CONTROL AND PEG/PEC/01

SAFEGUARDING FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LTD PAGE 1 OF 12

OF FIRED EQUIPMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING GUIDELINE REV 0

REVISION ORIG. REV 1 REV 2 REV 3 REV 4 REV 5

DATE OCT 02
ORIG.BY CP DAVENPORT
APP.BY

CONTENTS

SECTION SUBJECT

1. PURPOSE

2. SCOPE

3. REFERENCES

4. GUIDELINES
4.1 Fired Heaters
4.2 Boilers
4.3 CO Boilers
4.4 Gas Turbine Exhaust-Fired Waste Heat Recovery Units

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1. PURPOSE

The purpose of this guideline is to provide guidance in good practice for the
specification of control and safeguarding requirements for fired equipment. It
is applicable to fired process heaters, boilers, and fired heat recovery units.

2. SCOPE

This document covers recommended practices that apply to instrument and

control system installations for fired equipment. It is not intended to be a
comprehensive treatment of the subject, as this is covered in much more
detail in the references and in numerous other publications. Rather, this
document provides guidance on the main issues to be considered when
designing control systems for fired equipment.

Whilst this guideline provides useful background information it shall not take
precedence over the applicable standards for a project. The Process Control
Engineer shall liaise with both Process and Control and Instrument Engineers
to determine the design criteria and the applicable international, national, or
Client standards.

Reference 1 is recommended as a basis of design for fired equipment in the

absence of other recognised standards. It provides good background
information, and is referred to throughout this document.

Reference 2 provides additional information for equipment that utilises

exhaust gases from combustion turbines for supplementary direct firing.

Reference 3 has some information on fired heater shutdown trips but is

somewhat out of date in comparison with the other references.

3. REFERENCES

1. API 556, Instrumentation and Control Systems for Fired Heaters and
Steam Generators

2. NFPA 8506, Heat Recovery Steam Generator Systems

3. Process Std 508, Instrumentation, Heater and Furnace Control System

4. Crane, Flow of Fluids Through Valves, Fittings and Pipe

5. F.G. Shinskey, Energy Conservation Through Control, Academic Press

1978

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4. GUIDELINES

4.1 Fired Heaters

4.1.1 General

The primary purpose of the control system for fired heaters is to

automatically maintain safe and stable combustion whilst achieving the
required heater duty. This is achieved by maintaining the correct fuel/air ratio
to give good combustion and regulating the fuel flow to provide the required
heater duty.

4.1.2 Fuel Flow Control

To provide stable operation it is essential that the flow of fuel to the heater
be controlled. This may be achieved either by controlling the pressure in the
fuel header to the burner(s) or by directly measuring and controlling the fuel
flow. Either method is acceptable, although generally flow control is more
precise, and in the case of fuel gas it is easier to provide pressure,
temperature, and composition compensation to a flow measurement (see
section 4.1.7).

4.1.3 Combustion Control

The fuel/air ratio to a heater must be controlled, either manually or

automatically, to ensure safe operation of the heater and to minimise
emissions. Sufficient excess air must be available at all times to ensure
complete combustion of the fuel and safe operating conditions even with
fluctuations in fuel composition. At the same time, the amount of excess air
should be limited because it carries heat out of the heater, lowering
efficiency, and may adversely affect burner performance.

A continuous measurement of the oxygen content in the flue gas provides

the most satisfactory guide for adjusting the fuel/air ratio, especially when
the composition of the fuel may vary. Combustibles measurements may be
used as a backup to oxygen content or analysis since such measurement
gives an indication of efficient and safe operation of the heater. This will
assist in minimising unwanted emissions.

The correct fuel/air ratio may be manually set by the operator using the
oxygen analyser as a guide or automatically controlled by the oxygen
analyser. If automatic control is used then it is recommended that high and
low limits be provided on the correction signal so that analyser failure does
not drive the fuel/air ratio out of the safe region. Because process heaters
usually operate at maximum loads for the majority of the time automatic
control of fuel/air ratio is not often implemented.

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It is not possible to measure combustion air flow for natural draft heaters or
for heaters with induced draft fans only. In this case the air registers on the
individual burners are set manually such that there is excess air under all
operating conditions. Regulating the heater draft through operation of the
stack damper allows some adjustment of combustion air flow and hence
excess air, but this is limited by the permissible firebox pressure.

When the heater has a forced draft fan then the fuel flow/air flow ratio can
be automatically controlled because the air flow can be more readily
measured and controlled through a flow element and damper in the
combustion air supply duct. A cross-limiting control scheme is recommended
as this ensures excess air is always maintained under all firing conditions and
transients. The scheme uses selectors to ensure that more fuel cannot be
fired than can be supported by the current air flow, and the air flow cannot
be reduced below the minimum required for the current fuel flow. This
results in a scheme that increases air flow first when firing is being
increased, and decreases fuel flow first when firing is being decreased.

Combination fired heaters can burn more than one fuel simultaneously, e.g.
fuel gas and fuel oil. When combination firing occurs in a forced draught
heater, then the fuel/air ratio controls must take into account the relative air
demands of the different fuels.

Fired heaters are often used to dispose of waste process gas, e.g. on a
hydrogen plant the PSA unit tail gas is used as fuel in the reformer, and
overhead gas from the fractionator in a refinery VDU is used as fuel in the
feed heater. The need to allow for this fuel in the combustion control
scheme depends on the fraction of the total firing that it constitutes.

4.1.4 Duty Control

Fired heater duty is regulated by varying the fuel flow to the heater.
Typically the heated-fluid outlet temperature is used as an indication of the
required duty, but other variables such as column pressure, bottom level, or
product quality may be used. In some instances the operator may manually
vary the fuel flow in response to changes in the value of the process
variable, but it is more usual to utilise a cascade control scheme to
automatically adjust fuel flow, as shown in Figures 5 to 8 of Reference 1.

The firing side of the heater is usually well controlled, which means
disturbances normally enter through the process side of the heater. These
are typically changes in fluid flow and/or temperature. Fired heaters have
slow dynamics due to the inventory of fluid in the tubes and the thermal
inertia of the refractory and tubes. Therefore it is usually some time before
the duty controls can get the controlled variable back to setpoint after a
disturbance enters the heater. Where process side disturbances are

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anticipated the application of feedforward control should be considered (see

section 4.1.8).

4.1.5 Minimum Firing

To ensure stable combustion a minimum pressure must be maintained at the

burner. The burner vendor will specify the exact value. The minimum
pressure can be obtained by a number of methods:

- Provide a low limit on the fuel pressure or flow controller output to the
control valve
- Provide a mechanical minimum stop on the fuel control valve
- Provide a minimum pressure override controller downstream of the main
fuel control valve
- Provide a pressure regulator set at the minimum burner pressure in a
bypass around the main control valve

The above requirements apply to fuel gas firing, and depending on the
application may also be required for fuel oil firing.

On heaters with a very large number of burners the minimum firing control
method is likely to be oversized for light off of the first few burners. This
leads to erratic fuel pressure in the header and difficulties in establishing the
first few burners. Additional facilities are required such as a small manual
globe valve bypass around the main control valve and/or a vent line to flare
from the burner header. This should be determined in conjunction with the
Commissioning Engineer.

4.1.6 Fuel Firing Control Systems

Figures 5 to 8 in Reference 1 show the main types of control systems used

for the various types of fuel firing employed in fired heaters. It should be
noted that these control systems employ the convention of process
measurements being expressed as a fraction of their range. Assumptions
have also been made about the ranges of the process measurements. For
example the fuel gas flow and fuel oil ranges are assumed to have the same
heat input. Also the total fuel range is assumed to be in the design ratio to
the air flow range. If these assumptions are in fact not correct then
conversion factors need to be inserted.

To illustrate this further, the combination firing shown in Figure 8 of

Reference 1 shows the fuel oil flow being added to the fuel gas flow. Before
this is done it is necessary to ensure the flows are equivalent in heating
terms. If a correction needs to be made, the fuel oil flow could be converted
into an equivalent fuel gas flow by multiplying by a calorific value conversion
factor. Where a correction is being applied to the fuel gas for variations in
composition, it would probably be best to convert both flows to heat flows.

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4.1.7 Fuel Gas Flow Correction

Fuel gas flow is typically measured using an orifice plate meter. For this type
of instrument, and other differential head type meters, the measurement is
dependent on the actual gas conditions. If during operation the gas
conditions vary from design, then the fuel gas measurement becomes
inaccurate and can lead to variations in heat input. This can be overcome by
applying a correction to the measured flow. The type of correction depends
largely on whether the gas is of constant or varying composition.

4.1.7.1 Constant Composition

For gases of constant composition, gas flow correction using temperature

and pressure as shown in Figures 5 and 8 of Reference 1 can be applied to
take into account the variations these have on density. Alternatively flow
correction can be made directly for density.

From equation 3-22 of Reference 4 it can be seen that:

Vs ∝ ∆pρ

where:

Vs = flow at standard conditions

∆p = pressure drop across the orifice
ρ = density upstream of the orifice

Therefore for a constant pressure drop across the orifice:

ρ ′′
Vs′′ = Vs′
ρ′

where:

Vs’ = uncorrected rate of flow at standard conditions assuming the

fluid is at design density
Vs’’ = corrected rate of flow at standard conditions for a fluid at the
measured density
ρ’ = design density
ρ’’ = measured density

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If a measurement of density is not available then measured pressure and

temperature can be used, since:

P
ρ∝
T

and therefore:

P ′′T ′
Vs ′′ = Vs ′
P ′T ′′

where:

P’ = design gas pressure (absolute) for orifice

P’’ = measured gas pressure (absolute) upstream of orifice
T’ = design gas temperature (absolute) for orifice
T’’ = measured gas temperature (absolute) upstream of orifice

4.1.7.2 Variable Composition

For gas streams the heat flow rate Q is defined as:

∆p.Pa
Q = Hs.Vs = Hs.ks
G.Ta

where:

Hs = heating value in standard volumetric units

Vs = standard volumetric flow of gas
ks = constant term
∆p = pressure drop across orifice
Pa = absolute pressure
G = specific gravity of gas
Ta = absolute temperature

See equation 2.8 of Reference 5 for the above equation for Q.

For a gas having a variable composition, both Hs and G will change. These
two terms may be singled out of the above equation for purposes of applying
compensation for variable composition. This function is known as the
“Wobbe Index”:

γ = Hs / G

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Fuel gases in most petroleum refineries contain hydrogen and some heavier
hydrocarbons along with methane. The effect of hydrogen on the Wobbe
Index differs from that of the heavier hydrocarbons. When the index is
plotted against specific gravity for several light hydrocarbons, a straight line
is formed if hydrogen is absent (see Reference 5). This allows a correction
factor, which is a function of specific gravity, to be applied to the gas flow
measurement.

However, the Wobbe Index does not change appreciably as the

concentration of hydrogen in a mixture varies. Therefore, when hydrogen is
the principal variant in a fuel gas mixture, no compensation need be applied
for changes in specific gravity. If specific gravity compensation is being
applied to allow for the presence of higher hydrocarbons, variation in
hydrogen content will cause a problem. And if nitrogen, carbon monoxide or
carbon dioxide is present, the correlation breaks down completely, since
these components increase specific gravity while contributing little or
nothing to the heating value.

4.1.8 Feedforward Control

If the process fluid flow and/or its temperature to the fired heater are subject
to fluctuations, control can be improved by using the feedback controller in
conjunction with a feed forward load demand. The control scheme for this is
shown in the diagram below. The feed forward load demand varies the heat
load dependent on the process fluid flowrate and temperature on the inlet to
the heater. That means the heat input can be adjusted before the variation of
heat load is detected by the fluid outlet temperature measurement. The
process fluid outlet temperature controller provides feedback to make a final
adjustment to the heat input.

TEMPERATURE OF TEMPERATURE OF
PROCESS FLUID PROCESS FLUID
AT OUTLET AT INLET FLOW OF
FROM HEATER TO HEATER PROCESS FLUID

TT TT FT
01 02 01

SETPOINT -
TC OF TC-01 TY
01 01

+ X
UY UY
01 02

TO AIR/FUEL CONTROLLERS

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The calculation blocks perform the following calculations:

Output TY-01 = TC-01 setpoint - TT-02

Output UY-02 = FT-01 * Output TY-01 * Fluid Specific Heat

Output UY-01= Output of UY-02 + (Output of TC-01 - 0.5)

The output from TC-01 should be set to 0.5 when the measured temperature
equals its setpoint.

4.1.9 Burner Management System

Fired heaters shall be provided with a protective system to ensure safe

conditions are maintained during normal operation, start-up, and shutdown.
This protective system is often referred to as a Burner Management System
(BMS). The extent of the protective system required depends on the heater
design and the operating practices to be followed. As is normal practice the
BMS shall be implemented in a separate system from the firing controls.

References 1 and 3 give typical alarm and trip initiators for fired heaters. In
addition to the automatic shutdown of the heater when an unsafe condition
is detected, the BMS may also provide automated start-up logic. The method
of heater start-up can vary from a completely manual local operation to a
semi-automated start-up with an operator interface at a remote location such
as a control room. The level of automation provided depends on such factors
as the purpose of the fired equipment, its required flexibility, and the abilities
of the operating and maintenance staff. Usually the Client will specify the
type of start-up method to be applied.

Facilities should be provided to allow the operators to shut down individual

burners and pilots without having to resort to a complete shutdown of the
heater.

4.2 Boilers

4.2.1 General

The objectives of a boiler control system are identical to those for fired
heaters, except that the final aim is to maintain steam production. In addition
the water side of the boiler must be carefully controlled.

4.2.2 Combustion Control

All the requirements for safe combustion of fuel outlined in 4.1.3 above are
applicable. Boilers are almost always forced draught, and cross-limiting
fuel/air ratio control schemes are therefore employed. Boiler load is usually

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variable, and hence automatic feedback from a flue gas oxygen analyser to
the fuel/air ratio is more common to maximise efficiency.

4.2.3 Duty Control

Individual boiler firing is usually reset by a demand signal from a master

steam pressure controller located on the steam header. Where multiple
boilers operate in parallel, each boiler should have the facility for the operator
to bias the demand signal up or down to allow for variation in individual
boiler performance. Additionally the operator should be able to set the load
manually on an individual boiler, and allow the other(s) to swing in load to
meet the steam demand. When the number of swing boilers can vary then
adaptive tuning shall be considered for the master pressure controller, linked
to the number of boilers in swing mode.

Whereas duty control for fired heaters is usually stand-alone, the duty
control for boilers must be integrated into the overall steam system control
strategy.

4.2.4 Water Side Control

Boiler feed water make-up to the steam drum must be carefully controlled to
prevent either dry out of the drum or carryover of water into the steam
header. Three-element drum level control should always be used, utilising the
steam flow, drum level, and boiler feed water flow measurements.
References 1 and 3 give details of this scheme and the reasons for using it.

Water density varies significantly between ambient pressure and the high
pressures normally encountered in boiler steam drums. As a result the level
instruments can be significantly in error when the boiler is starting up from
cold at low pressure. Consideration should be given to compensating the
level measurement for density utilising the drum pressure measurement.

4.2.5 Interfaces

Boilers are often purchased as package items, complete with a combustion

control system and BMS. The Process Control engineer shall ensure that the
overall control strategy is clearly communicated to the package supplier.
Attention must be paid to the interfaces to the package to ensure that it
meets the overall operating strategy, i.e. what parameters can be adjusted or
actions taken from the control room compared with locally.

4.3 CO Boilers

4.3.1 General

CO Boilers are a special type of boiler designed to burn the CO in the

regeneration exhaust gases from a Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC) Unit. They

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are unusual in that the control strategy has to meet a number of competing
objectives, usually resulting in the use of multiple controllers with override
signal selectors.

As these are special units the control scheme design will not be gone into
detail here, except to say that all the usual requirements for safe combustion
and operation must be met. Reference 1 and previous FCC project designs
should be consulted for further details.

4.4 Gas Turbine Exhaust-Fired Waste Heat Recovery Units

4.4.1 General

Gas turbines are frequently used as drivers for process and utility
compressors, and for electricity generation. The turbine exhaust gases are
often routed through a heat exchanger to generate steam or heat a thermal
fluid. The turbine exhaust gas has relatively high oxygen content, and can
therefore be used to support combustion of a fuel ahead of the heat recovery
unit to increase the amount of heat recovered. This is known as
supplementary firing.

In some configurations an auxiliary source of combustion air is provided,

which allows operation of the heat recovery unit independently of the gas
turbine.

4.4.2 Combustion Control

For configurations without an auxiliary source of combustion air, the controls

are very simple and are similar to those for a natural draught fired heater.

For configurations with an auxiliary source of combustion air, a fuel/air ratio

control scheme should be used. References 1 and 2 provide details of
suitable schemes and the issues that need to be addressed when switching
between combustion air sources.

4.4.3 Duty Control

Depending on whether the unit raises steam or heats a thermal fluid, the
duty control scheme will be the same as for a boiler or a fired heater.

4.4.4 Overall Operation

Whilst the firing controls for a supplementary fired heat recovery unit are no
more difficult than any other item of fired equipment, it is important that the
unit’s actual operation is properly thought through.

Consideration must be given to whether the supplementary firing is always

required. If not, then under what circumstances does it need to be started?

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There may be a limit on the turbine exhaust temperature, above which the
supplementary firing cannot be started, necessitating turndown of the
turbine. However if the turbine is driving a process compressor this may not
be feasible. If the heat recovery unit is running on auxiliary combustion air
only, how is the gas turbine started up? These and other considerations
should be discussed with the relevant Process engineers and the turbine and
heat recovery unit supplier(s).

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