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Article history: Upon the basic idea of the updraft solar heating, the solar chimney was proposed and implemented as a
Received 11 October 2014 model and a prototype by many research and industrial bodies. Although the system efficiency is below
Received in revised form 2%, but it is a promising technology to harness and convert the solar energy to electric power through
1 August 2015
three basic components; namely: solar collector, tower or chimney, and wind turbine-generator unit. The
Accepted 28 December 2015
low efficiency, the bulk size and the high dependency on the solar irradiation are the major issues
experienced in the solar chimney power plants. Since the implementation of the first prototype in
Keywords: Manzenares, numerous attempts have been reported to enhance the performance of the system. The
Energy conversion present paper is compiling most of the reported attempts to enhance the performance of the solar
Integrated solar system
chimney power plant. The conclusion drawn is that the system performance can be enhanced con-
Solar energy
siderably via integration with another source of thermal energy, or by using efficient solar thermal
Solar chimney power plant
Updraft solar heating energy storages. This paper provides a platform to the researchers in the field to understand and get
detailed literature on the enhancing technologies of the solar chimney power plant current updates.
& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1270
1.1. Energy scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1270
1.2. Energy and the environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1270
1.3. Solar energy systems as alternative for power generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1272
2. Fundamentals of solar chimney power plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1272
2.1. SCPP timeline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1273
2.2. Investors on SCPP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1275
3. SCPP components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1276
3.1. Open solar-air collector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1276
3.1.1. Open-solar-air collector models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1276
3.2. The chimney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1277
3.2.1. Chimney principles and processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1277
3.3. Power conversion unit (PCU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1278
3.3.1. SCPP turbo-generators (turbine(s)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1278
3.3.2. Air flow passage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1278
4. Performance of SCPP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1280
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 60 53687008.
E-mail addresses: hussain_kayiem@petronas.com.my (H.H. Al-Kayiem), fajannl@yahoo.com (O.C. Aja).
1
Tel.: þ60 169495674.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.331
1364-0321/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1270 H.H. Al-Kayiem, O.C. Aja / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 1269–1292
Table 1
World primary energy mix usage for year 2004–2014 in million tonnes oil equivalent (MTOE) and percentage (%) [13–23].
Oil Natural gas Coal Total (MTOE) (%) (MTOE) (%) (MTOE) (%) (MTOE)
2004 3798.6 2425.2 2798.9 9022.7 87.68 625.1 6.07 643.2 6.25 N/A N/A 10291.0
2005 3836.8 2474.7 2929.8 9241.3 87.70 627.2 5.95 668.7 6.35 N/A N/A 10537.2
2006 3910.9 2558.3 3041.7 9510.9 87.71 634.9 5.86 697.2 6.43 N/A N/A 10843.0
2007 3952.8 2637.7 3177.5 9768.0 88.01 622.0 5.60 709.2 6.39 N/A N/A 11099.2
2008 3959.9 2717.3 3286.4 9963.6 88.06 620.2 5.48 731.4 6.46 N/A N/A 11315.2
2009 3882.1 2653.1 3278.3 9813.5 87.90 610.5 5.47 740.3 6.63 N/A N/A 11164.3
2010 4031.9 2843.1 3532.0 10407.0 86.89 626.3 5.23 778.9 6.50 165.50 1.38 11977.7
2011 4081.4 2914.2 3628.8 10624.4 86.91 600.4 4.91 794.7 6.50 205.60 1.68 12225.1
2012 4130.5 2987.1 3730.1 10847.7 86.94 560.4 4.49 831.1 6.66 237.40 1.90 12476.6
2013 4179.1 3052.8 3867.0 11098.9 86.66 563.7 4.40 861.6 6.73 283.00 2.21 12807.2
2014 4211.1 3065.5 3881.8 11158.4 86.31 574.0 4.44 879.0 6.80 316.90 2.45 12928.3
Transportation 13.5%
Electricity and
Heat 24.6%
Carbon dioxide
Other fuel CO2 77%
Consumption 9%
Industry 10.4%
HFCs, PFCs,
Land use change 18.2% SFs 1%
Methane
CH4 14%
Agriculture 13.5%
the fossil fuels deplete gradually with time [10,11], while the use air within the environment, affects the soil, thereby hindering
of the fossil fuels and the growing rate of deforestation as a result some agricultural and social activities [24–28].
of development contribute to a great extent to environmental The need for solutions to energy demand challenges cannot be
pollution; increase GHG in the atmosphere and consequently over emphasised as the global energy demand is expected to
global warming [8–12]. double by 2050 while the means to meet the demand are limited
The option of using nuclear energy as alternative to fossil fuel [29]. To combat the above mentioned challenges associated with
has its challenges in relation to its waste disposal coupled with the conventional energy supply and usage, there is a need for an
threat of radiation exposure in the case of plant accident/failure. alternative/renewable energy to supply a good percentage of the
Some examples of nuclear power plant failures include the Three global energy demand and strive to be the major energy source for
Mile Island unit 2 (TMI2) nuclear power plant, Pennsylvania, USA power generation. Secondly, some of the non-renewable energy
which failed on March 28, 1979, the Chernobyl Nuclear Power sources are also raw material for other industrial activities which if
Plant (Chernobyl 4) in Ukraine which failed on April 26, 1986 and other alternative/renewable energy supplies mix can be employed;
the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant (FDNPP), Japan inci- the usage life span of the non-renewable resources can be
dent which occurred on 11th March, 2011. The report on the above extended. Considering the expected doubling of the global energy
mentioned nuclear power plant failure has devastating effects on demand and the impending energy shortage [29], one solution to
both human (health and psychological effect) and the environ- solving the problem is to tap more into the renewable energy
ment in general as the release of radionuclides contaminates the sources.
1272 H.H. Al-Kayiem, O.C. Aja / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 1269–1292
The global energy demand has continued to increase as shown cost of installation reduces, SCPP can be employed for commercial
in Table 1 but the means of meeting this demand has been mainly electrical power generation [33].
the use of non-renewable energy resources. The use of non- The SCPP is a solar-thermal power generation system which
renewable energy sources contributes to emission of GHG to the utilises a combination of three technologies to harness and con-
atmosphere and global warming while the flaring exhaust hot flue vert solar energy to electrical energy. The principle involves the
gas to the atmosphere contributes to thermal discomfort at the absorption of solar energy in an open-solar-air collector (green-
location where the process occurs. house) which heats up the air in the enclosure. The heated air rises
Globally, coal has been recorded as the highest carbon fuel (buoyancy effect) due to density drop and exit the greenhouse
dominant in electric power generation which contribute greatly to through the chimney (chimney effect). At the base of the chimney
the emission of GHG to the atmosphere leading to climate change. (exit of the open-solar-air collector and or the inlet of the chim-
Similarly oil has contributed in no little quota to emission in the ney), wind turbine(s) are installed to harness the kinetic energy in
power generation industries and the transport sector where it has the buoyancy driven hot air and convert it to electrical energy with
near monopoly status as the major source of energy [30,31]. the help of generator. In other words SCPP is a solar thermal power
The power generation sector is the highest contributor to glo- plant utilising a combination of a solar air collector and a central
bal GHG emission in 2005 which accounts for about 25 percent of updraft tube to generate convective air flow which drives sta-
global GHG emissions as shown in Fig. 1 [30]. In the power gen- tioned wind turbine(s) to generate electricity [34,35]. The open-
eration sector, electricity generation accounted for 68% of the solar-air collector of the SCPP is a form of flat plat collector which
emission which is about 17% of the total global GHG emissions. absorbs direct and diffused solar radiation.
Heat (including combined heat and power) was rated at about 5% In line with other solar thermal energy generation systems, the
of worldwide emissions, and other energy industries account for SCPP has low efficiency but is favoured with well-developed
roughly 3 percent [30,31]. technologies that make of the system. The materials for the
The use of conventional energy supply sources such as fossil development of the system are easily sourced locally. Thus, the
fuel burdens the environment with greenhouse gas emission and plant has a promising future as large-scale solar-electric power
global warming while the flared hot flue gas causes thermal dis- plant. The SCPP is characterised with long life span, little main-
comfort in the environment where the process occurs. As a means tenance, no combustible fuel, no cooling water and it is free of
to reducing the above mentioned side effects of using convectional GHG emissions. The SCPP technologies are simple, reliable and can
energy, alternative and renewable energy need to be harnessed developed in technologically less developed countries, which are
the more. sunny and often have limited raw material resources for other
advanced technologies [33,34].
1.3. Solar energy systems as alternative for power generation
Fig 3. Leonardo da Vinci's chicken barbecue with a windmill and chimney [50].
updraft tube/chimney to generate a convective air flow which drives 2.1. SCPP timeline
wind turbine(s) to generate electricity.
The SCPP is characterised with long life span, little main- The concept of updraft has been in practice for centuries. The
tenance, no combustible fuel, no cooling water and is free of famous Italian genius Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) created the
GHG emissions [33,34]. Because the plant technology is simple, earliest system, which uses hot rising air in a chimney to drive a
reliable and can be constructed with potential available mate- windmill which rotates his roasting spit connected to the windmill
rials, SCPP technologies can be developed in technologically above a fireplace as shown in Fig. 3 [40,49,50].
less developed countries which are sunny and often have lim- After centuries, in 1903, a Spanish artillery colonel, Isidoro
Cabanyes first described the SCPP. His public proposition “Proyecto
ited raw material resources.
One major problem of SCPP is the low conversion efficiency de motor solar” (solar engine project) was described using an
apparatus consisting of an air heater attached to a chimney
as determined by the thermal performance of the system
designed house and a wind propeller place in the house to extract
[4,36–44]. However, the conversion efficiency of SCPP
the energy in the buoyant air for electricity generation as shown in
increases with the solar chimney height, open-solar-collector
Fig. 4 [51–53].
area and solar radiation intensity [34]. The power output of a
In 1926 Prof Engineer Bernard Dubos proposed to the French
SCPP is a function of the mass flow rate of the working fluid Academy of Sciences the construction of a SCPP to be located in
which is determined by the collector area and the chimney North Africa with its solar chimney on the slope of a sufficiently
height. For SCPP to be economically viable for commercial high mountain as shown in Fig. 5 [53,,54]. Dubos's SCPP was
power production a high gigantic solar chimney and large described and published in 1931 by Hanns Günther [53,,2,,55].
open-solar-air collector area are required to generate high Günther's analysis of Dubos proposal inferred that an ascend-
mass flow rate/driving force to rotate the turbine(s) [32– ing air speed of 50 m/s can be reached in the chimney, where the
35,45–48]. Higher conversion efficiency for large-scale SCPP energy can be extracted using wind turbines. An experimental
will lead to reduction in the produced energy cost. description of the proposed system by Dubos is shown in Fig. 6
1274 H.H. Al-Kayiem, O.C. Aja / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 1269–1292
Fig. 6. Solar chimney proposal of Prof Dubos presented by Günther, 1931 [55].
where the plate and the spirit lamp represent the Sahara desert
and the solar heat, respectively; the small wind wheel at the top of
the chimney represents the wind turbines. The description indi-
cated that if the spirit lamp is positioned under the plate, warm air
flows concentrically through the plate reaching the tube. Conse-
quently, the ascendant flow impels the wind wheel [55].
In 1956, a patent was granted to Ridley [56]. His patent was
designed to incorporate two chimneys, where the first chimney
wall is heated by hot air generated from the greenhouse such that
cold air is drawn to the turbine at the base of the first chimney
through a tunnel connecting to the second chimney. Thus the
second chimney supplies cold air by downdraft principle while
first chimney creates updraft due to temperature difference at the
chimney walls and creates the channel for the air to exit, see Fig. 7.
Another record of an early patent application on the SCPP was a
French patent granted in 1964 to Nazare [57,58]. The model of the
invention is proposed for a tower of 100–300 m height with its
shape approximately that of a diffuser as shown in Fig. 8.
Up to the 1970s, there was scarce information about the SCPP
systems, and this is possibly due to the oil boom and the devel-
opment of conventional power generation systems that shifted the
energy supply source to the fossil fuel energy. Since after the oil
crisis in the 1970s the need for energy saving and alternative
energy ignited an energy revolution. Renewable energy systems
have become the topic of study for many researchers with differ-
ent theoretical and experimental studies being published.
Some of the related developments in SCPP since after the oil
crisis in the 1970s include the patents granted to Lucier [59–63]
between 1975 and 1981 as shown in Fig. 9.
SCPP resurfaced to limelight when Prof Schlaich in 1978 pre-
sented the SCPP technology in a congress [64]. Between 1980 and
1982, Prof Schlaich with his colleagues designed and constructed
the first SCPP prototype, Fig. 10, on a site provided at Manzanares,
Spain by the Spanish Utility Union Electrica Fenosa, while the
Fig. 7. Improvements in or relating to apparatus for generating power from solar project was funded by the German Ministry of Research and
heat [56]. Technology [33–35,65,66].
H.H. Al-Kayiem, O.C. Aja / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 1269–1292 1275
areas which will help solve the energy problem in less developed
countries [69–71].
∂
ρ v r hg c ¼ 0 ð1Þ
Fig. 11. Solar collector structure of the Manzanares SCPP [33]. ∂r air coll exit coll
H.H. Al-Kayiem, O.C. Aja / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 1269–1292 1277
3.2. The chimney where ρair-ch is the density of air at any height along the chimney
rair-ch is the chimney radius,
The chimney of a traditional SCPP is situated at the centre of vair-ch is the velocity of air along the chimney height,
the collector. It is the thermal engine of the plant, which creates hch is the air any height along the chimney till exit
suction that draws ambient air into the collector and enhances τair-ch is the shear stress in buoyant air as the air flows up the
buoyancy in the hot air in the system. It is a pressure tube with chimney
low friction losses due to the chimney surface to volume ratio. It V_ air ch is the volume flow rate of air in the chimney
has been reported that the mass flow of the updraft air is Air flow energy in the chimney
approximately proportional to the collector air temperature rise ∂
Cpair ch T air ch ρair ch V_ air ch
and to the solar chimney height [2,33]. ∂h
The chimney height of SCPP contributes greatly to the effi- _ ∂
þρair ch V air ch Cpair ch T air ch
ciency of the chimney and the total efficiency of the system ∂h
1278 H.H. Al-Kayiem, O.C. Aja / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 1269–1292
∂
þ ρ g V_ ¼0 ð10Þ
∂h air ch air ch
where Cpair-ch is the specific heat of air at a specific height of the
chimney under consideration.
Tair-ch is the temperature of air at the chimney height
considered.
The air flow in the chimney has been modelled by different
researchers as either compressible [136–138] or observing the
Boussinesq principle of density variation with change in tem-
perature [139–143]. A comparison of compressible flow model of
air flow in the chimney and Boussinesq model of air flow in the
chimney using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software was
conducted by Zhou et al. [144] for 1500 m high solar chimney
proposed by von Backström and Gannon [137].
Table 2
Mass flow rate of different geometric configurations [158].
Case Hc1 (m) Rt1 (m) Rin (m) Rex (m) ṁ (kg/s)
Fig. 15. Schematic layout of SCPP of different configurations: (a) reference plant; (b) sloping collector with a cylindrical chimney; (c) constant absorber-cover gap height
system with convergent chimney; (d) constant absorber-cover gap height system with divergent chimney; (e) sloping collector with convergent chimney; (f) a sloping
collector with divergent chimney [159].
rectangular to circular and analyse it with CFD. Müller [156], configurations (straight junction, curved junction, slanted junc-
conducted CFD study on the proposed shape by Kolb and Helmrich tion, conic solar chimney, and curved junction with guiding cone),
[155] for multiple vertical shaft turbines and found that such a as shown in Fig. 14.
centrepiece intake geometry can reduce the inlet losses by 43%. An The geometric configurations, parameters and the mass flow
investigation on the different design for the air flow passage was rate for the study is presented in Table 2. The analysis showed that
conducted by Bernardes et al [157] using five geometric straight junction case gave smaller flows, due to the occurrence of
1280 H.H. Al-Kayiem, O.C. Aja / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 1269–1292
Fig. 16. Schematic diagram of turbine layouts (single rotor and counter rotating
turbines – with or without IGVs) [40]. 4. Performance of SCPP
junction flow recirculation. The recirculation reduces with the Several mathematical models have been developed since the
smoothening of the junction. The curved junction allowed higher inception of the Manzanares SCPP prototype in order to predict
flows, the use of conic solar chimney offers highest mass flow rate SCPP performance. Haaf et al. [65] present the model, which they
which validates the claim of Yan et al. [158]. They also inferred that used for the design of the Manzanares pilot plant. Mullet [37]
presented an analysis to derive the overall efficiency and sig-
the introduction of a deflector such as guiding cone at the centre
nificant performance data for SCPP and it was claimed that
did not bring major thermal or hydrodynamic improvements.
numerical values were consistent with the information from
Suggestion for more investigation was recommended by the
Manzanares pilot plant. Pasumarthi and Sherif [64] show a more
authors.
detailed model, which was verified against their experimental
Koonsrisuk and Chitsomboon [159] presented a computational
results [162] and results of the Manzanares pilot plant. Gannon
simulation study on the influence of the flow area parameters of
and Von Backström [115] adapt standard gas cycle in defining a
SCPP on the behaviour of the air flow. They considered the effect of
standard solar chimney cycle and compare the results from their
different collector inlet areas and chimney exit area, while the
simple model to experimental results of the Manzanares plant.
areas of the collector exit and the chimney entrance constant. The
Pastohr et al. [163] used FLUENT – a commercial computational
six configurations considered are as shown in Fig. 15.
fluid dynamics (CFD) software package – to model the Manzanares
Their results inferred that a divergent chimney increases the
plant and compared the CFD result with result from their analy-
static pressure, mass flow rate and power compared to the
tical model which was developed for the collector.
cylindrical chimney. The convergent chimney was characterized Hedderwick [116] modelled the SCPP and the total performance
with equal power output as the convergent chimney. The sloping mathematically using energy and draught equations with respect
collector was found to enhance the static pressure across the roof to boundary conditions, which consisted of the environmental
and the power at the roof entrance. Finally they inferred that SCPP conditions that were applicable at the reference location.
with sloping collector and divergent chimney of exit to inlet To enhance the performance of the SCPP, Kreetz [111] intro-
chimney area ratio of 16 can produce 400 times the power of the duced the use of water-filled tight tubes or bags as heat storage
straight chimney. device at the open solar air collector. Pretorius [41] and Pretorius
The guiding of the generated hot air at the collector area to the et al. [83] presented SCPP performance model and find that the
turbine (horizontal to vertical transition) is important in the SCPP total performance deteriorates with the presence of ambient
in order to reduce energy losses which can arise from recirculation winds but chimney shadow does not significantly affect total
of the hot air at the collector exit. To achieve the proper guide of performance. A more comprehensive SCPP performance model
the hot air to the turbines, inlet guide vanes (IGVs) are necessary. was presented by Pretorius and Kröger [85] which was an upgrade
For large-scale SCPP, the IGVs can be variable, and can serve to of the model of Hedderwick [116].
control the plant output and to close off the turbine flow passage Bernardes [112] developed a comprehensive model of SCPP
(s) for emergency/maintenance [40]. Some investigations on IGVs performance and investigated the possibility and impact of using
of SCPP were presented in [40,145–148,152]. Gannon [145] water-filled bags on the collector floor as heat storage device and
designed a single vertical shaft turbine with inclusion of inlet finds that its implementation smoothes out the daily fluctuation in
H.H. Al-Kayiem, O.C. Aja / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 1269–1292 1281
power output and also increases the power output after sunset but 4.1. Enhancement models of SCPP performance
reduces the peak power output during the day.
Pretorius [42] presented a model of SCPP to include the impacts One of the first proposed enhancements of the SCPP was the
of ambient wind, various temperature lapse rates, nocturnal introduction of water-filled tight tubes in the open-solar-air col-
temperature inversions and the use of the collector as a green- lector for heat storage. The water-filled tight tubes (Fig. 17) as
house or agriculture on the performance of the plant. As the total thermal storage medium was introduced by Kreetz [33,,111]. The
idea was based on the principle that the specific heat capacity of
performance of the SCPP is a product of the performance of the
water is much higher than that of soil and from natural convection
collector, turbine and the chimney, von Backstrom and Fluri [149]
point of view, the heat transfer between water in the tube and the
used simple analytical models to indicate the importance of
tube wall is much more efficient than that between ground surface
finding the turbine pressure drop for maximum power output. and the soil layers underneath. The tubes or bags are filled with
Various types of soil for the collector ground and a variety of glass water and tightened to avoid evaporation. The tubes are painted
qualities for the collector roof were simulated by Pretorius and black to enhance solar radiation absorption and transfer of the
Kröger [84] for their effect on plant performance. gained thermal energy to the water during the hours of sunshine
(Fig. 17A). During the night time when the air in the collector starts
to cool down, the water releases the thermal energy it stored
during day time. The volume of water in the tank corresponding to
water layer thickness is selected according to the desired char-
acteristics of power output profiles during the day and night. The
analysis as in Fig. 17B shows that with the water filled tight tubes,
power can be generated in the night but with drop in the power
generated during the hours of sunshine.
Pasumarthi and Sherif [64,162,164] developed SCPP model
which incorporates black canvas and absorber plate to enhance
energy conversion at the greenhouse as shown in Fig. 18.
Bilgen and Rheault [165] proposed a SCPP with sloped solar
collector along a hillside and short chimney for high latitude
location (Fig. 19) to contain the challenges associated with tall
chimney. They claimed that the system had higher performances
for locations at high latitudes than the use of traditional SCPP.
In order to reduce the associated cost of constructing the rigid solar
chimney of SCPP, Papageorgiou [54,166–174] proposed a replacement
of the rigid concrete solar chimneys with lighter than air inflated
Fig. 17. The use of water-filled tight tube as heat storage in SCPP [33,111]. Fig. 19. Schematic of the SCPP with sloped surface at high latitudes [165].
Fig. 18. SCPP model of Pasumarthi and Sherif integrated with black canvas and plate [64,162,164].
1282 H.H. Al-Kayiem, O.C. Aja / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 1269–1292
Fig. 21. Sketch of the proposed SCPP design for mountainous regions [176].
Fig. 26. Intermediate secondary roof to enhance heat storage in the soil of open
solar air collector [42].
Fig. 24. Novel solar thermal power plant with a floating chimney stiffened on a
mountainside, segment by segment [179].
Fig. 28. Hybrid solar pond and SCPP by Akbarzadeh et al. [182].
such that the hot brine can be continuously extracted using heat process of the heat and fluid flow was simulated using ANSYS
exchanger at about 35–50 °C above ambient temperature to software and validated through comparison with Manzanares
maintain air velocity that can sufficiently generate power day and prototype results. The simulated model showed good enhance-
night, throughout the year [32,74]. ment for the performance as well as it contributes to the reduction
Similarly, investigation on hybrid SCPP with salinity gradient of global warming by reducing the flue gases temperature before
solar pond was conducted by Akbarzadeh et al. [182] where two exhausting to the atmosphere. The proposed hybrid technique
different configurations, Fig. 28, were studied. Both configurations befits to generate electricity 24 h.
used pumps to circulate the hot brine in the collector area and Ninic and Nižetić [44] invented, and patent, a SCPP with short
chimney base through a heat exchanger thus creating thermal diffuser and low-temperature solar collector. Their invention
difference between the ambient air and the air in the SCPP claims to generate warm air at the low-temperature collector
greenhouse. which flows to the chimney base to forms a complex vortex
More researches have been conducted on the hybrid SCPP with stream and exit through a short diffuser (Fig. 33), in which the
seawater desalination by Zuo et al. [183–190]. They developed an phenomenon is similar to a tornado funnel which they referred to
integrated SCPP with seawater desalination. The integrated system as the gravitational vortex column (GVC). At the chimney base, the
consists of five major components; chimney, collector, turbine, updraft air rotates the turbine and exits the turbine in a circular
energy storage layer and basin solar still as shown in Fig. 29. upward swirl hence forming a sort of vertical fluid. They claim that
Another investigation on enhancing thermal performance of due to the rotation, the pressure in the vertical swirl is lower than
modified solar chimney was proposed which employs flue gas ambient air at the same altitude with the radial pressure differ-
waste heat as a supplementary thermal energy for the system. The ence greater at the bottom of the vertical fluid swirl such that near
proposed design used metal sheet as the absorber plate/collector the ground level, just above the turbines it displays a significantly
instead of the soil. The absorber plate stands as a heat exchanger lower pressure than the ambient. They patent also claimed that
serving the purpose of extracting heat from hot flue gas that flows the generated vertical vortex stream field acts like an extension for
underneath the bottom part of the collector and in the top/front the solar chimney, which creates operating conditions favourable
part of the absorber plate, which was housed by a transparent to the turbines.where S – solar collector, D – short diffuser, E –
cover, it absorbs the solar energy to generate air in motion that spiral canals, F – diffuser deflector, GVC – gravitational vortex
rotates the turbine at the chimney base to generate electricity. The column, 1 – glass cover, 2 – absorbing ground, 3 – air guides, 4 –
first laboratory model was designed and investigated experimen- diffuser neck, 5 – diffuser body, 6 – diffuser exit opening, 7 –
tally by Al-Kayiem et al. [109] and simulated numerically by Al- deflector surface, 8 – circulation pumps, 9 – nozzles, 10 – axial air
Kayiem et al. [191], as in Fig. 30. The system had one absorber turbines, 11 – transmission mechanism, 12 – electricity generators,
plate inclined at 45° and the flue gas was supplied by experimental 13 – canal with water moisturising the warm air, 14 – rainwater
Gas Turbine unit, as shown in Fig. 30a. collecting canal, 15 – warm air stream, 16 – cold air stream [44].
The system has been modified and extended for outdoor Kashiwa and Kashiwa [195] presented a conceptual utilisation
experimentation, as shown in Fig. 31. The absorber plate and the of solar cyclone for harvesting fresh water from atmosphere which
flue channels were constructed to comprise two parts. The first also was inferred in the conclusion that it can be utilised for power
part was inclined by 15°, while the second part was inclined by 45° generation. The system is characterised by expansion cyclone
and connected to chimney via conical diffuser at its upper outlet. separator placed at the base of the chimney, along with a turbine
The details of the design and the experimental results were generator, the greenhouse and the chimney as shown in Fig. 34.
reported by Aja [39] and patent number MyIPO: PI 2011001224 The expansion cyclone separator condenses and removes atmo-
[192]. spheric water while the turbine harnesses the energy from the
Azeemuddin et al. [193] and Azeemuddin et al. [194] suggested moving air.
an enhancement technique using waste heat energy in the flue On the quest for increased power output from renewable
gases passing through conduits in the solar collector (Fig. 32). The power generation system, Yabuz [196] proposed and investigated a
H.H. Al-Kayiem, O.C. Aja / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 1269–1292 1285
Fig. 30. Modified inclined solar chimney integrated with flue gas source.
(a) Experimental setup, (b) velocity vector as predicted by CFD simulation.
[109,191].
Fig. 31. Hybrid solar flue gas chimney power plant [39,192].
Fig. 34. Schematic view of Solar Cyclone and the expansion cyclone separator
Chimney exhaust [195].
Flue gas re-
Flue gas panels
injected in the
chimney above
the turbine Fluri et al. [198]. The report of Fluri et al. [198] showed an
outlet
to the collector approximately 2.5 times higher initial cost for the collector and the
chimney than Bernardes [112]. However Fluri [40] showed that the
Ground
material assumed in Fluri et al. [198] was too high. Fluri et al. [197]
improved the model of Fluri et al. [198] and they compared their
Canopy
Ambient air inlet results to two selected reference SCPPs of 100 MW respectively
Flue gas inlet proposed by Schlaich et al. [35] and Bernardes [112]. Fluri et al.
[197] also evaluated the power output of the two selected refer-
Fig. 32. Simulation model of a solar chimney integrated with flue gas panels
[193,194]. ence SCPPs using Pretorius [42] thermodynamic model and found
that the peak power output for Schlaich et al. [35] and Bernardes
[112] 100 MW reference SCPP were 66 MW and 62 MW respec-
tively. With this peak power output, they evaluated the LEC for
Schlaich et al. [35] 100 MW SCPP with the same economic para-
meters (i.e., interest rate ¼6%, inflation rate¼ 3.5%, and deprecia-
tion period ¼ 30 years) and got €0.270/kWh while originally
Schlaich et al. [35] estimated the LEC per kilowatt-hour at €0.1. For
Bernardes [112] 100MW SCPP, with economic parameters (interest
rate¼8%, inflation rate¼ 3.25%, depreciation period ¼ 30 years, and
construction period ¼2 years), using Bernardes's model, they
evaluated the LEC per kilowatt-hour as €0.43 which was originally
estimated by Bernardes [112] as €0.125/kWh. Pretorius [42] in
chapter four of his PhD thesis also presents a simple cost model for
the SCPP using different chimney heights (500–1500 m) with
Fig. 33. Schematic view of SCPP with short diffuser invented by Ninic and Nižetić varying diameter and different collector diameters at varying inlet
[44]. heights.
H.H. Al-Kayiem, O.C. Aja / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 1269–1292 1287
Table 4
Cost comparison of 100 MW SCPP from Schlaich [1], Schlaich et al. [2] and
Bernardes [3] models.
Table 5
Cost assumptions guide to the analysis of SCPP components [4].
2
Collector Glass cost/m € 11.40
Collector canopy structural support cost
Steel columns (IPEAA120)/m € 8.66
Cable guys/m € 1.84
Angle beam/m € 12.75
Concrete cost/m3 € 100.00
Reinforcement steel cost/ton € 750.00
Reinforcement quantity/m3 € 7.50
Cover cost – horizontal/m2 € 21.88
Cover cost – vertical/m2 € 15.63
Fig. 35. Hybrid Heliostat and SCPP for more energy production [196]. Chimney part
High performance concrete cost/m3 € 125.00
Normal concrete cost/m3 € 100.00
Reinforcement cost/ton for 120 kg/m3 € 750.00
Table 3 Construction, concrete cover and labour cost/m3 € 312.50
Configurations of 100 MW SCPP developed by Schlaich [1], Schlaich et al. [2] and Materials hoisting cost/ton € 250.00
Bernardes [3] and the electrical power output per annum. Ring stiffener cost/ton. € 1250.00
Construction and labour on the ring stiffeners and € 250.00
Configuration Schlaich [1] Schlaich et al. Bernardes [3] hoisting of ring stiffeners/link
[2] The transport cost/ton over an average distance of € 21.00
300 km
Capacity, MW 100 100 100 Material and construction costs of chimney support € 18.45 million
Chimney height (m) 950 1000 850 column with 12 shear walls of 50 m 8 m 0.5 m/
Chimney diameter (m) 115 110 110 column (foundation)
Collector diameter (m) 3600 4300 4950 Chimney shell for 110 m diameter chimney 4 cost of founda-
Glass roof height at inlet (m) 6.5 3 3.5 tion structure
Electricity output/Annual power 305.2 320 281 Power conversion unit for 66 MW
output (APO) (GWh/a) Turbine cost € 2.82 million
Central structure € 0.25 million
Ducts € 2.42 million
Supports € 0.10 million
Generators € 3.95 million
5.2. Electrical power cost model Power electronics € 1.95 million
Control € 0.18 million
The modelling of electrical power cost of SCPP takes into Balance of station € 15.23 million
Capital cost of CPU installation (total) € 26.87 million
account the plant operation and maintenance cost. The operation
and maintenance cost of the plant is dependent on the size of the
evaluated using Eq. (11) [199].
plant. Following the report of the cost comparison of 100 MW " #
N
SCPP as shown in Table 4, the operation and maintenance cost for A1 1þf
P OM ¼ 1 ð11Þ
the various plants varied in the range of 1.0 M€ to 1.9 M€. Con- f 1 1 þ i
sidering interest rate, i, inflation, f, and design depreciation life of
where A1 is the cash flow at the end of the first year
the plant, N, the present equivalent value of the operation and
The understanding of the present equivalent value of the
maintenance cost of the plant (POM) over the life time can be operation and maintenance cost of the plant over its life time will
1288 H.H. Al-Kayiem, O.C. Aja / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 1269–1292
aid the understanding of the present total value of the plant. Thus produced by a SCPP was 0.24 and 0.78 €/kWh which was con-
the equivalent annual cost over the plant life time, A, can be siderably higher compared to the other power sources.
determined using Eq. (12) considering the present value of all cost Cervone et al. [203] conducted a basic economic analysis of
relating to the plant [199] floating SCPP of collector diameter 2700 m, chimney height
" # 2500 m, and chimney internal diameter 100 m for a location in the
ið1 þ iÞN Mediterranean region focus on Sicily, Italy. They concluded that
A¼P ð12Þ
ð1 þ iÞN 1 the theoretical energy production was 302 GWh/year, but may
drop by 13.6% under wind influence. The construction cost was
In the analysis presented by Bernardes [112], a consideration of
estimated at 222-351 million euro and the energy production cost
the construction year was a factor in the determination of the
at 18.4–29.0 euro cent.
investment cost of the plant with the assumption that the loan for
In a recent publication about the floating solar chimney,
the construction of the plant was taken before the start of the
Papageorgious et al. [175] discussed a scale analysis of the system
construction thus, the capital cost will include the interest rate
using a simplified cost model and inferred that the system can
paid till the end of the construction. Including the interest rate
generate energy at lower cost of approximately 45 USD/MWh
incurred through the construction period, the future equivalent
using a moderate height FSC structures of 650 m.
value of the plant, F, on completion can be evaluated using Eq. (13)
Cao et al. [204] performed an economic analysis and compared
F ¼ P ð1 þ 1ÞN ð13Þ the suitability of conventional SCPP with sloped SCPP in Lanzhou,
Northwest China. In their study, they considered the influence of
The levelised electricity cost (LEC) of the plant can be deter-
investment cost, expected payback period, inflation rate, and
mined by dividing the equivalent annual cost of the plant by the
levelised electricity cost (LEC). The results reveal that SCPP
annual power output (APO) as presented in Eq. (14)
investment is influenced by the plant configuration and the price
A of the construction materials. The sloped SCPP was more cost-
LEC ¼ ð14Þ
APO effective than the conventional SCPP of same size and power
The SCPP being an environmental friendly energy system can output during the system life span. This is due to the reduced
be considered beneficial by evaluating the LEC with consideration volume of material when associated with the slope chimney
of the carbon credit impact of the plant [197]. Following the structure as the chimney is designed to lean on high-mountain.
impact of coal-fired power plant which emits 0.95 kg of CO2/kWh They also inferred that large scale SCPP holds good competitive-
[200] in analysing the LEC of SCPP electrical power output, the CO2 ness with conventional fossil fuel power plants.
that can be reduced by using SCPP as power system will be Aja et al. [38] presented analysis of the economic benefit of
determined by multiplying the annual power output (APO) of SCPP incline SCPP integrated with flue gas waste heat. The results
by the amount of CO2 emitted per kWh using coal-fired power showed that the plant can be established in cities while the land
plant. Thus the CO2 emission reduced by using SCPP is as shown by can still be used for other purposes. It also showed that with the
Eq. (15) inclined collector, the chimney height will be reduced but analysis
did not present financial evidence to the claim.
_CO2 reduced ¼ APO 0:95 106 kg=GWh ð15Þ
Considering Eq. (15), the benefit earned from the carbon credit
6. Conclusions
which a reduction in one ton of CO2 is valued at about €27.00
[201]. The LEC evaluation with the benefits earned from carbon
The total efficiency of SCPP is low (less than 2%) which is a
credit can be evaluated as Eq. (16)
product of the collector efficiency, chimney efficiency and the
A turbine efficiency. The collector efficiency varies with respect to
LEC ¼ ð16Þ
APOþ APO 27 0:95 106 the collector material (soil type/absorber plate material and
transparent cover material), location, available solar radiation and
Other researchers that presented cost modelling of SCPP the slope of the collector. The open solar-air collector accounts for
include Gholamalizadeh and Mansouri [98] who presented an about 50% of the investment cost of a SCPP and about 30% of the
approximate cost model to illustrate the thermo-economic opti- overall system losses [112]. Improving its performance offers the
mal configurations of the pilot SCPP in Kerman, Iran. Nizetic et al. potential to make the SCPP cost competitive. The chimney effi-
[202] presented an approximate costs analysis of a SCPP of 550 m ciency has been found to be mostly dependent on the chimney
chimney height, 82 m chimney diameter and 1250 m collector roof height. Most research has focused on structural design of the
diameter at Mediterranean region, which included a total invest- chimney while a few numerical investigations have been con-
ment estimate and the levelized electricity cost. The parameters ducted on varying shapes of the chimney. Conventionally the
considered in the cost analysis include inflation rate of 6.0% p.a., straight chimney with uniform cross sectional area has been
maintenance and repair costs of 5.5% p.a., interest rate of 6.0–10% mostly promoted which is based on the gigantic height associated
p.a., under 20–40 years amortisation period. The cost structure with the commercial SCPP. Chimney performance enhancement is
analysis showed that the chimney bears approximately 30–50% of rarely reported in literature. The turbine performance is estimated
total costs, the collector roof constitutes about 20–40% of the to be in the range of 60–80%. This has only been supported with
expenditures but if the collector roof is made of special plastic one experimental investigation [147] while others are analytical
film, the investment is reduced by about 30% compared to the and numerical investigations.
costs associated with the traditional glass covering. Depending on
the orientation of the collector roof, the price of single glass roof
amounts to 6.0–9.0 €/m2, for a reinforced concreted chimney, the Acknowledgements
cost amounts to 250–500 €/m2 and for the turbine which depend
on the nominal power of turbine, it was estimated for 200 MW The authors would like to acknowledge Universiti Teknologi
turbine, amount to 700 €/kW, while, 5 MW cost about 1600 €/kW. PETRONAS (UTP) (STIRF 24/ 07-08) for the logistic and financial
They concluded that the average price of electrical energy support to produce and publish the paper. The second author
H.H. Al-Kayiem, O.C. Aja / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 1269–1292 1289
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