1

MAPPING ALTERED AND MINERALIZED ROCKS

an introduction to

THE "ANACONDA METHOD"

Marco T. Einaudi
Stanford University
1997

©Einaudi, 1997

UNI - FIGMM GE801 JHPA

 2

MAPPING ALTERED & MINERALIZED ROCKS

THE "ANACONDA METHOD"

I. Introduction
II. Mapping Vertical Faces: trenches, road cuts, tunnels, benches
A. General Aspects
B. Key Features of Mapping Scheme
a. The "baseline"
b. Use gridded field sheets
c. The rock side
litho contacts, faults, veins, density (vol%) of qtz veins
d. The air side
Background alteration.
Alteration halos.
C. Organizational hints for efficient mapping
a. Use a double-sided aluminum clipboard
b. The importance of hard-lead color pencils
c. Mapping vests
d. Make several mapping passes
e. Stand up, facing the rocks
III. Mapping outcrop: use multiple overlavs
A. Base Map.
B. Alteration Overlay.
C. Limonite Overlay.
IV. Color Codes (Figs. 3 & 4)
A. Lithologic contacts and structure (recorded on rock side, plot true strike, dip)
B. Hypogene mineralization (veins/veinlets & disseminations). (Plot on rock side)
sulfides/oxides (Fig. 3)
Veinlet/vein fillings other than sulfides/oxides
C. Leached/oxide/supergene sulfides (plot on rock side).
Mineralogy
Symbols for degree of leaching
D. Alteration of hornblende (and/or biotite) sites (plot on air side)
E. Alteration of feldspar sites (plot on air side)
V. Weathering products: how to map and recognize them.
A. Distinguishing between Hypogene and supergene alteration.
B. Leached and oxidized outcrops.
(1) Keeping track of the degree of leacbing of primary sulfude sites
(2) "Glassy limonite", indigenous limonites
(3) Relict sulfides locked in quartz
(4) Exotic limonites
VI. Reconnaissance: What to retain from the Detailed Mapping Scheme.
A. Rock description,
B. Quartz veins and veinlets
C. Limonite assemblages
D. Relative abundance of indigenous and exotic Fe and Cu oxides
E. Biotite distribution patterns, especially of "shreddy biotite"
F. Magnetite abundance

UNI - FIGMM GE801 JHPA

 3

VII. Posting Sheets (Fact Maps) and Interpretations: The "Folio"

A. Posting sheets and follow-up interpretation
B. The Folio.
C. Composite maps: exploration models and drill to targeting.

UNI - FIGMM GE801 JHPA

 4

MAPPING ALTERED & MINERALIZED ROCKS

THE "ANACONDA METHOD"

I. Introduction
Color-coded mapping of key features of alteration/mineralization, augmented by
quantitative estimates of mineral/vein abundance, measurement of attitudes (strike &
dip, or core-axis angle), and relative age between features (different vein-types, or
veins/intrusive contacts) is critical to successful exploration, mine development, and
development of accurate descriptions for a genetic understanding. This style of mapping
should be used to complement standardized numerical mapping designed for computer
data bases. A geologist who draws what s/he sees in the rocks has greater flexibility and
freedom of thought than one who is forced to pigeon-hole everything into a numerical
category. Further, at the stage of map compilation there is no substitute for the detailed,
colorcoded, geological and mineralogical notes compiled on posting sheets ("fact
maps"), whose color and textural distinctions allow quick visual correlation of common
features between outcrops, mine benches, or drill holes. The use of standardized colors
also allows a Given exploration team or research group to read and understand each
other's maps.
Although this tract focuses on mapping in igneous rocks of porphyry-type
environments, the approach is easily modified for application in any deposit type or any
geological environment. The approach presented here is a direct evolution of mapping
schemes devised by Anaconda geologists at El Salvador, Chile, and Yerington, Nevada
during the 1960's. What is written here represents in large part a melding of ideas
generated during field work and discussions with John Proffett, John Hunt, Bill
Atkinson, and John Dilles.

II. Mapping Vertical Faces: trenches, road cuts, tunnels,

benches

A. General Aspects
The most efficient approach to mapping vertical walls is to project everything to a
horizontal plane (for example, at chest height). The hundreds of strike & dip
measurements that are taken during a day's mapping are all plotted directly on the map;
in other words, the map is being produced as you map. Confusion about strikes of
faults, contacts, etc, doesn't arise as often as it does when drawing in vertical view or
when recording data in a notebook. You know exactly where to go in the next cross-cut
or trench to find that fault, and geology can be drawn across the drift from one wall to
the other. (NOTE: (1) some features will not project to chest height, e.g., a flat fault at
ankle level; these require notes, a quick sketch, or a projection (see below). (2) When
mapping an underground decline or a surface trench up a hill, continue to map at chest
height; your map will be an inclined plane, which later can be corrected to a different
datum plane depending on the ultimate goal).
The essential idea is to record by means of a color code the various features of rock
type, structure, veins, alteration minerals and ore minerals (see Figs. 1 & 2). Color

UNI - FIGMM GE801 JHPA

 5

coding is a means of reducing note-taking to some degree, but, more importantly, to

force the geologist to look more critically at the rocks. Color also helps to visually
stimulate the brain during mapping and afterwards during the compilation process.
Another important aspect of the mapping scheme is that in mapping altered wall rocks,
you are marina minerals not alteration types. This means that you are not classifying
alteration types as you map (think of all the variations on the theme of advanced argillic
or of potassic alteration types!) and, therefore, you are coming closer to the ideal of
recording observations rather than interpretations. Map what you see.

Notes are used for those features that cannot be recorded in the drawing, such as rock
descriptions, relative ages between features (e.g.., between faults, veins, veinlets,
intrusive contacts), percent total sulfides. percent magnetite, sulfide ratios, and veinlet
abundance. Notes are written for intervals of the bench face or tunnel where such
features are relatively uniform in character (Figs. 1 & 2).

B. Key Features of Mapping Scheme

Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the style of mapping being described here. Figure 1 represents
a map of sulfide-bearing rocks, whereas Figure 2 represents a map of the oxidized
(weathered) equivalent. The various aspects of the mapping scheme are illustrated by
these figures and dicussed in the paragraphs that follow. Comparison of the two figures
(and Figures 3 and 5) also will allow you to visualize the results of oxidation of by
pogene ores (discussed in a separate section below).
(1) The "baseline" consists of the tape laid out at chest height along a drift or
trench wall. This baseline is surveyed by brunton and plotted on the Field sheet
(taking account of irregularities in the face relative to the straight line of the
tape).
(2) Use gridded field sheets to enable rapid plotting of strikes and dips with a
plastic scale/protractor. The grids represent N-S and E-W lines, not lines parallel
to the rock face you are mapping. Assign the E-W line to the long dimension of
your map sheet (the north arrow points toward the long dimension c sheet) for
ease of use of your clipboard and for internal consistency.
(3) Locate your baseline in the center of the field sheet to allow working room
(notes and drawing) on all sides. Start a new field sheet before you run out of
room toward the edge of the sheet.
(4) Before you start mapping, be sure to include coordinates, survey points,
locality, scale, the date, and your name.
(5) Notes and sample locations are written directly on the mapping sheet, rather
than in the field notebook. This ensures that this information is never separated
from the map.
The baseline serves to separate your map sheets into two areas: the "air side" and
the "rock side" ( see Figs. 1-5).
(6) The rock side is used to record faults, vein minerals, veinlet minerals,
disseminations of "ore" minerals, and lithologic contacts. All through-going
features are plotted with true strike and the dip is indicated.
(7) Because of the close relation between the distribution of quartz veins and Cu-
Au grades in many porphyry-type deposits, a method of quantifying the density
(vol%) of these veins is highly useful. Experiec, has shown that consistency
between different geologists can be achieved by estimating (for a given set of
veins and a given bench interval where the veins are of relatively constant

UNI - FIGMM GE801 JHPA

 6

spacing and width): 1) the average w width of the veins, and 1) the average
spacing between center lines. Write these down in your notes as a fraction (e.g.,
"0.5/6" would indicate 0.5 cm average width and 6 cm average spacing between
center lines). Dividing out the traction yields percent of the rock that is
constituted by this vein set (0.5'6= S vol. %). This approach works well for
porphyry deposits where veins occupy definite sets; the estimate is male for each
set. The approach also is better than counting vein widths along a tape. because
such a count has to be corrected for the true v; width and doesn't record vein
widths and spacing. Clearly, the approach is difficult to apply in rocks where the
v -,ins are truely random, but this is less common than is generally believed. For
A-B quartz veins, which most likely represent open-space filling, you are
recording the volume percent of quartz that tilled open spaces. For D veins
(pyrite veins with quartz-sencite-pyrite (QSP) halos), record the "vein width" as
the distance betwveen outer edges of the QSP halo: the fraction will represent
the vol% of the rock that is altered to QSP.
(8) The air side is used to record alteration minerals and rock type. Alteration
minerals are recorded by color code in two ways.
- Background alteration. Narrow "imaginary columns" along the baseline
(much as the columns used for different minerals in logging core) are
used to record "background" alteration minerals. "Background" alteration
is defined here as any alteration minerals that occur throughout a given
velum-, of rock and do not appear to be related as halos to individual
veins. Pervasive biotization of andesite at El Salvador is one example of
background alteration.
- Alteration halos. If distinct alteration halos are present on the margins
of fractures and vein .fillings, these are shown as lines drawn along the
strike of the paricular vein, but on the air side of the map sheet. For
example, a sericitic envelope on a pyrite vein would be shown as a brown
line on the air side..

C. Organizational hints for efficient mapping

1. Use a double-sided aluminum clipboard the size of the mapping sheet (8.5 X 11
inches in the U.S.) with leather pencil holders riveted to one or both sides. All
pencils and scales are kept in this clipboard for easy access. Place rubber erasors on
the ends of each pencil for easy retrieval of pencils out of their leather sleeves!
2. The importance of a hard-lead color pencils which can be sharpened to a fine point
cannot be overemphasized. Pencils available in the U.S. which meet these standards
include Eagle Verithin (or Berol Verithin) and Sraedtler Mars-Lurnochrom..
[Caveat: in tropical climates, leads tend to become soft; in field mapping, rain
obviously places severe limitations on the quality of your drawing even if water-
proof paper is used. But, try anyway! Keep a loner in your aluminum clip-board
facing your map sheet, and keep the clipboard closed and in your mapping vest
when not in use]. Sharpening pencils is an art: keep a sharp knife (same one you use
to scratch rocks) to expose a length of lead, tape a piece of sandpaper to the back
inside of your clipboard for sharpening the point, and do final sharpening by
rubbing the point at a shallow angle on a piece of paper at the back of your
clipboard.

UNI - FIGMM GE801 JHPA

 7

3. Mapping vests that have pockets large enough for an aluminum clipboard to tit in
loosely, ar critical to the success of the mapping method described above. Loose fit
is important because the mapping J method requires a contant back-and-forth
between map sheet and rocks: every time you have finished marking a feature on
your map sheet, the clipboard is "dumped" back into its pocket. your hands are free,
and you can get back to breaking rocks. Your vest "organizes" your work
environment, much as the "desktop" on your computer. The clipboard is never
dumped on the ground.
4. Applying color. Features recorded on the rock side can become very densely spaced
(especially in highly mineralized zones) and great care needs to be taken to maintain
color separation with very sharp pencils. A key technique in this regard is to mate
the Youngest features first (e.g., post-ore faults, youngest veins), then follow with
mapping the older features. In this way, offsetting of older features by younger
features can be shown easily as you map and much less erasing is involved! Also, as
you apply color to represent a vein. apply first the color of the most abundant
mineral as a dashed line; the lesser mineral colors are then applied between the
dashes of the first and no color is applied on top of another.
5. Make several mapping passes for any given outcrop or length of bench face; in other
words, partition your work. I find that I need at least three passes to complete all the
observations and note-taking that I need. The first pass should be the one in which
you get down on paper the major features of the outcrop: descriptions of lithology,
lithologic contacts (indicate whether intrusive, conformable, stratigraphic, or
faulted), major faults, and major through-going veins. In subsequent passes you
begin to add detail. In a second pass, map veins and veinlets, diagrammatically
showing the relative age of different vein types (plot the youngest veins fusty, and
add alteration haloes. and background alteration. The third pass can be devoted to
sulfide (or oxide) minerals, their abundance, and relative proportions.
6. Stand up, facing, the rocks, while marking a feature on vour map sheet. This reduces
the odds of plotting a wrong strike, because you are oriented with your rocks and
your map sheet. Fast, efficient, and accurate mapping is your goal; to achieve this
goal, the best mappers do not sit down with their backs to the face. (saves time and
saves your pants!)
7. In regional exploration, I recommend that prior to commencing a mapping project at
a small scale (say, 1:5,000) that some key representative outcrops be mapped first at
a large scale (say, 1:250). The reason is that mapping at a large scale gives the
geologist the opportunity to spend some time looking at the rocks in detail and this
enables him to develop an idea of the key features of a given prospect. Anned with
this information, he can then move out more confidently at higher speed at a smaller
scale.

III. Mapping, outcrops: use multiple overlays

In mapping sub-horizontal exposures (i.e., outcrops), color codes for alteration, veins,
and ore minerals (limonites) are used as above but are applied to successive overlays.
Color separation is maintained by plotting:
• lithologic contacts, faults, veins, and other structure on a base map (Fig. 6. Base
Map);
• pervasive (or background) alteration and alteration halos on the first overlay
(Fig. 6, Overlay #1)

UNI - FIGMM GE801 JHPA

 8

• and ore minerals or their oxidation products on a second overlay (Fig. 6, Overlay
#2).
Notes for these various features are written on their respective overlays.

A. Base Map.
The limit of outcrop is sketched first on the base map (along with any additional
"culture" such as trenches, paths, etc) and the major features of structure and lithology
are mapped in. Rock-type symbols can be assigned to various units, and these symbols
can be applied in black pencil (rather than assigning a color-code to rock types) along
the outer perimeter of the outcrop outline. Veins are plotted directly on the base map,
using color codes for dominent vein-filling minerals. Notes can be written outside the
outcrop area.

B. Alteration Overlay.
On Overlay #1, lines are used to identify alteration halos on veins shown on the base
map. Care should be taken to ensure that the alteration color-code is applied directly
over the vein shown on the base. This points out the need to plot the veins first on the
base map, then quickly apply the alteration-halo color over that vein on overlay #1. For
example, on Fig. 6, the NE-dipping qtz-(Kspar-mag) veins at the north end of the
outcrop (base map) have Kspar alteration halos (alteration overlay).
Background alteration not related to individual veins is shown next by color-coded dots
for the minerals present. Because only one overlay is used for alteration, feldspar sites
and mafic mineral sites are difficult to keep separate. .- This turns out not to be a major
disadvantage, because, for example, a mix of brown dots and olive green dots implies
clay in the feldspar sites and secondary biotite in the mafic mineral sites. The density of
dots should reflect the relative abundance of alteration minerals seen in the outcrop. For
example, in Fig. 6, background sericite alteration increases in intensity southwesterly
and then declines abruptly into a zone with minor epidote and chlorite. As another
example, an intensely silicified rock would be represented as a solid orange color on
overlay =l (but, apply the color of any minor minerals first as dots, then color-in the
orange around d the dots in order not to get superposition of colors).
An alternative approach (John Dilles, pers. comm., 1997) is to place major alteration
halos (color coded) on the base sheet., and save the alteration overlay for background
alteration. This allows the distinction to be maintained between mafic and feldspar
mineral site, in the following manner: 1) diagonal NT-SW lines represent altreration of
mafics, and 2) diagonal NW-SE lines represent alteration of feldspars. The lines are
color-coded following the normal codes. The degree of alteration of individual mineral
sites are denoted by how heavily you apply the color: solid lines denote 100 to 80% of
that mineral site is altered, dashed lines indicate 5-80% of that mineral site is altered,
and dotted lines indicate <5% to trace amounts of that mineral site are occupied by
hydrothemal alteration products.

C. Limonite Overlay.
This is a key overlay, because ultimately it will allow you to draw a map that displays
the distribution and relative abundance of the oxidation products of sulfides. The key
minerals whose distribution and abundance need to be TM-Ipped include the green
copper carbonates and silicates, black copper pitch (tenorite), glassy limonite (pitch

UNI - FIGMM GE801 JHPA

 9

limonite), goethite, earthy hematite, and jarosite. Together with the alteration and vein
maps, the distribution of these minerals will allow you to say something about original
sulfide zoning and about secondary dispersion of metals. With out such information and
geological interpretation geochemical assays of soil and rock chip -,,-unples cannot be
properly interpreted.
The color codes and symbols used in mapping limonite minerals are summarized on the
right-hard-siu'e of Figure 3 and in Figure 6 and detailed in section IV.C and VI.B
(below). An interpretation of the original sulfide distribution pattem, based on the
limonites and the style of alteration and veins (shown for the same outcrop on Figure 4)
is illustrated on the left-hand-side of Figure 3.

IV. Color Codes (Figs. 3 & 4)

The separation of the mapping sheet into air side and rock side (or overlays for outcrop
mapping) allows for efficient use of colors: in the list below, 12 colors are used to
record some 40 different mineralogical features and structural features. The list is
instructive because it indicates those features that can be mapped continuously by band-
lens inspection of freshly-broken rock surfaces in igneous rocks related to porphyry
systems. Colors are identified by "Eagle Verithin" (or "Berol Ver-iLhin") numbers.
Simplification of the color coding for regional mapping is discussed in Section VI
below.

A. Lithologic contacts and structure (recorded on rock si , plot true strike, dip)

Black 1. Lithologic contacts: use your lead pencil (black).

dark blue 2. Faults (breccias, clays, shears) and fault contacts: use indigo blue (741).
Black 3. Foliation, joints, bedding: use your lead pencil (black).

B. Hypogene mineralization (veins/veinlets & disseminations). (Plot on rock side).

Schematic representation of mineral distribution in approprite color (Fig. 3 & 4). Dots
for dissenminations, random short lines for random veinlets (e.g., A-,,nlts) or fracture
coatings, continuous lines for through-going veins (e.g.. B- and Dveins). Care should be
taken to approximate relative vein densities and relative abundance of disseminated
sulfides/oxides along the face by the density of color added to map. Plot veins and
veinlets with true strike and indicate dips. Veins are drawn with color of dominant
mineral; additional minerals indicated by dots along line: Z vein=tilling consisting of
50% quartz and 509o chalcopyrite, would be drawn as a dashed orange and red line.

sulfides/oxides (Firm. 3)
purple 1. bornite: purple (752)
red 2. chalcopyrite: carmine red (745)
dark green 3. molybdenite: green (739)
med yellow 4. pyrite: canary yellow (735)
black 5. magnetite, hematite: mapping pencil)
gray 6. specular hematite
Veinlet/vein fillings other than sulfides/oxides
Orange 1. quartz: orange (737)
dark green 2. chlorite: green (739)
olive green 3. biotite: olive green (739 1/2)
yellow-green 4. epidote: light green (738 1/2)

UNI - FIGMM GE801 JHPA

 10

C. Leached/oxide/supergene sulfides (plot on rock side). Schematic drawings of

textures, abundance, mineralogy, and degree of leaching. (Fig. 3)

Mineralogy
Red 1. glassy limonite (conchoid fract, red internal reflections): carmine red (745)
pastel green 2. oxide Cu minerals (malachite, tenorite, etc): true green (751)
dark brown 3. goethite (orange streak): brown (756)
reddish brown 4. earthy hematite (red streak); tuscan red ( )
med yellow 4: jarosite (yellow to honey yel'w x'als; pale yel'w streak): canary yellow (735)
med blue 5. supergene chalcocite: medium blue

Symbols for degree of leaching in former sulfide sites (the most

useful minerals are glassy limonite, goethite, and hematite;
jarosite and Cu oxide generally are transported/exotic and less
useful):

black 1. total leaching, empty leached cavities (no Fe-oxide left): black circles
brown 2. moderate leaching (limonite-rimmed cavities): brown circles
brown 3. weak leaching (limonite pseudomorphs and/or boxworks): brown dots
red 4. very weak leaching of chalcopy sites (classy limonite): red dots
Exotic oxides on fractures are denoted by random, short, lines (brown for
goethite, true green for copper oxides).

D. Alteration of hornblende (and/or biotite) sites. (recorded on air side in innermost

column next to baseline; if alteration occurs as a distinct halo on a fracture or veinlet,
plot the alteration color as a line extending outward from base line on air side.) Fig. 4.

black 1. fresh hornblende (dark black, glassy, good cleavage visible): write lower
case h’s along baseline.
dark green 2. chloritized hornblende (no shreddy texture that might imply that the bbl
had first been biotitized): green 739) (pervasive chloritization use solid green
line; partially chloritized use dashed green line; local cblorite use dots).
yellow-green 3. epidotized hornblende: use light green (738 1/2).
olive green 4. biotized hornblende (shreddy biotite occupying the bbl site): olive green
(739 1/2) (solid, dashed and dotted to indicate degree of biotization).
dark green 5. chloritized biotized-hornblende (cbloritic alt'n superimposed on biotitic;
this is a tough call!): olive green (739 1/2) with dark green dots (739)
dark brown 6. sericitized and/or argillized mafic minerals (tan- or white-colored
pseudomorphs after mafic mineral sites including mixtures of sericite, clays,
leucoxene): brown (756)
black 7. mafic sites absent or only leucoxene visible: use lead pencil (black).

E. Alteration of feldspar sites. (recorded on air side, outer colum; intensity of color
application in this column denotes degree of alteration; if alteration occurs as a distinct
halo on a fracture or veinlet, plot the alteration color as a line extending outward from
base line on air side.) Fig. 4.

magenta 1. of plagioclase to secondary K-spar (pinkish-lavender hue in groundmass

and in plagioclase sites): magenta (759)
med yellow 2. of orthoclase and plagioclase to secondary Na-spar (bard, white feldspars
with cleavage preserved: yellow (735)

UNI - FIGMM GE801 JHPA

 11

(NOTE: feldspar color is not in every case diagnostic of feldspar type! Use thin-
sections as back up. Even if that white feldspar turns out to be Kspar, you will have
recorded the distribution of white Kspar!).

yellow-green 3. of feldspars to epidote: use light green (738 1/2)

dark brown 4. of feldspars to sericite and/or clays: use brown (756)
none 4a. fresh feldspars: if feldspar is hard, clear, glassy, dark, good cleavage:
leave column blank.
dark brown 4b. incipiently ser'd feldspars: if moderately hard, pale-colored, good
cleavage (e.g., "bleached", but hard): sparse brown (756) dots.

(NOTE: incipient alt'n of feldspars to "clays" is difficult to distinguish from

albitization and these two alt'n types can occur together; use thin-section back-up)

dark brown 4c. moderately ser'd feldspars: if partially soft, white to pale colors, cleavage
present: closely spaced brow-n (756) dots.
dark brown 4d. highly ser'd feldspars: if soft, white to pale colors, no cleavage, but outline
of original feldspar is preserved (rock-textufe preserved): continuous brown
(756) line applied lightly.
dark brown 4e. pervasive and total hydrolysis: if soft, white to pale colors, rock texture
largely obliterated: continuous brown (756) line :plied heavily.

(NOTE: in rocks containing both plagioclase and orthoclase phenocrysts,

because these react differently to acidic solutions, keep track of orthoclase sites
separately (in a third column). This allows the distinction to be made between
intermediate argillic and advanced argillic alteration).

V. Weathering products: how to map and recognize them.

In mapping altered rocks in surface exposures, most of the time we are struggliny, to
read through surface, weathering to understand 1) the degree to which metals have been
leached, transported, and redeposited by surface waters, and ?) the original hypogene
(hydrothermal) distributions of wall-rock alteration and ore minerals. Ho:." do we read
through all that punky clay?

A. Distinguishing between Hypogene versus supergene alteration.

It is especially difficult to differentiate between hypogene and supergene alteration
types in weathered rocks that contained abundant pyrite. This is because the sulfuric
acid generated by oxidative weathering of pyrite attacks minerals (especially
plagioclase) and converts them to various new mineral assemblages that can ^e similar
to forms of hypogine intermediate argillic alteration (e.g., montmorillonite, kaolinite) or
even acid-sulfate (advanced argillic) alteration (e. g., kaolinite, alunite). The latter is
especially true in rocks that originally contained pyrite veins with qtz-ser-py halos
(e.g.., D-veins), but where the halos did not overlap. On weathering, the rock inbetween
the halos can be converted to a supergene qtz-kaolinite assemblage and alunite may
precipitate in open fractures. The end result, a rock containing quartz, kaolinite, sericite,
and alunite, can be mistaken for bydrothermal advanced argillic alteration. How, then,
can one distinguish between hydrothermal argillic alteration and argillic weathering?
Althouah not in every case definitive, the following observations can help in making the
distinction:

UNI - FIGMM GE801 JHPA

 12

1. in igneous rocks with original alkali-feldspar, the presence of relic cores of

alkali f-tld:; phenocrysts would suggest that the rock had not undone
pervasive advanced argillic (or even pervasive serici ic) alteration. Alkali
feldspar does not survive either pervasive sericitic alteration or advanced
argillic alteration at hydrothermal temperatures. However, even in very
acidic weathering environments, alkali feldspar commonly survives (in
contrast with plagioclase, which goes readly to montmorillonite or kaolinite).
One allways needs to consider veins halos and background alteration
separately in making these distinctions.
2. in igneous rock lacking alkali feldspar, the call is much more difficult. In
such rocks, the presence of moderate to abundant amounts of
montmorillonite (rather than sericite-kaolinite) would indicate l of intense
hypogene sericitic or advanced argillic alteration. The montmorillonite could
be the result either of hypogene intermediate argillic alteration or
weathering. Again, make separate observations for halos and background
alteration.
3. The presence of magnetite in punky clay-rich rocks is suggestive of clay
alteration due to weathering because hypogene clay alteration (e.g.,
intermediate argillic) generally converts magnetite to hematite+rutile and/or
pyrite. This underlines the importance of mapping magnetite abundance in
all outcrops (also serves as a basis for interpretation of geophysical data).
4. In rocks that originally contained relatively coarse-grained biotite, the
presence of freshlooking brown biotite in otherwise argillized rock is
suggestive of weathering. Like magnetite, biotite can survive weathering
relatively unscathed, but is readily converted to chlorite+clays during
intermediate argillic alteration at hydrothermal temperatures.
5. Intense sericitic alteration occurring, as halos generally can be recognized
even in intensely weathered outcrops. This is because the mixture of sericite
and quartz in such halos is very resistent to weathering (it is stable in acid
environments) and stands out as resistent, gray ribs in punky clay-altered
rocks. On first inspection, these ribs may look like gray quartz veins, but
recognition of relict rock texture and the fact that it can be scratched (though
much harder than punky argillized rockc) gives them away.
6. the presence of high-temperature forms of clay minerals. such as di cki T
(well-crystallized kaolinite) and pyrophyllite are diagnostic of hydrothermal
advanced argillic alteration because they are stable only at temperatures
above about 270`C. This underlines the importance of submitting samples
for mineral identification (do your own preliminary mineral separation by
plucking out clay-rich portions of the rock or actual feldspar sites, rather than
submitting a whole-rock for XRD).
7. hypogene versus supergene alunite. Textures and association of alunite can
be diagnostic of by pogene versus supegene origin of this mineral.:

FEATURE SUPERGENE HYPOGENE

Veins alunite in open fractures
without other mineral. (e.g.,
monomineralic alunite,
possibly with chalcedonic
or opaline silica & jarosite.
alteration halos lack of halos on alunite
alunite in association with
hydrothermal minerals in
veins (e.g, with quartz,
pyrophyllite, barite, etc)
presence of hydrolytic

UNI - FIGMM GE801 JHPA

 13

veins alteration halos on alunite-

bearing veins
sulfides lack of evidence of former evidence that sulfides were
sulfides associated with present intergrown with
alunite alunite
textures massive, porcelanous fine- and coarse-grained
color white, yellow, mixed with white, yellow, pink
jarosite

B. Leached and oxidized outcrops.

In addition to the factors outlined above, there are techniques focused on the "limonites"
that are very useful in broadly outlining original, hypogene patterns of alteration and
mineralization. These follow directly from the geochemistry of leached and partly
leached outcrops, as discussed in Einaudi (199-5).

1. Keeping track of the degree of leaching of primary sulfude sites is useful in order to
reconstruct both hypogene sulfide zoning and alteration zoning. Sericitic zones
leach to a greater degree than potassic zones. The degree of leaching can be
recorded during mapping (see section IV.C): increasing degrees of leaching are
recognized by the sequence:

• glassy limonite: lowest degree of leaching; copper still present in glassy

limonite and in malachite and/or tenorite; indicates absence of abundant
pyrite and neutral surface waters; potassic or propylitic alteration typical.
• goethite pseudomorphs: low degree of leaching of Cu and Fe in near-neutral
environments associated with potassic protores (or propylitic fringes, but
these with less or no classy limonite, lack of A,B veins, etc);
• goethite boxworks: leaching increasing
• partly leached cavities (rimmed with goethite or hematite): indicative of high
pyrite: chalcopyrite ratios, likely that sericitic alteration is present; Cu-oxides
and carbonates unlikely.
• partly leached cavities. increasing hematite:goethite ratios indicates
increasingly acid conditions; all Cu leached, most of the Fe leached.
• leached cavities (in some cases filled with jarosite or alunite) represent high
degree of leaching in very
• acid environments: sericitic or advanced argillic alteration, acid-sulfate
zones, silica-pyrite-alunite ledges,
• vuggy silica; Cu-oxides & carbonates absent.

All of these forms of limonites (but mainly the -oethite) are termed "indigenous", on
the basis of texture as indicating in-situ oxidation of original sulfide sites.

2. "Glassy limonite" is a term applied to amorphous Fe-hydroxide that commonly

contains copper; this phase is important because it denotes very low degrees of
leaching (copper still present) and is characteristic of weathering of Potassic Prot res
(lots of K-spar and little or no pyrite, hence little acid generation). Mapping the
distribution of glassy limonite can help to delineate the chalcopyrite-(bornite) zone

UNI - FIGMM GE801 JHPA

 14

and commonly this represents the zone of highest hypogene Cu-(Au) grade. It is an
indigenous limonite.
Glassy limonite has the following characteristics:

• glassy looking, like obsidian

• conchoidal fracture
• dark blackish brown to black
• bright ruby-red internal reflections in sunlight
• Grain size and morphology that mimics chalcopyrite.

3. Relict sulfides locked in unbroken quartz An aid in delineating original distributions

of sulfide assemblages is to make polished sections of quartz collected throughout
the leached cap. Study under the microscope in reflected light may reveal
unoxidized sulfides that have survived the leaching process.

4. Exotic limonites are all the limonites that do not represent original sulfide sites. The
iron has been transported in solution in surface waters and precipitated along
fractures in the rock. Exotic limonites can be distinguished from indigenous
limonites by the lack of pseudomorphs or boxworks after sulfide, by their presence
on random fractures that are part of the regolith and that cut all hydrothermal
fractures, and by their characteristic appearance as massive coatings and "paints",
commonly with botryoidal and chatoyant surfaces (if goethite). Some exotic
goethite takes on a glassy appearance, but it can be distinguished from glassy
limonite by the fact that the glassy material is only on the surface of the coating
(you, can't "see" into it).

An important point is that mapping of total abundance of limonites does not reveal
the original sulfide content of the rock (a rock with 1090 exotic limonite contained
less sulfide than a rock with with 1% indigenous limonite); keep track of relative
abundance of indigenous and exotic limonites and their mineralogy.

VI. Reconnaissance: What to retain from the Detailed Mapping

Scheme
Reconnaissance mapping for porphyry-type deposits needs to focus on the standard
features of lithology and structure and on some additional key features. These are listed
below in order of importance. The list largely is based on those features that survive
weathering, even in highly acid-generating environments. Wall-rock alteration,
especially the "argillic" types, needs to be de-emphasized! Recon mapping focused on
porphyry targets can be done efficiently with only five color pencils: blue for faults, red
for porphyries, orange for quartz veins, green for shreddy biotite, and brown for
limonites.

A. Rock description, especially "Productive" porphyries e, including color, textures,

and grain size and 90 of each mineral in the rock.
In porphyry exploration, the characteristics of the "productive porphyry" have to be
understood and looked for: ~50% fine-grained (<0.2 mm) aplitic (more rarely
aphanitic) groundmass, ~50% phenocrysts ranging from 1 to 3 mm, if quartz phenos
are present they are rounded and embayed (qtz eyes). The significance and

UNI - FIGMM GE801 JHPA

 15

importance of this rock texture needs more emphasis. It is so important, that you
could consider assigning a special color (red?) to this rock type!

B. Ouartz veins and veinlets, including their abundance and structural attitudes. At
1:5000 scale, one obviously cannot "map all the veinlets", but the key sets have to
be identified and representative strikes and dips plotted on the map. Abundance can
be estimated and written down for each outcrop. The importance of quartz veins and
veinlets in regional recon stems from two factors: one, we know the close
correlation between grade and quartz veins in porphyry-type deposits, and two,
quartz veins survive weathering and remain in outcrop as unambiguous evidence of
hydrothermal activity. Quartz veins are so important that the,; also are worthy of a
special color during mapping (orange).

C. Limonite assemblages need to be emphasized. Each outcrop should be assessed for

proportions of glassy limonite, goethite, earthy hematite, jarosite, tenorite, and green
Cu carbonates/silicates. Proportions can be visually recorded by a color code for
each of these minerals, or by assigning ratios in pre-assigned order. In recon, I
would choose the latter approach. In mapping a prospect that is being drilled, I
would use color codes. Limonites typically are well-zoned and represent an
excellent targeting tool.

D. Relative abundance of indigenous and exotic Fe and Cu oxides also needs to be

estimated. Each outcrop needs to receive a number that indicates the geologist's
assessment of whether the Cu assays represent transported copper or "in-place"
copper.

E. Biotite distribution patterns, especially of "shreddy hiotite" are useful to delineate

zones of potassic alteration, which in many porphyries can represent the ore target.
Biotite in tine-Qrained biotized andesite may not out-live weathering, but coarser-
grained biotite that has replaced hornblende in hornblende andesites or in bbl-
bearing tonalite porphyries commonly survives weathering. In the case of bbl sites,
if the biotite doesn't survive. its characteristic "shreddy" texture may survive.

F. Magnetite abundance needs to be recorded by visual estimate and magnetic

suseeptibility measurement.s.

VII. Posting Sheets (Fact Maps) and Interpretations: The "Folio"

Field sheets are transferred to three separate posting sheets. A base posting-sheet serves
as the basis for drawing an interpretive geological map with lithologies, structure, and
veins; an alteration posting-sheet serves as the basis for drawing an alteration map, and
a "limonite" or "ore" posting-sheet serves as the basis for drawing a mineralization map.
The posting sheets and the interpretive maps drawn from the posting sheets should
retain all of the structural information shown on the original field sheets. Transfer of
dips of veins and faults to the alteration and mineralization overlays is especially
important, as this allows the geologist to document the third dimension and to explore
the structural control of alteration/mineralization patterns and the possibility of post-ore
offsets on faults. A map without any strike and dip symbols is not a geological map.

UNI - FIGMM GE801 JHPA

 16

A. Posting sheets and follow-up interpretation are two steps that go hand-in-hand with
field mapping. Both of these steps need to be taken routinely and in a timely fashion.
The mapping project should not be considered complete until such time as the posting
sheet has been used to construct interpretive geologic base maps and relevant overlays.
A rough estimate is that 3 days of field mapping requires 1 day of transferring the
mapping to a posting sheet and doing the interpretive work.

(1) Posting sheets should be kept up-to-date on a daily (or at least weekly) basis
(2) once a significant area has been mapped, but well before mapping of the chosen
area has been completed, the geologist should begin to make interpretive overlays.
These will be working by that will aid him/her as s/he continues to map.
(3) interpretation based on posting sheets should be done at the ;,tmQ scale as the
posting sheets and should retain all the structural detail recorded in the field.
Ultimately, these working sheets will be reduced in order to generate a smaller-
scale map, but the important structural details need to be preserved at all scales (I
have seen too many geological maps that have no dip symbols, and that display
photo linears instead of faults actually mapped in the field).
(4) The Interpretive maps should be done by hand in full color.
(5) The hand-drawn posting sheets, fully color-coded, represent a major investment of
time and money. They should be carefully archived, and the name(s) of the
geologist(s) and dates of work should be written on each.

B. The Folio.
The following types of information should be displayed in a folio s derived from the
field mapping phase:
1. base map: lithologies, strike and dips of bedding, faults, contacts, major veins.
2. each overlay is drawn on a gray-scale version of the base map, so that they
"stand alone" e.g., lithologic contacts, faults, etc, are visible without having to
overlay the overlay on the base map).
3. vein overlay: all large veins and representative veinlet sets (color-coded to
dominant mineral) plotted to true strike, illustrative dips indicated; vein
abundance contoured.
4. limonite overlay: distribution of glassy limonite, goethite, earthy hematite,
jarosite, tenorite, and green copper oxides. Color applied to indicate relative
abundance (absent, low, moderate, high). Areas of dominantly exotic versus
dominantly indigenous limonites and Cu-oxides should be identified. Based on
mapping of limonites, areas of py-dominance versus cp-dominance should be
outlined.
5. magnetite overlay: Illustrate the distribution of magnetite, disseminated,
vein/veinlet, or replacement, and contour for abundance.
6. alteration overlay: emphasis on minerals rather than alteration types; try simply
showing limits of minerals such as secondary biotite, chlorite, epidote, clays,
sericite, silica ledges, jasperoids, etc.
Finally, with regard to folios, a complete folio also includes topography,
geochemical and geophysical data and data interpretations. In their relation to
the geological maps, the following points are important:
7. the magnetite overlay produced during the field mapping phase (and which
could include magnetic susceptibility measurements on the outcrop) can be used
to interpret ground and airborne magnetics.

UNI - FIGMM GE801 JHPA

 17

8. the raw geochemical data on soil, stream sediment, or rock-chip samples, should
be geologically interpreted and hand-drawn by the geologist who generated the
geological maps and overlays discussed above. The patterns of grade
distribution should reflect his/her concepts of grade control. Computer generated
contour maps of assay results should be used only if there is no geological
mapping available.

C. Composite maps: exploration models and drill targeting. The final and very
important product, or raison d'etre, of the folio is the composite of key features.
Examples of this approach are given by Figures 7 (Pancho, Maricunga region, northern
Chile) and 8 (Batu Hijau, Sumbawa Is., Indonesia).

Refugio district. Figure 7 is re-drawn from portions of a folio that was completed during
mapping of the porphyry Au-Cu prospect at Pancho (Refugio district, Maricunga
region. Chile) by John Muntean in 1994-95. The folio displays the following features:
lithologies, faults, alteration types, vein abundance (A-B veinlets, banded veinlets), and
hand-contoured rock-chip geochemistry for gold. We attempted to pull out of this data
set the key features that would help target a drill hole into the center of the ore zone. It
is clear from Figure 8 that the outer limit of banded veinlets outlines the +0.5 ppm Au
zone. Additionally, the following is evident: the innermost 1/2 of the gold zone is
identified by-the presence of potassic alteration and AB quartz veinlets and the outer 1/2
of the gold zone is identified by the disappearance of AB quartz veinlets and appearance
of abundant banded veinlets. Further, quartz-alunite veins lie outside the zone of +0.5
ppm Au, and sericitie & intermediate argillic alteration does not serve as a useful
targeting tool. The result is a composite map that displays the main features of the
prospect that would help to target on the gold zone. The composite becomes a useful
tool not only in further exploration at Pancho, but in further exploration in the
Maricunga area and in establishing a genetic model for these unusually high Au/Cu
porphyries.

Baru Hijau. Figure 8 is re drawn from portions of a folio that was one of the projects
completed during a mapping course held at Batu Hijau in March 1996. The folio
displays the following features: lithologies, faults, three classes of quartz vein
abundance, and hand-contoured soil geochemistry for copper and for gold. Additionally,
we had available a 1:10.000 scale alteration map. We attempted to pull out of this data
pct the, key features that would help target a drill hole into the center of the ore zone. It
is clear from Figure 8 that the outer limit of abundant quartz veins (-+5 vol cc) outlines
the +0.5 %Cu zone at depth. Additionally, the following is evident:
distance from +0.5% Cu
• outermost edge of secondary biotite 300 - 400 m
• outer limit of rare quartz veins 200 m
• outer limit of moderate quartz veins (1-2%) 150 m
• outer limit of abundant qtz veins (+5%) 0m
• presence of porphyries 0m

In the absence of a drilled-out reserve, the composite map could show the limit of
glassy limonite. Additional features that should be displayed on a composite would be
structural directions of quartz veins, limits of sericitic alteration and other bydrothermal
alteration types, and limits of indigenous limonites.

UNI - FIGMM GE801 JHPA

 18

A final exercise that can be done to aid in targetting is to generate a "coincidence" map.
By this I mean that there are certain features whose coincidence in space yields stronger
evidence for a target than any individual feature by itself. As an example, the following
coincidences were used as indicators of the most favorable drill targets at Batu Hijau
(listed in order of increasing favorability):

• A: coincidence of abundant quartz veins aced highest copper in soil

• B: coincidence of abundant quartz veins and highest gold in soil
• C: coincidence of A and B

The rationale for coincidence A is that a copper anomaly associated with abundant
quartz veins is more likely to represent indigenous (rather than transported,) copper.
Had we had the data, we would have used coincidence of quartz veins with glassy
limonite and with highest rock chip copper. Coincidence C reinforce A and B. All the
targets based on coincidence C overlie the +0.5 %Cu zone at depth.

UNI - FIGMM GE801 JHPA

 19

UNI - FIGMM GE801 JHPA

 20

UNI - FIGMM GE801 JHPA

 21

UNI - FIGMM GE801 JHPA

 22

UNI - FIGMM GE801 JHPA

 23

UNI - FIGMM GE801 JHPA

 24

UNI - FIGMM GE801 JHPA