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Eka O. N.
by
Eka Oktariyanto Nugroho
The momentum equation is obtained by equating the applied forces to the inertia force for a unit
volume of the fluid. The physical meaning and the mathematical expressions of these forces have
been developed in Chapters 4 and 5.
The different forms of the momentum equation corresponding to a number of cases encountered in
hydrodynamics are now presented.
du p*
�
r = -
dt �x
dv p*
�
r = -
�y
dt
dw p*
�
r = -
�z
dt
Written in vector notation, these become
dV
r + grad p* = 0
dt
Recall p* = p + r gz
644444 7 4 4 4 4 48
Inertia Forces
6 4Applied
44 7 Forces
4 44 8
Local Convective Pressure Gravity
inertia 6 4 44 7 4 4 48 inertia
}
u� � } } (5-1)
�� u �u �u �
r � +u +v +w �= - ( p + r gz )
�� t �x �y �z� � x
Two similar equations may be written in the O Y and OZ directions. These are called the equations
�
u � v �
w
of Euler. Such a system of equations associated with the continuity relationship + + =0
�x �y �z
forms the basis of the largest part of the hydrodynamics dealing with a perfect incompressible fluid.
These equations are mathematically of the first order but are nonlinear (more specifically quadratic)
because of the convective inertia terms. This quadratic term is the cause of most mathematical
difficulties encountered in hvdrodvnamics.
It has been explained in Chapter I that it is possible to study hydrodynamic problems either in
Eulerian coordinates or in Lagrangian coordinates. It is recalled that the Lagrangian method
consists of following particles along their paths instead of dealing with particles at a given point.
This method is used, for example, in some studies of periodic gravity waves over a horizontal
bottom. If X, Y, Z are the volume or body forces, i.e., gravity, the Lagrangian equation along the OX
axis is written:
p � �2 x ��
1 � x � �2 y ��
y � �2 z ��z
= �X - 2 � + �
Y - 2 � + �Z - 2 �
r�x0 � � t ��
x0 � � t ��y0 � � t ��z0
��
u �u � �( p + r gz ) �2ui
r � i + u j i �= - +m
��t �xj � � xi �
x j�
xj
Here, the subscript i is called "free index" and indicates the component being considered; the
subscript j , called "dummy index," indicates repeated operations.
64444 47 4 4 4 4 4
Inertia Forces
8 = 6 4 4 4 4 4 44 Applied Forces
7 4 4 4 4 4 4 48
Local
inertia 6 4 44 7 4 4 48
Convective inertia Pressure Gravity 6 4 4 4Friction
7 4 4 48
� � u � u � u �
u � � p � � 2
u �2
u � 2
u�
r� +u +v +w �= - + m � 2 + 2
+ �
�� t � x � y �z� � x �� x �y z2 �
�
��
v �
v �v �v� � p ��2
v � 2
v � 2
v� (5-2)
r� +u +v + w �= - +m� 2 + 2 + 2 �
��t �
x �y �z� � y ��x �
y �
z �
��
w �w �w �w � �( p + r gz ) ��2
w � 2
w � 2
w�
r� +u +v +w �= - + m � 2 + 2
+ �
��t �x � y �z� �z ��x �y � z2 �
These Navier-Stokes equations are often written in another way in order to emphasize the role of
the rotational component of motion. It is sufficient in this case to use the expression of the inertia
force demonstrated in Chapter 4, which yields (see Section 3.4.3) Equation 5-3.
6 4 4 4 4 44 7 4 4 4 4 4 48
Inertia Forces
=
6 4 4Applied
4 7 Forces
4 4 48
Local Pressure Gravity
inertia 6444 47 4 4 4 48
Convective inertia }
Friction
Caused by variation
of kinetic energy �
Caused by rotation
�� 2
� � �( p + r gz )
��
u V
r� + � �+ 2 ( wh - vz ) �
=- + m�2u
��t �
x �2 � � �x
�
� (5-3)
��v �� V2 � � �( p + r gz )
r� + � �+ 2 ( uz - wx ) �
�= - + m�2 v
��t �
y 2
� � �y
� �
��w �� V2 � � �( p + r gz )
r� + � � + 2 ( vx - uh ) �
�=- + m�2 w
��
�t � z �2 � � �z
6 4 4 4 4 4Inertia
4 7Forces
4 4 4 4 4 48 Applied Forces
Local
=
6 4 4 44 7 4 4 4 48
inertia 6 4 4 4 47 4 4 4 48
Convective inertia Pressure Gravity Friction
Caused by variation
of kinetic energy �
Caused by rotation
� (5-4)
��
V �V 2
�
r � + grad � �+ ( curlV ) �V �
= -grad ( p + r gz ) + m�2 V
��t �2 � �
�
�
The three components of Equation 5-3 are more concisely written in the vector form of Equation 5-
4, which may be transformed as
� V2 � �
V
grad �r + p + r gz �= - r - r ( curlV ) �V+m�2 V
� 2 � �t
� V2 �
grad �r + p + r gz �= 0
� 2 �
Since the derivative of the sum in parentheses is zero in all directions, one obtains
V2
r + p + r gz = constant
2
which is the well-known Bernoulli equation.
s xx t xy t xz
t xy s yy t yz
t xz t yz s zz
The main advantage of such a notation is that it is valid for any kind of fluid-perfect or real-and any
kind of motion-laminar or turbulent. It will be shown that if in the momentum equation the real
values u , v, w, and p are replaced by the average values u , v , w, and p in a turbulent flow, the
surface forces s and t include additional components due to the turbulent fluctuations.
Hence, the advantage of using the notations s and t exists in expressing general equations
which are independent of the nature of the flow. Equating the inertia forces to the applied forces
expressed in the manner shown in Chapter 5 yields Equation 6-5.
du ��s � t xy � t xz �
r = X + � xx + + �
dt �� x � y �z �
(5-5)
dv ��t s yy �
� t yz �
r = Y + � xy + + �
dt �� x � y �z �
dw �� t �t yz �s zz �
r = Z + � xz + + �
dt �� x �y �z �
where pa is the atmospheric pressure. Hence the lines of equal pressure are parallel to the OX
axis. The boundary conditions are u = 0 for y = - d on the plane, and du dy = 0 for y = 0 at the
�2u rg
free surface. Taking into account these boundary conditions, the integration of =- sina
�y 2
m
gives successfully,
�
u gsina � m� gsina 2
�y
=-
u
y u = �and u =
�
r 2 u
d - y2 ( )
� �
which is the equation of a parabola. The discharge per unit of width is:
gsina
0 0
q= � udy =
2u
(d
�
2
)
- y 2 dy
-d -d
gsina 3
q= d
3u
The loss of energy per unit length may be given by the dissipation function F , which in this case is
m(� y) .
2
u �
�F = MA
Vector equation with 3 independent components
Acceleration has both time and spatially varying components.
Forces (Applied Forces) include:
o Gravitational forces
Gravitational Force is a body force which originates from the Earth’s gravitational field and
is proportional to the mass of the fluid.
dM = r dV
o Pressure
Pressure Force is the surface force per unit area which acts normal to any surface (i.e. it
always pushes against any surface). It exists whether there is net fluid motion or not.
Pressure itself is a scalar and is direction independent.
o Viscous stresses
Viscous Forces are surface forces which result when gradients in motion exist. Essentially,
molecules resist one layer of fluid moving past another.
Must apply constitutive relationships in order to generate a sufficient number of equations (or
alternatively eliminate unknowns). For Newtonian Fluids:
Linear relationship between stress and velocity gradients
Valid for water, air, gasoline and most fluids of interest
Derivation of the Conservation of Momentum Equation at a Point in Space
Apply a fixed CV (Eulerian analysis)
v
u
C G
z H
D
z
p
F �p
B p + dx
A
E
y
�x
x
y
x
Gravitational force is aligned with the z direction and for the defined CV
Fz - g = - g r dV
Pressure force acts normal to each surface and is found by expressing the scalar value using
Taylor series about a point and multiplying by the surface area of each face
Net pressure force on faces ABCD and EFGH:
� � p �2 p �
Fx - p = pdydz - �p + dx + 2 ( dx ) + ... �
2
dydz
� � x �x �
�p �2 p
Fx - p = - dV - 2 dxdV
�x �x
Net pressure force on faces AEHD and BFGC:
� � p �2 p �
Fy - p = pdxdz - �p + dy + 2 ( dy ) + ... �
2
dxdz
� � y �y �
�p �2 p
Fy - p = - dV - 2 dydV
�y �y
Net pressure force on faces AEFB and DHGC:
� � p �2 p �
Fz - p = pdxdy - �p + dz + 2 ( dz ) + ... �
2
dxdy
� � z �z �
�p �2 p
Fz - p = - dV - 2 dzdV
�z �z
Dynamic surface stresses are described by the stress tensor, as shown below
t ij can describe the stress on any surface with arbitrary orientation. It can be shown that the stress
tensor is symmetric; Dynamic stresses act only if the fluid at the molecularly averaged level
experiences relative motion
Sign convention for stresses: Stress is positive if it acts in the (positive/negative) coordinate
direction whose outward normal is in the (positive/negative) direction.
Net dynamic surface force in each direction is found by considering all surface stresses in each
direction and multiplying by the surface area of each face. Surface stresses on opposing faces can
be expressed in terms of each other by using Taylor series
Net dynamic stress force in the x direction:
� t
� �2t �
t xx + xx dx + 2xx ( dx ) + ... �dydz
2
Fx -t = -t xx dydz + �
� �x �x �
� �t �t yx
2
�
( dy ) + ... �
2
- t yx dxdz + �t yx + yx dy + dxdz
� � y � y 2 �
� �
� �t �t
2
�
t zx + zx dz + 2zx ( dz ) + ... �dxdy
2
- t zx dxdy + �
� �z � z �
t yx �
t xx �
�� t yx � ��2t xx �2t yx �2t zx �
Fx -t =� + + �dV + � 2 dx + dy + dV + ...
dz �
�� y2 z2 �
��x �y �y � �x � � �
Net dynamic stress force in the y direction:
� t xy
� �2t xy �
( )
2
Fy -t = -t xy dydz + �t xy + dx + dx + ... dydz
�
� �x �x2 �
� �
� �t yy �2t yy �
( dy ) + ... �
2
- t yy dxdz + �
t yy + dy + dxdz
� � y � y 2 �
� �
� �t �t
2
�
t zy + zy dz + 2zy ( dz ) + ... �dxdy
2
- t zy dxdy + �
� �z � z �
� �
� �t xz �2t xz �
2 (
dx ) + ... �
2
Fz -t = -t xz dydz + �t xz + dx + dydz
� �x �x �
� �t yz �2t yz �
( )
2
- t yz dxdz + �t yz + dy + dy + ... �dxdz
� � y �y2 �
� �
� �t �2t �
t zz + zz dz + 2zz ( dz ) + ... �dxdy
2
- t zz dxdy + �
� � z �z �
t yz �
t xz �
�� t zz � ��2t xz �2t yz �2t zz �
Fz -t =� + + �dV + � dx + dy + dz �dV + ...
�� 2
y2 z2 �
��x �y �y � �x � � �
Du �
p t
�� �t �t � �2 p ��2t xx �2t yx �2t zx �
r dV = - dV + � xx + yx + zx �dV - dxdV + � dx + dy + dz �dV
� x2 �� 2 2 2 �
Dt x ��x � y � y � � � x � y � z �
Dv �
p ��t �t t �
� 2
�p ��t
2
�t yy
2
�t zy �
2
Du p ��
� t t yx �
� t �
r = - + � xx + + zx �
Dt �x ��x �y � y �
Dv t xy �
p ��
� t yy �t zy �
r = - +� + + �
Dt �
y ��x �y �y �
Dw �
p t
�� t yz �
� t �
r = - + - g r + � xz + + zz �
Dt �z ��x �y � y �
Expanding the acceleration terms leads to:
��
u �
u �
u u� �
� p t
�� t yx �
� t �
r � + u + v + w �= - + � xx + + zx �
��t �x �y �z� � x ��x �y � y �
��
v �v �
v �v� � p t
�� �t �t �
r � + u + v + w �= - + � xy + yy + zy �
��t �x �
y �z� � y ��x � y � y �
��
w �
w �
w w� �
� p �� t yz �
t xz � t �
r� +u +v +w �= - - r g + � + + zz �
��t �x �y �z� � z ��x �y � y �
Mass Local Acceleration Convective Acceleration + [ ] ´ Net Pressure+(Gravity)+Net Surface Force
=
To solve a fluid flow problem we currently have 11 unknown dependent variables:
r , u, v, w, p,t xx ,t xy ,t xz ,t yy ,t yz ,t zz
However, we only have 5 equations:
Dr
Conservation of Mass =0
Dt
�
u � v �
w
Continuity + + =0
�x �y �z
3 momentum conservation equations
We are 6 equations short of being able to start solving our system. Constitutive relationships must
now be applied to account for the physics removed by assuming a hypothetical continuum and
averaging molecular motion.
For a Newtonian incompressible isotropic fluid:
��
u � u �
t ij = m � i + j �
�� xi �
�x j � �
��u �v� �u
t xy = m � + �= tyx t xx = m 2
��y �x � �x
�� w�
v � �v
t yz = m � + �= tzy t yy = m 2
��z �y� �y
��w �
x� �
w
tzx = m � + �= tzx tzz = m 2
��x �z� �z
��
u �
u �
u u� �
� p ��2u �2u �2u �
r � + u + v + w �= - +m� 2 + 2 + 2 �
��t �x �y �z� � x ��x �y �z �
��
v �v �
v �v� � p ��2v �2v �2v �
r � + u + v + w �= - +m� 2 + 2 + 2 �
��t �x �
y �z� � y ��x � y �z �
��
w �
w �
w w� �
� p ��2 w �2 w �2 w �
r� +u +v +w �= - - r g + m � 2 + 2 + 2 �
��t �x �y �z� � z ��x �y �z �
The Navier Stokes equations are valid for all incompressible isotropic Newtonian fluid flows. This
includes
Turbulent flows
Open channel and pipe flows that are normally depth or cross sectionally averaged
We can simplify the application of the Navier Stokes equations by assuming that density is almost
constant except when it involves the gravity term. When making the Boussinesq approximation, the
Navier Stokes equations are written as:
�
u �
u �
u �
u 1 �p m ��2u �2u �2u �
+u +v +w =- + � 2+ 2+ 2�
�t �x �y �z r0 �
x r 0 ��
x �y �z �
�
v �
v �
v �
v 1 �p m ��2v �2v �2v �
+u +v + w = - + � 2+ 2+ 2�
�t �x �
y �
z r0 �
y r0 ��
x � y �z �
�
w �
w �
w �
w 1 �p r m ��2 w �2 w �2 w �
+u +v +w =- - g+ � 2 + 2 + 2 �
�t �x �y �z r0 �
z r0 r 0 ��
x �y �z �
The Boussinesq approximation essentially makes an approximation for the mass multiplying the
acceleration terms. Density varies little in natural water bodies. However in the gravity term,
gradients in density come into play and major circulation patterns can be driven by these terms. We
can not neglect small variations in density in these terms
In vector notation, the Navier Stokes equations with the Boussinesq approximation at a point are
expressed as:
DV 1 r ˆ m 2
= - �p - gk + � V
Dt r0 r0 r0
where