CHAPTER II

Multiculturalism: A Theoretical Framework

The present chapter is an attempt to define the term
‘multiculturalism’ in the social, cultural and political context of Canada.
It is necessary to explore the socio-cultural background of
multiculturalism to foreground the pragmatic implications of the term in
the literary context. The representative author will be analyzed in the
subsequent chapters in the light of present theoretical framework.

Multiculturalism:

The term multiculturalism is used to indicate a specific social and

cultural school of thoughts that adopts the liberal and all compulsive
policy of cultural amalgamation. The phenomenon of multiculturalism is
not new to the world and thus not new in academics but it gets a new air
in the period of colonization. The imperial policies of developed nations
and radical changes in the means of transport and development of
international trade gave birth to new multicultural society. It influences
every human life and produces cozy atmosphere in which two different
cultures co-exists and contribute to the process of acculturation. The
scene of cultural crisis, ethnic dispute and religious riots of early
twentieth century have substituted with the cultural harmony,
embracement of ethnic diversity and the acceptance of religious
differences of mid twentieth century. Many scholars of disciplines like
sociology, history, political science, immigrant studies, cultural studies,
and literary criticism contribute many significant discourses to define and
refine the terminology of multiculturalism.

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 The term multicultural is popularly used as an adjective in the
phrases like multicultural education, multicultural curriculum and
multicultural society. Multicultural and Multiculturalism are the words
frequently used to describe the ethnic diversity. Multiculturalism denotes
a society in which the several cultures co-exist. It means that it is a
society, state, a nation, a country, a region or even a geographical location
as town or school, which is composed of people who belong to different
cultures. The terms like plural society or cosmopolitan society were
used earlier to describe the same phenomenon. The words multiracial or
polyethnic or multiethnic societies were also used. Multicultural,
however, is the preferred term. It is so, because the word culture in
multicultural has positive connotations. The word race is word of suspect,
whereas the word culture seems celebrated and related with distinctive
way of life.

Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary defines multiculturalism as

the practice of giving importance to all cultures in a society and it
includes people of several, different races, religions, languages and
traditions. According to Merriam Webster Dictionary, multicultural as an
adjective of, relating to, or adopted to diverse cultures and
multiculturalism is noun form of it. TerenceTurner in his book
Anthropology and Multiculturalism points out:

Multiculturalism is one manifestation of the postmodernist

reaction to the de-legitimization of the state and the erosion
of the hegemony of the dominant culture in advanced
capitalist countries (416).

Multiculturalism is a late twentieth century literary, pedagogic,

socio-political movement. It is an ideology that considers all cultures

31
worthy and issues of study. Multiethnic and pluralistic societies in
America, and other European countries aided to grow multiculturalism,
with support of civil rights movements and feminist movement. It has
influenced literature, art, media, education, and social and legal policy.
The image of “melting pot”, which was used before where minorities give
up their individual identity to mix and integrate fully with general society,
has shifted to model called multiculturalism where unique identities
remain intact and contribute to the greater development. In his article, ‘Is
There a Case for Multiculturalism?’ Valerian Rodrigues states:

Multiculturalism draws our attention to the differences that

inform our social existence and not merely to what is
common to all human beings. These differences are
constitutive of what we are and wish to be although in other
respects we may have the same concern as the rest (Deb
106).

Multiculturalism means the appreciation, acceptance, and promotion of

various cultures in schools, businesses, cities or nations. It expresses the
respect for diversity, and advocates equitable status to distinct ethic and
religious groups. It is compared to ‘bowl of salad’ where every piece
maintains its taste and adds to total. Multiculturalism tries to avoid the
use of ‘us’ and ‘them’. In other words it defends cultural rights of every
group as well as individual. It does not portray the groups with opposite
ends but expects to develop bridge and understanding among cultures. In
his book Rethinking Multiculturalism: Cultural Diversity and Political
Theory, Bhikhu Parekh says:

It is neither a political doctrine nor a philosophical issue but

actually a perspective on as way of viewing human life.

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 Increasing cultural diversity focuses on the promotion of
rights for different religion and cultural groups. The rights
for cultural groups form basis for multiculturalism. (59)

It expects interaction and communication between different cultures to

enrich the culture as a whole. It provides an opportunity to individual or
group of a culture to preserve his or their identity and permits him or
them to express freely. James Trotman in his book Multiculturalism:
Roots and Realities states:

Multiculturalism is valuable because it uses several

disciplines to highlight neglected aspect of our social history,
particularly the histories of women and minorities….. and
promotes respect for the dignity of the lives and voices of the
forgotten. By closing gaps, by raising consciousness about
the past, multiculturalism tries to restore a sense of
wholeness in a postmodern era that fragments human life
and thought. (66)

Multiculturalism is a school of thought that advocates society to

provide parallel status to distinct cultural and religious groups. No culture
is entirely perfect or any entirely worthless. Cultures evolve over times
and this process has been continued. It is a term which describes the
coexistence of many cultures in a locality without any one culture
dominating the region by making the broadest range of human differences
acceptable to the largest number of people, and most significantly
multiculturalism seeks to overcome racism, sexism and other forms of
discrimination.

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 The issue of multiculturalism has been broadly discussed on both
scientific and public level. During some past decades, a multiculturalist’s
perspective has been adopted by public framework in order to deal with
cultural diversity. There are a number of ethnic groups in various
countries which have given opportunities to discuss and consider the
implementation of multiculturalism. In this regard N. R. Khadpekar says,
‘The idea of multicultural society has its roots in nation-states, throughout
their histories, when confronted with international migration such as
Canada, The United States of America and Australia’ (2008:4).

One would find multicultural societies in every state with various

reasons like employment, political security; people migrate to different
places. It is necessary for settled people to maintain harmony and
acceptance with some assimilation. The cultural differences of various
groups should not be the reason for any misconduct or conflict; on the
other hand they should enrich the society as a whole. The cross cultural
activities need to be creative for society. Therefore it is necessary to
create common cultural ground giving equal importance to various
cultures living together.

Will Kymlicka in the book Multicultural Citizenship writes, ‘the

basic premise of multiculturalism is that membership in a cultural
community is essential to our personal identity and provides individuals
with the necessary framework to exercise their true liberty’ (82, 83).
Tariq Modood supports multiculturalism in his book Multiculturalism: A
Civic Idea polity saying that in the early years of the 21 st Century,
multiculturalism is mask timely and necessary and … we need more not
less, since it is the form of integration that one, it best fits the ideal of
egalitarianism, second, it has the best chance of succeeding in the post
9/11, past 7/7 world and third, it has remained moderate and pragmatic
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(14). Multiculturalism helps to maintain a stable identity having
interaction with and contribution of cultural groups, preserving
difference. Rajeev Bhargava makes the distinction on basis of fact and
value. He states:

As a fact, multiculturalism simply registers the presence of

many cultures. Its abstract enumerative character forms
make it amenable to different interpretations, open to
different ideological incarnations, with applicability across
space and time. As a value, multiculturalism morally
endorses the presence of many cultures, even perhaps
celebrates them. To put it simply, multiculturalism as fact
and value challenges the fact and value of a single culture
society. (Deb 20)

In countries like USA, Canada, Australia, India, people of different

religions and ethnicity live together. It, therefore, is necessary to respect
each other’s culture to maintain healthy atmosphere among them. No
doubt, it talks about equal rights to all, including the minority groups.
However, Bhikhu Parekh observes:

Multiculturalism is, in fact, not about minorities but is about

the proper terms of relationship between different cultural
communities, which means that the standard by which the
communities resolve their differences. (2000: 13)

Multiculturalism preserves difference by supporting the collective

goal. It offers freedom to follow their religions and traditions; for
example, in India Sikhs can tie turban in Indian army and police services.
If one’s religion requires, a slight change may be accepted in the dress

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code. This is what talks of multiculturalism. There is multiculturalism in
India; it respects Sikh community and other minor communities and their
religious identity.

As there is much diversity in counties like Canada, it becomes

essential to develop a national personality without disturbing the
individual religious and ethnic identity. To maintain harmony, the groups
need to interact. Mahatma Gandhi said, ‘No culture can live if it attempts
to be exclusive’. The respect for other cultures and celebration of
diversity would prevent culture clashes and terrific war, so
multiculturalism has become the need of time. The nation building gets
affected and weakened, if diverse ethnic groups clash with each other.

Multiculturalism is also a theoretical approach and a number of

policies have been adopted in western nations. Many western nations
have diversity of different cultures, and so multi-cultural. Thus
multiculturalism is a policy developed in western countries, especially in
Canada. The issue of Multiculturalism has become significant after World
War II and during the last decades of Twentieth Century, for a number of
reasons. To mention a few are significance of ethnicity in western
countries, with democracies, the political mobilization of indigenous
people, and growing threat of secession. Multiculturalism is developed as
a concept in western countries; it has affected the whole world and
particularly the Third World Nations.

Forms of Multiculturalism:

As stated earlier, the term multiculturalism has number of

meanings and has been used in a variety of ways. Some critics feel that it
is difficult to define multiculturalism exactly. Andrew Heywood, the

36
critic, talks about two forms of multiculturalism. They are descriptive and
normative. As a descriptive term, it has been taken to refer to cultural
diversity and as a normative term, multiculturalism implies a positive
endorsement, even celebration of communal diversity, typically, based on
either the rights of different groups to respect and recognition or to the
alleged benefits to the larger society of moral and cultural diversity
(Heywood 313).

The first form only refers and registers the presence of various
groups, whereas the second expects to do something not only to maintain
the minority identity, but to help them to improve. In this connection
Rajeev Bhargava in his article ‘The Multicultural Framework’ observes:

It is important to understand the current context within

which such demands for political recognition are made. To
emphasis this context, it helps to situate this issue in what I
call the broader dialectic of multiculturalism. The first
moment in this dialectic is the moment of ‘particularized
hierarchy’, characterized by a dominant community to which
other communities are subordinate…. Difference between
cultural communities is maintained but only with this
relationship of subordination. In short, the only way in which
difference is sustained is by treating communities unequally.
The second moment may be named as the moment of
universalistic equality. The only way to sustain equality here
is to deny the significance of cultural difference. People are
equal because their membership in a cultural community is
deemed in consequential. Rather, what matters is their status
as individuals and their membership in an abstracted
political community. The third moment may be termed as
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 the moment of particularized equality. Here people are
different but equal membership in particular cultural group is
important but so is the relationship of equality among
different cultural communities. (Deb 85)

This means every member should have recognition within society.

A member of community cannot be subordinate to other members in a
community or a community to other communities. This also talks about
egalitarian multiculturalism. The class or achievement cannot be the basis
for recognition but only culture and way of life. According to Rajeev
Bhargava there are three forms of multiculturalism; egalitarian, liberal
and authoritarian.

Ashok Chaskar in his book Multiculturalism in Indian Fiction in

English refers different forms of multiculturalism. He discusses:

Democratic multiculturalism recognizes the reality of

cultural diversity and differences and gives them a political
dimension. These differences can give rise to clashes
between groups but democratic multiculturalism attempts to
resolve conflicts through dialogue and discussion. It assumes
that social equality is possible only when there is no
oppression and subordination. The focal themes of
democratic multiculturalism are social heterogeneity,
diversity and freedom. It advocates the politics of
involvement. Another kind is conservative multiculturalism
which is less accommodative than the other forms. Liberal
multiculturalism celebrates the value of individualism.
Liberty and autonomy are terms dear to it, but it denies the
issues of identity and belonging. Its argument is for a natural

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 equality of all – Whites, African-Americans and Asians.
Critical multiculturalism focuses itself on the importance of
the positive socio- cultural transformations. It supports the
representation of race, class and gender in the public domain
and understands the reasons of social unrest and struggles.
(22)

Multiculturalism brings together the set of issues like sense of

belongingness, sense of identity, status and recognition, need to recognize
and maintain difference with others. It allows immigrant groups to follow
their own customs, regarding food, dress, religion and association with
others. Peter Schuck in his Diversity in America points out that
multiculturalism is a particular way to understand, to express and to
institutionalize the identity in an ethnically diverse society.

The Policy of Multiculturalism in Canada:

Canada became the first nation to adopt the multicultural policy

during the Premiership of Pierre Elliott Trudeau in 1970s. Undoubtedly,
Canada is one of the prominent multicultural societies in the world. It is,
therefore, not surprising that multiculturalism is studied in Canadian
context. Multiculturalism was a fact before it existed as a government
policy. In 1867’s Confederation, Canada consisted of mix people. Canada
has a striking pattern. More than half of the people of Toronto belong to
non-white minorities. Toronto is the second largest Parsee city in the
world after Mumbai. The number of Sikhs is very significant in it.

It is a usual psychology that one feels comfortable with familiar

people and distrusts outsider. However, it can cause great evil as source
of misunderstanding, enslavement, murder, war and other forms of

39
inhuman activities. Therefore, it becomes necessary to build bridges and
bonds among human beings. Earlier groups had their prejudices. Even the
first Prime Minister of Canada called himself British and Canadian. There
were systematically discriminated laws against Jews and non-white
minorities, favouring the whites. The children of natives were forced to
join boarding schools, so as to tear from native language and heritage.

Though these were problems, Canada tried to integrate people of

all ethnicities. French and English were the major groups in Canada,
which led to bilingualism and biculturalism. Actually, the elements of
bilingualism and biculturalism helped Canada to establish multicultural
identity. Pierre Elliott Trudeau thought of providing funds for minority
groups in Canada other than French and British, and he started a
programme of multiculturalism. Certain festivals and organizations were
conducted to protect and maintain their separate identities. This also gave
an opportunity to minority groups to compete for social good on the basis
of equality. Then this policy was brought into the Multicultural Act, with
ten provisions in it. Donald E. Waterfall points out its basic ideas.
According to him, its aim is:

1. to recognize and promote the understanding that

multiculturalism reflects the cultural and racial diversity of
Canadian society and acknowledges the freedom of all members
of Canadian society to preserve, enhance and share their
cultural heritage;
2. to promote full and equitable participation of individuals and
communities of all origins in the continuing evolution and
shaping of all aspects of Canadian society and assist them in the
elimination of any barrier to that participation; and

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 3. to ensure that all individuals receive equal treatment and equal
protection under law, while respecting and valuing their
diversity. (Deb 222, 223)

Though Canadians donot have definite and strong identities like

Americans it will be wrong to state that they do not have identity at all.
The factors like geography, sense of justice, orderliness, respect for
authority and institution, and approaches to public issues have created
distinct Canadian identity.

The geographical part, which is Canada now, was earlier governed

by France and England. Canada as a nation came into existence in 1867
with Confederation Act, where the issue of multiculturalism was of great
importance. The multicultural policy in Canada is a result of consequent
factors like Canada’s establishment as a nation, the gap between French
and English Canadians, the demands of the various aboriginal groups, and
the high rate of immigration in Canada.

Traditionally, there were conflicts among French and English

Canadians that also surfaced even after the Confederation Act. The
French Canadians decided to ignore and did not participate in any
political and economic activities; which helped English Canadians to
dominate. Even the mode of conduct was in English. Then, it was time
for quest of respect and recognition on the part a French-Canadians. They
were not ready to assimilate but wanted to maintain their identity. This
indirectly led to multiculturalism.

In 1871, 61 percent of Canadians were of British origin and 8

percent was non-French and non-English. Because of immigration to
Canada, in 1986, 35 percent of Canadian population was British, 34

41
percent French and 31 percent were others belonging to different ethnic
groups.

The three large waves of immigration to Canada - the first from

1896 to 1914, the second in mid-1920’s and the third from World War II
to 1960 - changed the complete population scenario of Canada. Actually
during the third large wave or in 1940s and 1950s the cultural pluralism
or multiculturalism gained popularity. More liberal views towards ethnic
groups were developed around this time. Kushal Deb points out:

First, of the new wave of immigrants, many were educated

or professionals and this helped to break down the rigid co-
relation between class and ethnicity, as evident in John
Porter’s The Vertical Mosaic. Second, the decline of Britain
as a world power made it a less attractive model to emulate.
Furthermore, the rising Canadian nationalism required a new
self-image to distinguish Canada from the American
‘Melting Pot’ ideology. The third and perhaps most
important reason was the dramatic change brought about by
the Quiet Revolution in Quebec. The increasing self-
assertion and growing confidence of the Quebeckers led to
the formation of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and
Biculturalism. Many ethnic groups . . . . found dualistic
image of the commission offensive and insisted that their
cultural aspirations and interests should be taken into
consideration. (Deb 236)

As a result of all this, the federal government officially adopted the

policy of multiculturalism in 1970. The French Canadians, however, did
not feel elevated by the government’s decision. According to them, the

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multicultural policy would deny the basic fact of Canadian life and would
promote English language and reduce French (Wardhaugh 213). On the
other hand Kymlicka points out that Canada does both multinational,
comprising of the English, French and Aboriginals and polyethnic,
comprise various ethnic immigrant groups (1995: 17). As the freedom of
immigrants was restricted to maintain their customs, French-Canadians’
fear could not be unjustified. Multiculturalism is a policy which supports
polyethnicity with French and English cultural national institution. The
multiculturalism Act was passed in 1988 by the Canadian government.

The breakdown of inter-ethic, inter-racial discriminatory attitudes

and cultural jealousies supported the policy. In 1971, the secretary of
state for multiculturalism was appointed. It was felt that adopting
multiculturalism would promote harmony. In July, 1988, the ministry of
multiculturalism was created by the Canadian government with a
commitment to recognize the understanding of multiculturalism reflected
in the cultural and racial diversity and to acknowledge the freedom of all
members of Canadian society to preserve, enhance and share their
cultural heritage. The Federal government’s efforts made
multiculturalism to stand strong in Canada. According to Narendra
Bhokhare the four components of the Canadian Multiculturalism policy
are: group maintenance and development, second group acceptance and
tolerance, third inter- group contact and sharing, and fourth learning of
official languages (Deb 248).

The percentage of different ethnic groups population in Canada is

comprised such as British – 28.1%, French – 22.8%, Dutch – 1.3%,
German – 3.4%, Italian – 2.8%, Polish – 1.0%, Jewish – 0.9%, Ukrainian
– 1.5%, Native – 1.7%, Asiatic – 6.0%, Scandinavian – 0.6%, Russian –

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0.1%, and other – 8.2%, Thus, 71.5% of Canadian population is of
multiple origin (Census 2010).

Canadian multiculturalism needs to be discussed on certain

grounds, such as French speaking Canadians with the demand of distinct
society, the aboriginals with the wish of maintaining separate identity and
the immigrants with the liberty of their tradition from Asian and
European countries. In this regard, Kushal Deb in
MappingMulticulturalism points out:

Multiculturalism can be analysed at three levels. The issues

at the three levels are interwined and together provide the
context for the debate. At the first level, is the issue of the
status of Quebec (a province with dominant French –
speaking population) as a ‘distinct society’ with
accompanying self-governing rights. At the second level, are
questions concerning the aboriginal groups, who can be
further categorized as Indians (the First Nations) Inuit
(Eskimos) and Metis (descendants of European trappers and
aboriginal women). The issue of the ethnic immigrants from
the various Asian and European nations constitutes the third
level, of analysis. (Deb 14)

French colonizers ruled Canada, before getting defeated by British.

They, with maximum numbers in Quebec after the Confederation,
demand the distinct status to be maintained, with self-governing rights. It,
however, seemed stronger as the French – Canadians were not dispersed
all over Canada, as Quebec. The aboriginal people were those original
inhabitants of Canada before the arrival of the French and British
colonizers. They are called First Nations Indian. Having intimate

44
relationship with land for centuries together, they developed their own
culture and philosophy of life. Unfortunately, the aboriginals were
attacked by administrators and missionaries and they were forced to
assimilate with a process called enfranchisement. The administrators
passed Indian Act in 1884 preventing and forbidding the native
aboriginals to celebrate and practice their cultural heritage. The Act is:

Every Indian or other person who engages in or assists in

celebrating or encourages directly or indirectly another to
celebrate any Indian festival, dance or other ceremony… is
guilty of an offense and is liable on summary conviction for
a term not exceeding six months and not less than two
months. (250)

Some of the activists reacted against this. Jay Mason, the Canadian
activist and the representative of the Canadian Alliance in Solidarity with
the Native People regretted racism against Native people, saying no
native write news or make films, and natives are most victimized of
groups (253). This resulted into the demands of the aboriginal, which
needs to be considered in multicultural Canada.

The multiculturalism policy in Canada is a result of government

decision to fulfill the demands of the immigrant groups in Canada. These
immigrants resented the policy of bilingualism and biculturalism and
expected multiculturalism. The adaptation of the policy diluted the
demands of French Canadian and aboriginal groups, the government
declared the multiculturalism policy will take care of cultural needs of all
groups.

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Immigration to Canada:

It is recorded that Canada has the highest immigration in

comparison to other countries in the world. In 2001, more than 2.5 Lakh
people immigrated to Canada from Asia and Europe. This immigration
has shaped Canada. Nearly all Canadians have a parent or grandparent, as
an immigrant coming to new land. There would be no Canada without
immigration. The immigration has certain reasons like Canada posed
economic promise and escape from political and religious threats from
European and non-European countries. Some of the immigrants started to
work in mining, railway, manufacturing and construction industries, some
stayed there permanently, and some others returned back. Every one of
them played a significant role in building Canada as a nation. In Canada’s
largest cities, nearly 90 percent of foreign born Canadians live.

The immigrants, settled in Canada, were of multiple cultures and

ethnic groups. Canada was populated by French and English people, with
the western European tradition. Those, apart from Europeans who came
to Canada, were called foreigners. Foreigner meant different and perhaps
inferior. The foreigners’ race, colour, religion or customs were different
from the French-old English Canadians. Canada needed people to work in
factories, in forests, in mining, in prairies. Some of the Canadians
supported immigration, whereas others were doubtful about the
harmonious life with these different cultures and religions. This resulted
into anti-immigration sentiments. The government responded people’s
demand with new regulations for these who want coming Canada.
Canada blocked her doors to others until World War II. However after the
World War II, Canada’s economic expansion lifted the restrictions on
immigration.

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 Those who felt doubtful about immigration saw assimilation as an
answer. The immigrants were pressured to put aside their ethic and
traditional customs and integrate into the ways of English Canada.
Especially, the immigrants’ children were forced and treated into the
ways of Canadian life. Though, the effort seemed successful, racism and
discrimination existed. To end racism, certain attempts of activists and
government were supported. In 1967, barriers to Canadian immigration
were removed. As a result the immigrants from Asian and other non-
Europeans countries outnumbered. So the various minorities are visible in
Canada. According 1991 census, more than 30 percent of Canadians live
in Canada other than English and French. And the majority of students in
universities are non-whites than whites like French and English. This
simply means that pluralism is a fact of Canadian society. The
assimilation theory did not succeed completely, so the Canadian
government advocated the policy.

For the policy of multiculturalism there are certain responsible

factors. It was the product of the time. The Royal Commission, appointed
by the government, interviewed a number of people including French,
English and others on biculturalism and bilingualism. The non-whites
reacted to the Commissioner that the assimilation policy was unjust and
unfair. They sacrificed their children to national war, they may not be of
English and French origin but, they are not one bit less Canadians, and
they should be included in the public policy. The immigrants expected
new model apart from American milting pot, to maintain their cultural
mosaic. The Royal Commission recommended Canadian government and
institutions, not only to acknowledge cultural pluralism but also to
encourage them. The policy was announced as multiculturalism and Bill
C-93 was passed as the Canadian Multiculturalism Act in 1988. The

47
policy gave freedom to citizens to maintain their ethnicity to the degree
that they want. This developed tolerance for others, created social peace,
harmony, and loyalty to democratic institutions. It posed a contrast
between mosaic verses melting pot. Canada cherished multicultural
values and always been more open, more tolerant society than USA.

Problems of Multiculturalism:

Respect for food, dress, music of other culture is multiculturalism;

however, this does not mean that they will be treated with equal dignity.
They can be looked down upon with other issues in the society, and so
inferior to whites. Another important point to be noted here is that inter
group conflicts, though the culture of the group may be same. This is
wrong to say that only the cultural differences create clashes in society.
Sometimes it is seen that cultural homogenous also leads to struggle
among the people of same group and same culture. In case of problems of
multiculturalism, Rajeev Bhargava points out.

Multiculturalism is egalitarian but it can also be hierarchical,

and is liberal but also authoritarian. So, an advocacy of
multiculturalism is not exactly free of problems, some of
these are easily explicated. First, it tends to essentialise and
harden identities that generate radical exclusions of people.
Second, by its encouragement of particularity, it appears to
deepen divisions and undermine the common foundation
necessary for a viable society. Third, it supports aggregative
community power over individual freedom and by according
equal right to oppressive cultures it corrodes values of liberal
democracy. (Deb 94)

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 As each group is allowed to maintain its separate identity, the
multiculturalism may be hierarchical. The superior groups and culture
may continue to be superior and inferior groups as inferior. It demands
strict obedience for authority that it is authoritarian. It seems that group
authority is given much of importance.

Some English speaking Canadians protested against the

multiculturalism policy. They thought this as an attack on English
Canada’s deep rooted heritage of British values, which are central to
Canada’s civic culture. In addition, they felt it will lead to an eradication
of British institutions and traditions.

Multiculturalism tells us that we are lightly different from each

other; at last we all are one. According to Kim Kyung-hyun
‘Multiculturalism is a recent coinage that literally refers to the state of
coexistence in a society of multiple cultures of race, ethnicity, religion
gender and sexuality’ (Khadpekar 134).

Cultural diversity is a fact today. There are more than six thousand
communities and as many languages in today’s world. It naturally leads
to the diversity of vision, practice, belief values, etc. Multiculturalism is a
way of life living together but appreciating cultural life of others. It
expects dialogues among many groups. It is neither to idealize nor to
reject other (Khadpekar 57). Multiculturalism expects inactions, strong
moral cohesion, and social responsibilities. If there is prejudice, against
other, the clash between ‘Them and Us’ increases, which results into
communal riots. This automatically hampers the development of nation.
So for nation’s cause, multiculturalism talks of unity in diversity.
Multiculturalism requires two things; the equality of opportunity and
proportional representation. The idea of multiculturalism carries with

49
society having inter-ethnic, inter-racial harmony, respect for cultural
difference.

Though, multiculturalism was accepted as a policy in Canada not

all Canadians supported it. Some of them worried that multiculturalism,
unlike melting pot of America, will divide them, rather than unite them
for national integrity. In addition to that, this policy will throw away the
heritage of British and French Canadians. Some felt that the increasing
immigration posed a threat to French and English Canadians.

However, there were other people and groups, who welcomed and
supported the multiculturalism policy. The government strongly
responded to this policy, which encouraged immigration in Canada. The
greater diversity gives a universal experience. It has become a Canadian
national pride.

The terms like melting pot, salad bowl, and a garden are used to
describe nation with multicultural diverse ethnicity by some critics.
However, Canadian Prime Minister Sir Wilfred Laurier’s remark is very
significant. When he visited a cathedral which was made of marble, oak
and granite, he said:

It is image of the nation that I would like to see Canada to

become, I want marble to remain marble, the granite to
remain granite, the oak to remain the oak; and out of all
these elements I would built a nation great among the
nations of the world. (Canada and World Backgrounder, 4)

On 8th October 1971, the official Canadian policy of

Multiculturalism was announced. When Prime Minister Trudeau
addressed the House of Commons, he was greeted by both sides of the

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House. The federal policy statement said, ‘There is no official culture, nor
does any group take precedence over any other. No citizen or group of
citizens is other than Canadian, and all should be treated fairly’ (Harold,
The Encyclopedia of Canadian’s peoples).

Officially, the multicultural policy identified four priority

initiatives. First, resources permitting, the government will seek to assist
all Canadian cultural groups that have demonstrated a desire and effort to
continue to develop a capacity to grow and contribute to Canada, and a
clear need for assistance, the small and weak groups no less than the
strong and highly organized. Second, the government will assist members
of all cultural groups to overcome cultural barriers to full participation in
Canadian society. Third, the government will promote creative
relationship and interchange among all Canadian cultural groups in the
interest of national unity. Fourth, the government will continue to assist
immigrants to acquire at least one of Canada’s official languages in order
to become full participants in Canadian society.

Multicultural policy is particular Canadian response to Canadian

society. Though, there is plurality of races in other countries, it was not
advocated. Beginning from the aboriginal to the recent immigrants, it is
clear that Canada is made up of immigrants, so the multicultural policy
suits Canada.

If a nation wants to survive itself, which is multicultural and

individual identity is bound to cultural identity, can do certain things first,
it can destroy all multicultural dimensions and give only single dominant
one. However, this would result into genocide as of holocaust. The other
way is to celebrate and encourage the diversity as multiculturalism.

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Jewish Canadians:

Jewish Canadians, the fourth largest Jewish Community, are

citizens of the Jewish faith and ethnicity living in Canada. The history of
Jews in Canada dates back to 1738 when a Jewish girl Esther Brandeau,
disguised as a boy entered the country, although king Louis XIV allowed
only Roman Catholics to enter New France (Canada), making official
province of France in 1663. However the girl returned back denying
conversion. In 1760, General Jeffrey Amherst seized Montreal and won
Canada for British, and he was joined by his Jew officers like Emmanuel
de Cordova, Aaron Hart, Hananiel Garcia and Isaac Miramer. Aaron Hart
settled in Montreal after his services in the army and became a prominent
man in Montreal and started to build the Jewish community. His son
Ezekiel became the first Jew in an official position as he was elected to
the legislature of Lower Canada. The Catholics felt angry as Ezekiel took
an oath in Hebrew Bible than Christen Bible, and Ezekiel was expelled
from legislature. He was re-elected, but Jews were not allowed to hold
elected office in Canada. Certain protests and revolts began which
resulted into amendment of law in 1829 providing Jews, not to take an
oath as “On my faith as Christen”. In addition, French, Canadian
politician Louis- Joseph Papinea helped Jews lot to get equal political
rights, along with Ezekiel Hart.

The early Jews were engaged into fur trade, British Army and a
few were merchants and land owners. It was recorded that by 1850, there
were only 450 Jews in Canada, and particularly in Montreal. Because of
increasing anti-Semitism, Jews found a way to United States and Canada.
Canadian government welcomed new immigrants to develop Canada, and
by 1930 the population of Jewish Canadians reached over 1, 55,000.

52
 Earlier settled and financially safe Jews like Abraham De Sola felt
that it was their responsibility to help the new poor Jewish immigrants to
settle, and certain communal groups were developed to help them.
According to 1871 Census, Canada had 1,115 Jews. Henry Nathan. Jr. the
first Canadian Jewish Member of Parliament joined the delegation to
Ottawa to agree on the colony’s entry into Confederation. By the time,
the Canadian Jewish Congress (CJC) was founded in 1919 to voice out on
behalf of Jewish people in Canada. Nearly twenty thousand Jewish
Canadians volunteered to fight for Canada during the World War II. After
the war, Canada liberalized the immigration policy. Nearly all the Jews in
Canada speak one of the two official languages English or French;
maximum speak English. Their Jew culture is properly maintained by
Jews as well as Gentiles, with some exceptions. With the official policy
of multiculturalism in 1971 onwards, the population of Jewish Canadians
has reached up 3, 48,605 according to census 2001 in Canada.

The Jewish Canadians outnumber general Canadians in education.

In other words, Jewish community is most educated group in Canada, and
they also earn more. Three in ten Jews occupy professional positions.
Forty Three percent of Jewish Canadian has minimum bachelor’s degree,
in comparison to sixteen percent of general Canadians. Though they are
only one per cent in total Canadian population, they jump up to ten per
cent in university education enrollment. Because of high rate of education
and income, Jewish Canadians are wealthiest group. Many of notable and
leading figures, scientists, doctors, judges are Canadian Jews. Some
others created an impact in Canadian politics, music & literature. In all,
Canadian Jews have helped to develop Canada as a nation.

In spite of all this, Canadian Jewish people have experienced anti-

Semitism, and particularly during the anti-Semitic agitation in the decade
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of 1930s. However, the anti-Semitic incidents were small and less in
number in comparison to other countries. As they are minority, they are
marginalized sometimes. Canadian Jews’ high success rate in education
and income, have created jealously among the non-Jews. They are
orthodox, in comparison to US Jews; may be the result of multicultural
policy which allows them to maintain their culture. The Jewish Canadians
out marriage rate is 35% contrasting to 54% of US Jews. Many Jewish
Canadians have developed connection to Israel, a survey points out 70%
of Montrealers visited Israel up to 1991, opposite to 31% of US Jews.
The Jewish schools in Canada emphasize Israel studies. Because of
immigration, Canada seems to be the perfect place for Jews, of whom
population has increased up to 40% in the last forty years. To the
development of Canada the significant part is played by Canadian Jews
which cannot be neglected. Their contribution to Canadian society is very
significant.

The Canadian Jews played important role in forcing Canada’s

biculturalism and bilingualism into multiculturalism. Two major reasons
for Jewish immigration into Canada are: one is the survivor of Holocaust
left Europe to begin a new life in Canada and second Canadian open
immigration policy. There is no separate Jewish University, in Canada,
but the universities like McGill, Toronto have Jewish studies’
departments. They have their Jewish newspapers, and periodicals.
Toronto and Montreal represent their strong, vibrant Jewish culture, and
they cherish the opportunities to celebrate their culture.

Multiculturalism and Canadian Literature:

The categorization of National Literature becomes more popular in

mid- twentieth century literary criticism. The critics of this period try to

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formulate a national literature on the ground of similarity in thematic
concerns, the artistic fabric and most importantly the social and cultural
milieu. But soon the critics start facing the problem in the wake of new
terminologies like World Literature in the age of multiculturalism.
Theetymological evidences suggest that the term was used in the context
of Canadian culture as Canada is the first nation in the history that adapts
the liberal and multiculturalism policy. Conservative, traditional and
orthodox critics gave importance to the specific culture that becomes
invalid. The void of the proper categorization to underscores the
requirement for the new categorical label that can comprise the
Multicultural literary expressions.Margaret Lawrence, Alice Munro,
Margaret Atwood, Hugh McLennan, Ethel Davis Wilson and Ernest
Buckler are the significant writers on the mission of creating a national
literature that should have a test of regional culture. The literary motif of
these authors is to depict a socio-cultural landscape of Canada. Their
literary creations frequently visit to history and attempt to glorify it. The
cultural customs, social codes and religious beliefs are focused to reveal
the characteristic features of Canada as a distant nation. The novels are
the stories of a common Canadian man who by his living contribute to
sustain the great tradition of Canada. The phase has given masterpieces to
literary history of Canada. The authors of the tradition also become
successful to secure most prestigious Nobel Prize for literature.

Immediately after this phase Canadian literary history witnesses a

radical shift from national to the transnational- multicultural literature.
This shift is described significantly by W. J. Keith in Canadian Literature
in English Vol. II:

The Canadian writers who came to prominence in the 1960s

and 1970s, though as varied as their immediate predecessors,
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 are linked by a common energy, confidence, and
sophistication. This is, I believe, indisputable, even if
cultural historians comparing this fiction with the work
produced at the same time in Britain and, especially, in the
United States discern what might be regarded as a typically
Canadian cautiousness . . . . most contemporary Canadian
writers have found an abundance of promising material to be
presented within technically complex but none the less
traditional modes. This is a paradoxical result of the late
development of the country's fictional potential. Some nov-
elists, like the poets, have discovered a neglected past: Rudy
Wiebe has written epic-like novels about the Indian and
Metis rebellions of the nineteenth century, while Margaret
Laurence and Alice Munro, among others, reconstruct the
more recent past of their own childhoods. Simi- nineteenth
century, while Margaret Laurence and Alice Munro, among
others, reconstruct the more recent past of their own
childhoods. Similarly, Margaret Atwood has found a new
way of exploring the brittle, oppressive, and emotionally
deadening world of North American urban life by viewing it
from an off-centre Canadian perspective, while Austin
Clarke is in a position to exploit unique creative
opportunities in fiction based on the uneasy multicultural
and interracial complexity of contemporary Toronto. (62)
The abstract reveals that how Canadian Literature enters into the phase of
multiculturalism. In this phase Canadian literature becomes more
contemporary as it reveals the multicultural landscape of metropolitan
cities of Canada. The life in these centres cannot be distinguished with
the specific cultural background; rather it is the mosaic of different
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cultures which coexist in the creolized atmosphere. The authors of this
phase face the problem of cultural identity as they cannot identify
themselves with any specific cultural background. This dilemma also
emerged in literature as a major thematic concern. In this transitional
period of Canadian literary history authors maintain detachment from
Canada by writing in English and French, but at the same time their
expatriate experiences may be tracked back to Canadian roots.

Another significant discourse in this regard is SmaroKamboureli’s

book Making a Difference: Canadian Multicultural Literature (2007)
writes that “In response to the currency that multiculturalism has
achieved in the political, social, and academic arenas, anthologies, critical
studies, and course syllabi have gradually begun to include authors who
have been traditionally excluded from mainstream representation” (3).
According to her, in this early phase the academicians attempt to
eradicate the conceptualization of ‘other’ from the discourse of literary
criticism that once held a significant position in the process of analysis
and the selection of a critical approach. But at the same time they are
treating few representative authors as token or iconic literary personalities
from the tradition of ‘other’ this very idea gave way to the differentiation.
Later on the literary theorists understand this problem and left the idea of
preparing separate anthologies of these multicultural authors. Thus, in the
later phase, it can be observed that the multicultural authors were
included in the mainstream literature of Canada. Especially after 1988,
the multiculturalism becomes a permanent literary tendency of Canadian
English Literature.
Canada includes people from different religious groups like
English, French, aboriginals, Muslims and Jews. The need of religiously
diverse people leads to the realization of literature that plays significant

57
role in the development of understanding across cultures. To aid the
understanding of other culture, many researchers emphasize the
requirement of multicultural literature. Hazel Kochman points out, ‘The
best books break down borders. They surprise us—whether they are set
close to home or abroad. They change our view of ourselves; they extend
that phase 'like me' to include what we thought was foreign and strange’
(1993 p. 9). This changing view is significant to researchers who are
investigating the multicultural literature in the age of transnationalism. In
the light of this basic reason many other minor but significant reasons that
contribute to the development of Multicultural Canadian Literary
tradition can be seen as follows:
- The literature is the only source that can help to the process of
acculturation.
- Literature as a form of culture sustains the great cultural
tradition and at the same time denotes the significant changes in
the social conducts.
- Canadian Literature in English reflects the contemporary life
that is under the influence of the multiculturalism.
- The secularism in the religious orientation and the cultural
conducts can be realized in the literary expressions of the
period.
- Canada as an officially bilingual country holds a collage of
different cultures and creates an eclectic model of contemporary
consciousness that gave birth to the new vibrant literature.
- The literature of the period not only locates the commonalities
among the people but also focuses on the differences.
- In this period Literature is the only valid solution that can
bridge these differences to create the nation as organic whole.

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 - Contemporary Canadian Literary Tradition has a capacity to
sustain the cultural equality.
Thus, these reasons gave birth to the multicultural literature that
reflects the mosaic of different themes and captures the multiple layers of
the human psyche. The literature reflects the multi-cultural social
landscape and at the same time contributes to create it. After World War
II, multiculturalism emerged as a major thematic concern in the Canadian
literature. But its roots can be traced in the history of British and French
colonial expeditions in the fifteen century. The colonial rule, natural
resources and opportunities of development make the Canada a dream
destination for global migrants. This huge migration influences the
political policies of the nation. As a result of it Canada adopts the
multicultural policy and has acquired the official status of bilingual
nation. This multipolar attitude is also reflected in literature as Canada
has the literary traditions like French-Canadian Literature, English-
Canadian Literature, Irish-Canadian Literature, Chinese-Canadian
Literature and so forth. These categorizations of Canadian literature
suggest its multicultural nature. The authors from these sub-literary
traditions depict their life experiences in Canada that brings multiple
facets to the Canadian literary traditions. For instance the authors like
Mordecai Richler, Margaret Laurence, RohintonMistry, Michael
Ondaatje, and Wayson Choy significantly add the multicultural stuff to
their literature. The anthologies of different authors from different
cultural decants are published to formulate these sub-literary traditions
(Articulation of Interculturalism in Chinese-Canadian Literature 2000).
In these anthologies the thematic concern of Canadian literature gets
tremendous shift from the portrayal of cultural differences, search for

59
collective voice, immigrant problems to the themes like problem of
acculturation, cultural crisis, transcultural marriages, problems of cultural
harmony and self-identity in the globalization.
In the chapter III the researcher discusses the concept of
multiculturalism reflected in Richler’s early novels. The chapter focuses
on Mordecai Richler’s novels Son of a Smaller Hero, A Choice of
Enemies and The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz. The division, early
novels and later novels, however, is made for the convenience of study.

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