gender
role stereotype. For instance, ten of my respondents all mentioned pop artist Chris Brown Commented [E19]: Do you need to annex this with who
he is and what he did/the sentence/the victim? A bit more
as a case study
when asked to give an example of a domestic abuse perpetrator they were aware of in the
public eye.
26
Moreover, twenty-one participants agreed to the stereotypical image of women as victims
and men as perpetrators. For example, Jacquie Washington epitomized the opinion of
majority of my respondents when she identified the victims as female and perpetrators as
male, “weak women and manipulating men”. Indeed, this was reported by twenty one of
perpetrators are not often spoken about. Respondent Tom Wambold elaborates on this:
“Men are normally portrayed as the main cause of abuse, it is very rare you see a women
This stereotypical image goes further: if a man is depicted to be a victim, it goes against the
ideologies of what makes a man. Ben Wilde summed this belief in his responses, “People
tend to tend to believe that only women can be victims… if a man is seen as a victim they are
Additionally, the nine who did not directly mention gender, did mention the stereotypical Commented [E20]: Be consistent with numbers or words
for numbers
ideology of the victim being “weak, shy, quiet, nervous” (Hannah Beltran) and the
Conversely, despite the responses largely agreeing with the gender role stereotypes of
victims and perpetrators, all participants responded that they believe that men can also be
victims of domestic abuse. The difference here was that of the type of abuse they received.
We already know that domestic abuse can encompass “any incident of threatening
regardless of gender, age or sexuality” (Home Office, 2016). The mass response was that
27
men can be victims of domestic abuse, mainly in the form of psychological and emotionally
abuse rather than physical. This again is in line with stereotypical gender roles that male
perpetration is in the form of psychical violence and female abuse is in the form of
“Women may not beat their partners but they hurt them in other way… emotionally”
(respondent 8).
“In more psychological ways, which some people do not classify as domestic abuse”
(respondent 9).
“I imagine emotional abuse against men would be particular prevalent” (Respondent 10).
Within this theme of “gender expectations” and the influence of stereotyping was also a
subtheme of motives for perpetrations, which again were consistent with existing gender
role stereotypes. Twelve participants responded that the motive for male abusers is that of
control, “power and control”, with respondent Jacquie Washington emphasising the
The explanation for this was that of men feeling emasculated or feeling powerful. This Commented [E21]: Or do you mean hyper-masculine?
shows a reproduction of patriarchal and stereotypical gender roles that suggest, within
heterosexual relationships, men should hold control. This is a replication of the belief that a
woman belonged to a man and violence was a tool of legitimate control (Duquette-
Hoffman, 2016).
28
Unexpectedly, the secondary motive for male-on-female abuse was alcohol or substance
abuse. Five of the thirty participants responded with “alcohol or drug abuse” or similar
Participant’s response for female motivation for perpetrating domestic abuse mirrors that
of the motives found in the existing literature and which appears commonly in popular
media concerning these crimes and in news coverage. The participants responded that
control and jealousy were the main motives for female-perpetrated domestic abuse and
these cases are often the ones that get reported in the media, salient themes being women
spurned and jealous wives. My participants did seem to be aware of these common themes
Discussion
This chapter will discuss these findings in relation to the key literature that I outlined in my
Literature Review. I will conclude with some suggested limitations of my study and areas for
The aims of this study were to explore the public perception of male victims of domestic
abuse and the extent to which these were influenced by gender stereotypes and gender
roles. In addition, I also asked how participants felt that male victims were treated by state
and voluntary sector organisations and whether they felt that public services like the police
potentially lack sensitivity and support for male victims. I feel that I have successfully
researched these topics and that the data I have gathered does provide some interesting
answers to my research questions. I shall discuss them in further detail below. The findings
of this research offer an insight into public perceptions of male victims of domestic abuse,
including public opinion of the influence of societal stigma, influence of gender role
29
stereotypes and the prominence of male victims or lack thereof in mainstream popular
media.
My findings support the current literature that domestic abuse has been viewed as a
gendered issue (Dutton & White, 2013) with victims, in general, being viewed as female and
perpetrators as male (Barber 2008: Crawford-Mechem et al, 1999; Dobash & Dobash, 1977-
78, 1980, 1992). The findings of this research corroborate the claims asserted by Sarantakos
‘invisibility of the male victim’. This was most clear through my participant responses who
Conversely, my participants felt that all forms of abuse, whether male perpetrated or
female perpetrated are of equal status morally (and should be legally) which is contradictory
to some of the current literature. The 2005 survey conducted by Sorenson & Taylor found
that actions, identical in nature, were more likely to be considered abusive by the public if
performed by males. However, it may be important to state the large difference in the
sample sizes. Due to Sorenson & Taylor’s research being quantitative they were able to
access a larger sample size of 3,679 in comparison with my small 30 participants. However,
this was appropriate as my research was qualitative and concerned with gaining the
opinions of my participants and attempted to do this in more detail and in depth (Creswell
1998).
Recurrently, my participant’s narratives reflected the current literature, that male victims
have been subjected to being presented in mainstream popular media as either non-
30
existent or trivialised when they are portrayed (Lewis & Sarantakos, 2001). The research
asserted that violence committed by women against their male counterparts would be
considered less serious and even considered humorous. This was particularly evident in my
findings as frequently my research participants responded that they believed male victims, if
they disclosed, would be likely to be told to ‘man up’ and that they felt and assumed that
agencies like the police did not take female-on-male abuse as seriously as they did male-on-
female abuse.
These findings answered another one of my key research aims: to discover whether public
perceptions matched the gender stereotypes that are evident in the existing literature.
stereotypes: that women are perceived as vulnerable and weak and men as strong and
when asked for an example of a domestic abuse perpetrator they have seen in the media,
responded with Chris Brown, a man. This also fits in with the work of Dutton & White (2013)
who explored the idea that when a layperson was asked for an example of a perpetrator
they witnessed in the media they would respond with a male example. However, the
existing literature I explored stated a layperson's perception was that when a man
committed an identical action it was viewed more negatively and more abusive than when
committed by a woman (Arias & Johnson, 1989; Feather, 1996; Gerber, 1991; Harris & Cook
1994; Home, 1994; O’Toole & Webster, 1988; Willis et al 1996). My research findings
showed that the perception widely and strongly held amongst my participants was that
abuse is abuse regardless of the gender of the perpetrator and was viewed equally as
31
negatively. This variation in perception could be a result of changing culture around gender
based violence and intimate family abuse. Some of the classic literature I explored was
published over 20 years ago, a long time for perceptions and society to change and develop.
Similar to research findings which highlight the differences in perpetrator motivations - that
women are more likely to employ methods of psychological and emotional abuse (Williams,
2008) - many of my research participants also identified the variance in motivation between
the male and females. They stressed their belief that males would be more likely to
adopting forms of physical violence and women using emotional forms, such as blackmail
and mental manipulation mirroring the research findings of Drijber et al., (2013) and Hines
et al., (2007). Furthermore, the findings of this research illustrated the idea that a male
victim of domestic abuse would be told to “man up”, which reflects the work of Yarrow &
Churchill (2009) which supports the assumption that men are likely to be physically
stronger, and that men who are incapable of defending themselves against a woman cannot
On the other hand, the findings of my research opposed those of George (1994; 2003), who
explored the evidence that suggested that women employed physical method of abuse that
were not strength-dependent, arguing that they would often utilise household items and
emotional abuse and did not consider men using other forms of abuse than just physical
violence when they were asked to think about classic or stereotypical domestic abuse
In my research, I also set out to consider the perceptions my participants held in terms of
male victims and the likelihood of reporting. It is important to remind that domestic abuse
32
in general is an underreported phenomenon for both male and female victims. Stets and Commented [E22]: You’ve already said this
Straus’ 1985 study revealed that only 1% of men who had been victims of domestic abuse
reported it to the police. Stet & Straus (1992) suggested men are less likely than women to
report incidents of domestic abuse due to fear of embarrassment, fear or ridicule and
embarrassment from agencies such as the police. They asserted the reasons for
underreporting to the police were that out of the 368 participants; 49% felt fear of not
being taken seriously, 31% felt shame and 35% held the belief that the police could not do
anything to help. Male socialisation arguably diminishes the likelihood of men reaching out
for help as they are socialized from a young age to be strong and ‘macho’, that to be fragile
and vulnerable is rather taboo and as a result perceive to bury their problems under a Commented [E23]: Needs more rewording – it’s exactly
the same as before
‘private veil’ (Goldberg, 1979). This is emulated in the current research findings, as my
research participants reported that societal attitudes are replicated in police action and that
they believed men would evade reporting domestic abuse incidents due to feeling shame
and embarrassment, that they would rather brush it under the carpet than risk being judged
as less masculine. Furthermore, my participants reported the belief that the police were
Implications
The findings from this research have important implications for how male victims and
narratives demonstrated the impact of gender stereotyping which arguably has the
potential to have a negative impact on how male victims feel and how they are perceived,
supporting earlier findings (McKeown and Kidd 2003) that male victims of domestic violence
face a society that is heavily influenced with the belief that women are the only victims and
33
men are the only perpetrators of domestic violence. This reflects existing research on male
victimisation (Barber 2008) that the view of men as victims of domestic abuse is not studied
as much as it is for women (Hester, 2006; Smith et al, 2010) and that this is a direct
consequence of the Western image of ‘a man’ that results in victim feeling “less of a man”.
My participants reported that a lot of their views were gleaned from and influenced by mass
media, for example the way that domestic abuse is covered in television dramas and what
they hear and read in media coverage like news headlines. This shows that my research is
important as it highlights that domestic abuse and its representation in the media needs to
on-male are not viewed as equal prominent by the public. In order for public perceptions to
change, the public need to receive a realistic picture of female and male violence. The media
needs to start presenting a more accurate presentation of abuse. For example, in soap
operas, there should be more stories of female perpetrators and male victims. Additionally, Commented [E24]: Or should it just show the accurate
percentage? Aka for every three storylines of m on f
violence, there should be one f on m?
they should include story lines of women committing the forms of abuse that my
abuse. Furthermore, accessible mass media, such as newspaper headlines, should publish Commented [E25]: Don’t a lot already? Do you need to
give more examples of exact shows?
more headlines showing male victims and female perpetrators. Of course, the reason for
high media coverage of male-on-female abuse is that women are in the main the likely
victims, by publishing stories and having television dramas involving male victims we can
hope to educated the public that women too are perpetrators and that it is not just physical
victims from agencies like the police. This could be interpreted as the participants deeming
professional support as inadequate and that they would not help male victims as much as
34
they would women. This implies that support services need to be presented as providing a
fairer and more equal treatment in the media in order to overcome these perceptions. In a
similar way to educating the public around female perpetrators, we could change the
public’s views of support services by portraying them positively in the media and television
drama. Simply shedding more light on the support services available for men may help
change the perception that services will be less sensitive to male victims than female
victims.
domestic abuse. Although the research highlights interesting themes and in part fits in with
the existing literature and research aims, in terms of uncovering similarities these findings
need to be considered in relation to the limitations of the study. One of the main limitations
of this study is its ethnocentrism. It is only considering the UK’s public perception and a
small part of that, being a small qualitative study is not representative of the wider
population. Responses may vary in different societies especially between Western and Non-
Western societies, particularly as the meaning of abuse varies between but also within
cultures (Mann & Takyi, 2009). In addition, another limitation is the response sample. As
stated the majority of participants identified as female and between the ages of 20-21.
Despite gaining a minority of male respondents and a minority of other age brackets, the
implications of having a majority of 20-21 females results in the findings not being
generalizable to the whole ‘public’. It is only a fragment of one societal group. Furthermore,
their ethnicity is unknown and on reflection I would have gathered more demographic data
about my participants.
35
Future research
Findings from my study highlight the complexity of the phenomena of male victims of
domestic abuse, and consequently require further research to enhance the understanding
of male victims and female perpetrators of domestic abuse. My research has a few gaps
allowing for future research. My research only took into considerations of age and gender of
one Western culture. I feel it could be interesting to conduct research into the perception of
members of other cultures within and outside of the UK, to see if the societal stereotypes
that exist in current literature are mirror across all cultures. Further research may offer
In the same way, future research into other non-prototypical relationships may provide a
greater understanding. My research only asked for the perceptions of heterosexual couples
performing domestic abuse. It would be interesting to see the public’s perception of male
interesting to see if the perceptions were the same of if they varied just as a result of the
Conclusion
In this project, I have examined some public perceptions of male victims of domestic abuse
and considered whether intimate partner abuse against men is viewed to be a significant
problem or prominent crime. I have explored to what extent gender stereotypes influence
people’s perceptions about the likely perpetrators and victims and have compared my
findings to the existing literature. I then used thematic analysis to explore patterns and
themes within my data and this generated three major themes; the role of social stigma;
“gender expectations” and the influence of stereotyping; and equal status, that is, the
36
consideration that, regardless of gender, domestic abuse perpetrators are posited equally in
in that they did respond stating that domestic abuse is a gendered issue, the issue of
domestic abuse being a gendered issue and that male victims have been subjected to being
an attempt was made to understand how and why this occurs and I presented areas of
In conclusion, it is hoped that the publication of these findings may enable a change in
public perception and attitudes and reduce the stigma surrounding male victims. In
addition, this change in perception and understanding may contribute to the media, to
popular culture and to mainstream news channels and papers in order to amend the current
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Appendices
Appendix 3: Questionnaire
49
50
Appendix 1 – risk assessment form
Ref:
GENERAL RISK ASSESSMENT FORM
Describe the activity being assessed: The project will involve an open- Assessed by (Supervisor): Endorsed by (Module Convener):
ended questionnaire.
Finn Mackay
Who might be harmed (to be completed by the applicant/student; Date of Assessment (by supervisor): Review date (by module
Participants and/or researcher/ other, please state: convener- should be 1 yr later
than the stated 'Date of
How many exposed to risk: 30 Assessment' on this form):
Hazards Identified Existing Control Measures S L Risk Additional Control Measures S L Risk By whom Date
(state the potential Lev Lev and by complet
harm) el el when ed
1 4 5
Researcher stress as a - Ensure researcher takes
result of being on breaks
target for deadlines, - Get support from supervisor
gathering data in
time, gathering
enough participants,
analysing data.
51
Participant stress as a - Provide support and advice 1 3 4
result of answering call lines for participants
questions about - Participants allowed to stop
sensitive topics which at any time and do not have
may have affected the to submit responses
participants prior to - They can recall responses if
the research. they change their minds
1 3 4
Working long periods - Frequent breaks
of time looking at -
computer screens and
analysing data
Very likely 5 10 15 20 25
5
Likely 4 8 12 16 20
4
Possible 3 6 9 12 15
52
3
Unlikely 2 4 6 8 10
2
Extremely unlikely 1 2 3 4 5
1
Likelihood (L) Minor injury – No Minor injury – Injury - requires GP Major Injury Fatality
first aid treatment Requires First Aid treatment or Hospital
Severity (S) required Treatment attendance 4 5
1 2 3
53
Appendix 2 – Ethical form
A careful consideration of the ethical, health and safety, and data protection issues relevant
for a specific research project is an essential component of good quality research and also
safeguards the researcher and all those who might be impacted by the research. Hence,
developing an awareness of ethical and data protection issues surrounding different types
of research projects is integral to the SSPP module and constitutes one of the key learning
outcomes. This is particularly important, if you are collecting data from human participants.
Seek clarification and advice from your supervisor on how to proceed. If the supervisor
considers the project to be ‘high risk’ then they will consult the module convener(s) {insert
names} and/or module leader who will advise whether an application should be submitted
to the Faculty Research Ethics Committee (FREC) for review. Please note that it takes about
6 weeks for the FREC to review 'high risk' projects. Note that most Undergraduate Student
Projects are low risk and very rarely, require to be reviewed by the FREC.
You must not commence your research (e.g., recruitment/ data collection) until you have
ethical approval. Please complete this form and pass it to your supervisor for their
consideration. They need to sign it and return it to you.
Please provide applicant and project details and complete the checklist overleaf.
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Project Details (complete all sections):
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10. Does research involve intrusive interventions or data NO
collection methods – for example, the
administration/consumption of substances or alcohol, vigorous
physical exercise or techniques such as hypnotism?
If you have answered ‘YES’ to ANY of the above, your research project may be ‘high risk’. You
must discuss this with your supervisor. If your supervisor views the research as high risk, you
must apply to the Faculty Research Ethics Committee (FREC) for full ethical approval, using the
form entitled, 'Human Participant Research'. Your supervisor will provide further guidance on
how to complete the form. After they approve the application form, they will submit the form to
the module leader who will send your application form to the FREC on your behalf. Please do
not submit any forms to the FREC yourself.
If your research is not classed as ‘high risk’, you still should ensure that you have considered
ethical and data protection issues and conducted your research appropriately. Please complete
the second part of the checklist below.
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1. Have you made arrangements to obtain informed YES I will include a tick box
consent from the participants? option on my
questionnaire for the
participant to click if they
consent to the following
research.
2. Will participants be informed about how data YES Before completing the
collected in the research will be stored and used? questionnaire, I will
write what the data will
be used for prior to the
participant giving or not
giving consent to the
questionnaire.
3. Can participants withdraw at any time if they choose YES If a participant decides
and are they told how to do so? (If there is a point after they no longer want
which their data cannot be withdrawn from the study, is their data to be used, I
this also explained?) will provide my email
address for and an
option for the
participant to create a
number code in order for
me to know who the
participant was, whilst
keeping anonymity.
4. Are measures in place to provide confidentiality YES No names or details will
and/or anonymity for participants and ensure secure be taken, only gender
management and disposal of data collected from them? and age.
5. Is it clear to participants for how long their data will YES I will make it clear that
be kept, and that it will be destroyed after that time? the data will be kept
until my project is
complete and published
and that they will have
access to view the final
project.
6. Have you considered health and safety issues for the YES Completed risk
participants and researchers or anyone else impacted by assessment form.
this study?*
* All research projects require the completion of the risk assessment form (please, see next
page). The only exception to this, are projects, which are solely based on literature research,
hence are desk-based and are conducted at UWE/usual place of work and do not raise any
ethical issues highlighted in the checklist. Any literature based project that requires
travelling, such as to access archived resources outside the student's normal place of work
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will require the completion of the risk assessment form and lone working procedures will
apply.
If you have answered NO to any of these Qs above, you need to discuss with your supervisor
and clarify how you can address these issues.
Declaration: The information contained in this application, including any accompanying
information, is to the best of my knowledge, complete and correct. I have attempted to
identify all ethical issues and risks that may arise in conducting this research and
acknowledge my obligations.
After the approval by the supervisor, this form is to be emailed to the Graham Taylor
(graham.taylor@uwe.ac.uk) before the research begins (e.g. recruitment/ data collection
etc). Placement students should return this form to Andy Mathers
(Andrew.mathers@uwe.ac.uk
For further guidance, please contact Module convenor(s) (Anne-Marie Cummins (anne-
marie.cummins@uwe.ac.uk) or Module leader (Dr. Selma Babayiğit;
selma.babayigit@uwe.ac.uk; 011732 82187) or AHoD RKE & Deputy Chair of the FREC (tbc).
See also, Good Research Practice and Research ethics policy and procedures.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------
Audit record: This section is to be completed by the module leader and/or convener.
Convener (name):
Date:
Comments:
Module Leader (Name):
Date:
Comments:
Appendix 3: Questionnaire
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Domestic abuse is the abuse of one partner within an intimate relationship. It is the
repeated, random and habitual use of intimidation to control a partner.
The abuse can be physical, emotional, psychological, financial or sexual. Anyone forced to
alter their behaviour because they are frightened of their partner’s reaction is being abused
(Refuge, 2017)
This will be a confidential survey and by click 'I agree' you will be indicating that you are
giving your consent for your data to be used in the project.
Any questions or queries please contact me on; Caitlin2.shaw@live.uwe.ac.uk.
This is a sensitive topic, so if any of the questions upset you, I apologise and here is 24 hour
National Domestic Violence Freephone Helpline to call if you have been affected:
08082000247
Additionally, I ask that no one under the age of 18 participates in this survey.
If at any point you would like your data to be removed from this study, please enter a six
digit code and below email it to me.
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Q4. Do you support the idea that there is a stereotypical image of victims of domestic
abuse? Please state why
Q5. Do you believe that men can be victims of domestic abuse? Please explain your answer.
Q6. What do you believe to be the main reasons for male-on-female domestic abuse?
Q7. What do you believe to be the main reasons for female-on-male domestic abuse?
Q8. Would you rate male-on-female domestic abuse as equal status to female-on-male
domestic abuse? Please explain your response.
Q9. What do you believe are the reasons for male victims not coming forward and reporting
incidents of domestic abuse?
Q10. What do you believe should be the appropriate prosecution for male perpetrators?
Why do you believe these to be appropriate?
Q11.What do you believe should be the appropriate prosecution for female perpetrators?
Why do you believe these to be appropriate?
Q12. Do you believe that agencies like the police are sensitive and neutral to all victims of
domestic abuse? Please explain your response.
Q13. Do you believe that police attitudes would cause male victims to not want to report
incidents of domestic abuse? Please explain why.
Q14.Do you view female violence against men as a crime? Please explain your answer.
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Control also main motive
for female-on-male abuse
Appendix 4: Thematic Map
Identification of female
as main victims Control as main motive
Male embarrassment for for male-on-female
Fear of not being
lack of reporting abuse
believed
Identification of males as
main perpetrators
Theme:
Theme: Sub-theme:
Social stigma
Stereotyping motives for
Public perception of behaviours perpetration
male victims of domestic
abuse
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63