Q# 1 a) Define the term confidentiality

b) What are the benefits of maintain confidentiality in medical research.

Definition of Confidentiality
Confidentiality is the obligation on the physician not to reveal what has been learned during the
course of treatment. OR Confidentiality is the obligation to keep private information that has
been collected from being shared with others.
Benefits of Maintaining Confidentiality
1. It helps establish trust between the research participant and the researcher
2. It reduces worry on the part of the participant
3. It maintains the participant’s dignity
4. The participant feels respected
5. It gives the participant control and promotes autonomy.
Circumstances of Breach of Confidentiality
1. Most often careless/inadvertent
2. Office staff indiscretion
3. Elevator chatter
4. Discussion in rounds
5. Inattention to wording of release
6. Unguarded conversation with patients’ friends/relatives
7. Classroom
Exceptions to the Requirement of Confidentiality
1. Express consent
2. Implied consent
3. Legal proceedings
4. Statutory requirements
5. Protection of the public

Q # 2 a) define the term informed consent.

b) Define the components of informed consent.
Definition of Informed Consent
It is a voluntary unforced decision made by a competent autonomous person to accept rather than
to reject some purpose or course of action, based on appreciation & understanding of facts &
implications of action, even if refusal may result in harm.
I Information Elements
1. Disclosure of Information
2. Comprehension of Information
II Consent Elements
3. Voluntary Consent
4. Competence to Consent
Components of Informed Consent
There are five components of Informed Consent.
1. Competence
2. Disclosure
3. Understanding
4. Voluntariness
5. Consent
Q # 3 a) give five reasons why we need bioethics?
b) Name the fundamental principles of biomedical ethics.

Why We Need Bioethics?

We need bioethics for the following reasons:-
1. For the promotion of ethical practice.
2. For the prevention of ethical breaches.
3. For the recognition of ethical dilemmas.
4. For the development of ethical codes and guidelines.
5. For the resolution of ethical conflicts.
Fundamental Principles of Biomedical Ethics
There are four fundamental or basic principles of biomedical ethics. They are given below:-
1. Autonomy
2. Beneficence
3. Non Maleficence
4. Justice
Components of Biomedical Ethics
The components of biomedical ethics are as follows:-
1. The Physician-Patient Relationship.
2. The Physician-Physician Relationship.
3. The Relationship of the physician to the system of healthcare.
4. The Relationship of the physician to society.

Q # 4 a) name the theories of biomedical ethics?

b) Explain utilitarianism?
Theories of Biomedical Ethics
An ethical theory is the framework to be used in assessing what is morally right or morally
wrong.
Existing Ethical Theories
1. Utilitarianism: Based on that the rightness of the act is measured by the consequences.
The principle is that a person (physician) ought to act so as to produce the greatest balance of
good over evil. We should act to produce the most benefits to the patient and causing the least
possible risk or harm. Outcomes have to be understood from the patient’s point of view within
acceptable constraints (not to prescribe inappropriate medicine based on patient will).
2. Obligation-Based (deontology): “Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether
in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a mean, but always as an end”.
There are no legitimate exceptions to a perfect duty. Stands on that the rightness of actions
depends on the nature of the act, not on consequences, although effects of actions are considered.
Some actions even considered obligatory regardless of the consequences (moral obligations or
moral duty). It is motivated from recognition of what is morally required in accordance with and
for the sake of obligation.
3. Rights-Based (Liberal Individualism): The basis is the rights of all parties – the providers of
health care and the recipients of it. Patients have rights of autonomy, privacy, confidentiality,
information about risks, benefits, and alternatives of any kind of treatment or procedures. On the
other hand, health care professional has rights that are stated in the ethical codes concerning the
health care. The right is a justified claim validated by moral principles and rules.
4. Community-Based (Communitarianism): Based on what community (including the family)
values and relationships are present or absent. Community control might overrides individual
preferences, thus there should be a balance for the sake of better health care.
5. Relationship-Based (Ethics of Care): concentrates on the intimate personal relationships
such as compassion, love. This imply caring for, emotional commitment to, and willingness to
act on behalf of persons with whom health professional has a significant relationship. It includes
elements of trustworthiness, and the quality of care itself.
6. Virtue-Based (Character Ethics): Based on the principle of virtue, which is a character’s
trait that might be socially valued or not, but is supported by a moral reasons, obligations, or
ideals. Virtue is connected to the individual’s motives such as sympathy, honesty, fidelity,
wisdom, & self-restraint. The virtue as an individual characteristic that leads to practicing the
right moral principles is what makes a health care professional ethically correct.
7. Case-Based (Casuistry or Reasoning): The proponents of this theory focus on practical
treatment of each case. Proper judgment should occur when health professionals deal with each
case individually with all details, and comparing the historical records of similar cases.

Q # 5 a) define the term privacy?

b) Name the forms of privacy.
Definition of Privacy
Privacy is the right of persons not to share information about themselves. OR Privacy refers to
what individuals choose to let other people know about themselves.
Forms of Privacy
There are five forms of privacy.
1. Informational
2. Physical
3. Decisional
4. Proprietary
5. Relational
Veracity
Definition
Veracity refers to comprehensive, accurate, and objective transmission of information, as well as
to the way the professional fosters the patient’s or subject’s understanding.
Arguments contributing to the justification of obligations of veracity
Three arguments contribute to the justification of obligations of veracity.
1. First, the obligation of veracity is based on respect owed to others. The respect of autonomy
provides the primary justificatory basis for rules of disclosure and consent. Even if consent is
not at issue, the obligation of veracity still depends on respect owed to others.
2. Second, the obligation of veracity has a close connection to obligations of fidelity and
promise keeping. When we communicate with others, we implicitly promise that we will
speak truthfully and that we will not deceive our listeners.
3. Third, relationships between health care professionals and their patients and between
researchers and their subjects ultimately depend on trust, and adherence to rules of veracity is
essential to foster trust.
Ethical Dilemma
Definition
A situation in which an individual feels compelled to make a choice between two or more actions
that he or she can reasonably and morally justify, or when evidence or an arguments are
inconclusive, is called an ethical dilemma.
Types of ethical dilemmas
Most ethical dilemmas can be identified according to the following classifications:
1. Dilemmas of Beneficence-dilemma that involve deciding what is good as opposed to what is
harmful.
2. Dilemmas of autonomy- those that involve deciding what course of action maximize the
patient’s right of self-determination.
3. Dilemmas of justice- dilemmas that involve dividing limited health care resources fairly.
4. Dilemmas of fidelity- those that involve honoring promises.
5. Dilemmas of nonmaleficence- dilemmas that involve the avoidance of harm.
6. Dilemmas of confidentiality- those that involve respecting privileged information.
7. Dilemmas of veracity- dilemmas that involve telling or concealing the truth.