E-Learning Material - Economic Geology

6 Year Integrated M. Tech.
Geotechnology and
Geoinformatics
e-Learning Material
PAPER CODE: MTIGT0601
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
Dr. J. SARAVANAVEL
Assistant Professor
Centre for Remote Sensing
Bharathidasan University
Tiruchirappalli- 620023
Email: drsaraj@gmail.com
e-learning Material – Economic Geology

Dr.J.Saravanavel, Assistant Professor, Centre for Remote Sensing, Bharathidasan University. drsaraj@gmail.com
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MTIGT0601- ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
1. Economic ore mineral deposits: Ore and gangue minerals – Hypogene (Primary) and
Supergene (Secondary) deposits – concentration of elements in the crustal rocks -
Classification of ore mineral deposits (Lindgren’s, Bateman’s and recent classifications).
Metallogenic provinces and epochs – Distribution pattern of ore resources in the world –
review of crustal evolution and metallogeny and evidences from Indian shield- Geologic
Thermometry – Non isotopic methods – Direct and indirect methods – Isotopic methods –
Principles of ore microscopy – microtextures of ore minerals and their significance.
2. Processes and environment of ore formation: Magmatic Deposits – Contact metasomatic

deposit – Hydrothermal deposits- Sedimentary and residual deposits – Metamorphic deposits
– Oxidation and supergene enrichment – Paragenesis of mineral deposits.
3. Physical properties, Chemical composition, mode of occurrences and Indian distributions of

native elements and metals (Gold, Silver, Platinum), semi metals (Arsenic, Antimony) and non
metals (Diamonds, Graphites) – Sulphides (Sphene, Molybdenite, Cinnabar, Aresenicpyrite,
Stibnite, etc.) – Halites (halites, fluorite) – Oxides (Rutile, Corundum, Iluminite, Cassiterite,
Columbite, Tantalite, Spinel, Franklinite, Chrysoberyl, Beryl) – Tungstates (Wolframite,
Scheelite) – Talc, Steatite, Asbestos, Tourmaline.
4. Metaliferous deposits: Mineralogy, mode of occurrence and distribution of Iron, Manganese,

Aluminium, Lead and Zinc, chromium and Gold in India.
5. Industrial Minerals: Mineralogy, mode of occurrence and distribution of minerals used for
Abrasives, Fertiliser, Paint, Refractory, Glass, Ceramic and Cement.

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Text Books:
1. Bateman, AM and Jonsen, M.L., Economic mineral Deposits, John Wiley

2. Gokhale & Roa, Ore Deposits of India, Thomson press, 1972,
3. Krishnaswamy,S., Indian Mineral Resources, Oxford IBH, 1980,
References:
1. Alkinson, Ore Deposit Geology Chapman & Hall,1985
2. Craig, 1985, Ore Petrology and Petrography, Wiley, 1981.
3. Desppande M.L., Gemstones and Semiprecious stones. Indian Minerals, Vol-32 No.1
Geol. Survey of India Pub. 1978.
4. Iyengar, N.K.N. Mineral wealth of Tamilnadu, Madras Govt.
5. Karanth, K.V., Gems and Gem Industry in India, Geol. Soc., 2000.
6. Krishnan, M.S. Mineral Resources of Madras, Geology Society of India Pub.
7. Laford,S.J., Industrial minerals and Rocks, AIME Pub., 1975.
8. Lindgren, W, Mineral Deposits, McGraw Hill, 1942.
9. Nancy, & Ron Perry, Practical Gem Cutting, David & Charles, 1982.
10. Prasad, V., Economic Geology, CBS Pub., 1994.
11. Ram Dohr, P., Ore Deposits and their Relationship, Springer Verlaz, 1960.
12. Stanter, R.L. Ore Petrology, McGraw Hill, 1972.
13. Sinha RK & Sharma, N.L., Treatise on Industrial Minerals of India, Pub, 1967.
14. Subramanyan, K.S. Geology of Tamilnadu and Pondicherry, Geol Soc. India, Pub., 2001.
15. GSI, Geology and Mineral Resources of Tamilnadu, Geol. Survey of India Pub.

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Dr.J.Saravanavel, Assistant Professor, Centre for Remote Sensing, Bharathidasan University.
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
e – Learning Material: Unit-1
ORE AND GANGUE MINERALS
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Economic Geology is an important branch of

Geology which deals with different aspects of
economic minerals being utilized by mankind
to fulfill his various needs
Economic Minerals are those which can be
extracted profitably
This subject deals with
• Minerals and their origin
•Processes of mineral formation
• control of localization
•Metalogenic epoch and provinces, etc.
What is a mineral?
A solid naturally-occurring compound

having a definite chemical composition
Examples:
quartz - SiO2 (an oxide)
hematite - Fe2O3 (another oxide)
chalcopyrite - CuFeS (a sulphide)
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MINERAL DEPOSITS
The term Mineral Deposit refers to any accumulation of

useful minerals of the mineral kingdom.
Such deposit may be classified as metalliferous (Copper,
lead) or non-metallic (Bauxite)
The elements that enter into the constituents of the
mineral deposits are derived either from the rocks of the
earth crust or from the molten bodies (magma)
Metallic Mineral Deposit: The concentration of metals in
the deposit is called Metallic Mineral Deposit. These
metals generally associated with other elements such
compounds are said to be ore minerals
Non-Metallic Deposits: The non-metallic deposits

consist of solids, liquids and gases.
The term ‘ore’ is not generally used to refer such
deposits. They called by the name of the substance itself
such as Mica, Petroleum, Coal, Asbestos
The unwanted material is simply called as ‘Waste’ and
not as gangue
The price is generally low compare to metallic deposit,
they are common substances
Except Gemstones, most of the non-metallic deposits
are free of waste or little waste
Feldspar, Barite, etc. have a considerable waste
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What is an ore?
An occurrence of minerals or metals

in sufficiently high concentration to
be profitable to mine and process
using current technology and under
current economic conditions.
A high grade lead deposit in Antarctica may not

considered as ore at present, since it can not be
commercially utilized
To be an Ore, there are two factors
1) The cost of production and 2) the market value
Single ores contain a single metal and complex ore
(ore minerals) consist of more than one metal
Molybdenum – single metal in Molybdenite
Chalcopyrite – Copper association with Iron and
Sulphur
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Most ore minerals are combinations of metals with

sulphur, oxygen and other non-metals
Some metals like gold, plattinam, copper are occur in
native form
Single metals may form many ore minerals or single metal

can be extracted from the number of ore minerals.
For example:- Copper
as a native metal – Cuprite
as a Silicate – Chrysocolla
as a Sulphides – Chalcopyrite, bornite, covellite,
chalcocite
as a Carbonates – Malachite, azurite
Gangue: The ore minerals are usually associated with

non-metallic materials or rock forming silicates which
are not desired . These unwanted materials are called
as Gangue
Gangue is mainly composed of rock forming minerals
like Quartz, feldspar, Calcite
However, certain gangue minerals are collected as
byproducts and utilized. For example: rock Gangue
may be utilized as road metal, fluorspar and limestone
as flux, quartz as abrasive, pyrite for manufacturing
sulphuric acid
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The tenor of ore is the metal content of the ore. Which is

required to give profit
The tenor is usually expressed as
• Weight percentage (base metals)
• Grams/tonne (precious metals)

The tenor varies with the
Price of the metal , cost of production, ores of
different metals, different ores of same metals
The Higher price of the metal, the lower the metal
content is required to make it profitable
Most of the iron ore is profitable – tenor of 35 – 50%
The tenor of copper is 0.8%
Gold 1/1000 of 1 %
Economically Important Metal

Concentrations in Earth’s Crust
Concentration
Metal (% by weight)
Aluminum 8.0 Note for comparison:
Iron 5.8 Silicon 28%
Copper 0.0058 Oxygen 46%
Nickel 0.0072
Zinc 0.0082
Uranium 0.00016
Lead 0.001
Silver 0.000008
Gold 0.0000002
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Mineral Resources
'Mineral Resource' is a concentration or
occurrence of material of intrinsic economic
interest in or on the Earth's crust in such form
and quantity that there are reasonable prospects
for eventual economic extraction.
The location, quantity, grade, geological

characteristics and continuity of a Mineral
Resource are known, estimated or interpreted
from specific geological evidence and knowledge.
Mineral Resources are sub-divided, in order of
increasing geological confidence, into Inferred,
Indicated and Measured categories.
• Inferred: That part of a Mineral Resource for

which tonnage, grade and mineral content can
be estimated with a low level of confidence.
• Indicated: That part of a Mineral Resource for
which tonnage, densities, shape, physical
characteristics, grade and mineral content can
be estimated with a reasonable level of
confidence
• Measured: That part of a Mineral Resource for
which tonnage, densities, shape, physical
characteristics, grade and mineral content can
be estimated with a high level of confidence.
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Mineral Resources and Ore Reserves
An 'Ore Reserve' is the economically mineable part of a

Measured or Indicated Mineral Resource. It includes diluting
materials and allowances for losses which may occur when
the material is mined.
Appropriate assessments, which may include feasibility

studies, have been carried out, and include consideration of
metallurgical, economic, marketing, legal, environmental,
social and governmental factors.
These assessments demonstrate at the time of reporting

that extraction could reasonably be justified. Ore Reserves
are sub-divided in order of increasing confidence into
Probable Ore Reserves and Proved Ore Reserves .

A 'Probable Ore Reserve' is the economically mineable part of an
Indicated, and in some circumstances Measured Mineral Resource.
A Probable Ore Reserve has a lower level of confidence than a

Proved Ore Reserve.
A 'Proved Ore Reserve' is the economically mineable part of a Measured

Mineral Resource. It includes diluting materials and allowances for losses
which may occur when the material is mined. Appropriate assessments,
which may include feasibility studies, have been carried out, and include
consideration of and modification by realistically assumed mining,
metallurgical, economic, marketing, legal, environmental, social and
governmental factors. These assessments demonstrate at the time of
reporting that extraction could reasonably be justified.
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RESERVES
• Probable: The economically mineable
part of an Indicated and, in some
circumstances, Measured Mineral
Resource.
• Proven: The economically mineable

part of a Measured Mineral Resource.
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SOME OF THE IMPORTANT ORES AND OREMINERALS
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Formation of Mineral Deposits
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PRIMARY OR HYPOGENE AND SECONDARY OR SUPERGENE
Ore minerals may be divided into primary or

hypogene and secondary or supergene minerals
Primary or hypogene minerals are those which
form during the original periods of metallisation
The supergene or secondary minerals are formed
by the alteration of the former by weathering or by
other surficial processes resulting from
descending surface water
Hypogene minerals are formed by ascending fluids
Formation of Mineral Deposits
Endogenous Processes (Primary or Hypogene)

• Magmatic concentration
• Metamorphism/Metasomatism
• Hydrothermal process
Exogenous Processes (Secondary or supergene)
• Weathering & Supergene enrichment
• Chemical deposition
• Mechanical concentration
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Endogenous Processes of Ore Formation
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Exogenous Processes of Ore Formation
• Weathering/Supergene Enrichment
• Chemical Deposition
• Mechanical Concentration
Laterite
Bauxite
Weathering
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Chemical Deposition
Mechanical Concentration
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THE FORMATION OF MINERALS AND MINERAL DEPOSITS
To have a better understanding of mineral deposits, it

is important that how mineral deposits are formed
The formation of a mineral generally involves a
change from a mobile to solid state
Since most of the mineral deposit from solutions, the
temperature and pressure play important roles
In general decrease of temperature and pressure
promote precipitation from aqueous solutions and
magmas
The mineral deposits formed in several ways, the
important of which are discussed
Crystallization from Magmas
Magma is a molten fluid which form igneous rocks on

cooling
It is composed of mutual solutions of silicates, silica,
metallic oxides, sulphides and volatile substances
The temperature of magma varies from 6000 C to
12500C
When magma cools the saturation point of certain
minerals may be reached and if the temperature of the
magma is below the fusion point of these minerals
tend to crystallise
For example: Apatite, Magnetite, Chromite, diamond,
platinum, etc. have formed from by crystallization
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Sublimation
Certain substances like sulphur are readily volatilised

by the heat of igneous activity
These substances may be deposited when the vapour
is cooled around the vents of volcanoes, fumaroles
without passing into liquid state. This is called
Sublimation
Distillation
It is believed that petroleum and natural gas are formed
by the slow distillation of organic matter buried with
sediments at the considerable depth
Evaporation and Supersaturation

Salts in solution are deposited when evaporation brings
about supersaturation. Ex. Salt deposition from brines and
the deposition of sulphate of copper, iron, zinc, calcium, etc.
Reaction of gases with other gases

Igneous activity is accompanied by large quantities of
gaseous emanations that contain the elements and
compounds of mineral deposits.
Reaction between different gases and vapours result in the
precipitation of metals and other substances contained in
them
For example: native sulphur and hematite formation
2H2S +SO2 = 3S + H20
Fe2CL6 + 3H20 = Fe2O3 + 6HCL
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Salt mine from Sal Island
Reaction Between Gases and Solids

The magmatic gases react with the intruded rocks
particularly carbonate rocks and produce complex mineral
assemblages and same way reaction between gases and
liquids at high and normal temperatures
Example: Precipitation of Copper sulphides from Cupric
sulphate
Reaction of Liquids with Liquids and solids
Consolidating magmas may give off enormous quantities of
magmatic fluids which are rich in minerals. These solution
are liquids and responsible for formation of many deposits
During their ascent journey they may meet surface waters of
different composition or other magmatic fluids and wall rock
of varying composition and react with them and result in the
precipitation of minerals
These reaction took place through various processes such
as Metasomatism, Solubility, Reduction and Oxidation
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a) Metasomatic Replacement
It is a process by which a substance is removed in solution
and simultaneously a new substance is deposited in its
place. It is also known as replacement
Replacement is the most important process in the formation
of epigenetic deposits example: Copper sulphate in solution
may replace limestone to form copper carbonate or pyrite to
chalcocite
b) Relative solubility of solid and solute

Determines the precipitation of many minerals from solution.
For example: if copper sulphate solution comes into contact
with sphalerite (ZnS) which is more soluble, copper
sulphide will be precipitated at the expense of sphalerite.
But the reverse is not possible
c) Reduction and Oxidation

Reduction and Oxidation may also cause precipitation of
minerals when a solution contacts a solid
For example: Gold is reduced from cupriferous solutions by
pyrite or organic matter. Native copper is deposited when
cupriferous solutions are oxidised by ferric iron
Oxidation of pyrite yields limestone
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Deposition In Open Spaces

When a solution comes into contact with a solid the
materials contained in it may be simply deposited in the
open space by changes in temperature and pressure without
any replacement
Certain types of wall rocks also favor precipitation by
reaction
Catalytic Action
There are certain mineral substances which cause the
precipitation of mineral matter from solutions without
themselves entering into the solution
Base Exchange
Occurs between solids and liquids whereby cations of
similar size are exchanged producing new minerals
Precipitation by Bacteria
It has been established that many iron ore deposits have
precipitated by soil bacteria
Unmixing of Solid Solutions:
The term solid solution refers to the existence of more than
one solid in a single homogenous phase
Among minerals many solid solutions are known such as
solid solutions of gold and silver, magnetite and ilmentite,
chalcocite and covelite, etc
Some solid solutions are stable at low temperature and
others stable at high temperature
When temperature falls down at certain points such solid
solutions are unstable and separate into their original
constituents. This is known as exsolution or unmixing
Thus ilmenite separate from magnetite, covelite laths from
chalcocite
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Colloidal Deposition:
Colloids are matter in a particular state. The colloidal
solutions are two phase systems one is the continuous
medium and generally liquid
The other is the discontinuous medium may be solid, liquid
or gas and is disseminated in the other in minute particles
but not in true molecular solutions.
Such systems are generally referred to as sols. If the
dispersed phase is a solid, the sols are called suspensoid, if
liquid is called emulsoids
The particles in sols are of submicroscopic size and in the
same sol they carry similar electrical charges
Deposition of these particles is therefore brought by the
addition of electrolytes carrying opposite charges
Colloidal Deposition….
Colloids are readily precipitated from natural solutions as
floculent or gelatinous masses
These floculent or gelatinous masses may harden to
rounded or other colloform masses such as botryoidal,
reniform, mamillary, nodular or pisolitic forms
The solidified colloids may persist in an amorphous state
such as opal or they may acquire crystallinity such as
marcasite, malachite or psilomelane
Thus many minerals are formed by colloidal precipitation
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Weathering and Mechanical Concentration Process

Weathering processes are very important in the formation of
economic mineral deposits
Mechanical weathering does not create any new mineral but
chemical weathering produces new minerals by acting upon
the preexisting mineral deposits
Placers, mineral in alluvium, etc are the Mechanical
concentration
Metamorphism
Many economic minerals are produced by recrystallisation
and recombination of the ingredients of the rocks during
metamorphism. Example: Garnet, Graphite and Sillimanite
Melting glaciers: sand and gravel
Abundance of Elements
in the Earth Crust
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CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL DEPOSIT
Classification of mineral deposits has been attempted by

many authors, but none of them have been unanimously
accepted.
The genetic classification is considered to be valuable for
the working geologist, since it can be applied directly to
the field
The earlier classification by Beck (1904), Bergsat and

Steizner (1904) and Irving (1908) on the basis of
origin.
Classifications Based on Geological Processes
Hydrothermal/Pegmatitic mineral
deposits form in association with hot
water- or gas-rich fluids
Magmatic mineral deposits concentrated
in igneous rocks;
Metamoprhogenic mineral deposits
concentrated by metamorhism /
metasomatism
Sedimentary mineral deposits are
precipitated from a solution, typically sea
water;
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Classifications Based on Host Lithology
• Unconsolidated Deposits
• Sedimentary Rocks
• Volcanic Rocks
• Intrusive Rocks
• Regionally Metamorphosed Rocks
I. Protogene (Primary)
A. Syngenetic
1. With eruptive rocks
For example: Bergsat
2. With sedimentary rock
and Steizner (1904)
B. Epigenetic classification
1. Cavity filling
2. Replacement
II. Secondary
A. Residual
B. Placers
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Lindgren (1911) Classification
Lindgren (1911) classified mineral deposits in

two main sub-divisions
1)Those formed by mechanical concentration and

2)Those formed by chemical reaction in solutions
The basis of this classification is the temperature

and pressure of formation
A. In surface water 0 – 70 o C medium (pressure)

1. By reactions
2. By Evaporation Lindgren (1911)
B. In bodies of rocks Classification
1. Concentration of substances contained within rocks
a) By weathering 0 – 100 o C Medium (Pressure)
b) By groundwater 0 – 100 o C Medium
c) By metamorphism 0 – 400 o C High
2. By Introduced substances
a) with out igneous activity 0 – 100 o C Medium
b) related to igneous activity
1. Epithermal deposits 50 – 200 o C Medium
2. Mesothermal deposits 200 – 500+ o C High
3. Hypothermal deposits 500 – 600+ o C High
c) By direct igneous emanation
1. Pyrometasomatic deposits 500 – 800 o C High
2. Sublimates 100 – 600 o C Low to Medium
C. In magmas by differentiation
1. Magmatic deposits 700 – 1500 o C High
2. Pegmatites 575+ o C High
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Lindgren classification is most accepted genetic

classification, but does not have the frame work for all
kind of deposits. For example: deposit of native copper,
regionally metamorphosed deposits, oxidation,
supergene deposits, etc.
It consider mostly on temperature and pressure, but
this is not in all cases
Bateman’s (1942) genetic classification based on the

various processes of formation of mineral deposits
Processes Deposits
a) Early magmatic – disseminated
1. Magmatic Concentration crystallization, segregation, injection
b) Late magmatic – Residual liquid
segregation, residual liquid injection.
Immiscible liquid segregation and
immiscible liquid injection
2. Sublimation Sublimate
3. Contact metasomatism Contact metasomatic
4. Hydrothermal processes a) Cavity filling

b) Replacement
5. Sedimentation a) Sedimentary
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Bateman’s (1942) genetic classification based on the

various processes of formation of mineral deposits….
Processes Deposits
6. Evaporation a) Evaporites
7. Residual and Mechanical a) Residual deposits

concentration b) Placers
8. Surfacial oxidation and

Oxidised, supergene sulphide
supergene enrichment
9. Metamorphism Metamorphosed and metamorphic deposit
On the basis of the analysis of several mineral deposit,

Mitchell and Garson (1976) identified certain
environment related to lithosphereic plates, conducive
for the formation of mineral deposit
1. Ocean floor spreading

2. Subduction zones related
3. Collision related
4. Transform fault
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The classification based on genesis is meant only for technocrats and is

not of any commercial importance
Classification based on the nature and most prevalent use of minerals
A. Metallic Mineral Deposits
1. Precious metals, e.g. gold, silver, platinum

2. Ferrous and Ferro-alloy metals e.g. iron, manganese
3. Non-ferrous and allied metals, e.g. copper, lead, etc.
4. Light metals, e.g. lithium, magnesium, etc.
5. Radio-active metals, e.g. uranium, thorium
6. Rare metals, e.g. palladium, selenium, etc.
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B. Non-Metallic Mineral Deposits
1. Mineral fuel, e.g. Coal, petroleum

2. Gemstones, e.g. diamond, ruby, etc.
3. Abrasive minerals, e.g. corundum, garnet, etc.
4. Building materials and the dimension stones e.g. marble, granite,
etc.
5. Industrial Minerals, e.g. mica, asbestos, etc.
6. Refractory Minerals e.g. Fireclay, graphite, etc.
7. Glass manufacturing materials, e.g. quartz, silica, etc.
8. Ceramic minerals, e.g. clay, felspar,etc.
9. Fertilizer minerals, e.g. phosphorite, sulphur, etc.
10.Chemical minerals, e.g. rock salt, borax, etc.
11.Mineral pigments, e.g. ochre, umber, etc.
12.Mineral water and groundwater
Ore Genesis
Ore genesis deals with various attributes that provide direct or
indirect evidence related to formation of ore deposits.
It is outcome of detailed studies involving geological, geochemical,

petrological, isotopic and time-space relationship between ores and
their repository set up.
The following attributes are important in understanding genesis of

ore deposits:
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Mineral Paragenesis and zoning, metallogenic epochs

and provinces are the important factors of controls of
mineral localization
Mineral Paragenesis: The term mineral paragenesis

defines the mutual relationships and time sequence
of minerals
The individual minerals in mineral deposit of
magmatic affiliations are formed in an orderly
sequence and this sequential arrangement is termed
paragenesis
The mineral paragenesis is identified by the field
evidences and microscopic studies
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Mineral Zoning
Mineral zoning is the tendency for certain minerals or

ores to be deposited at varying distances from a
related focus of igneous activity
The higher temperature and least soluble minerals

are found nearest the source
The low temperature and most soluble minerals are
found farthest from source
Zoning in hydrothermal aureoles can also be classified

according to direction. Zoning along the direction of flow
of the ore-forming fluids is termed axial. Zoning outward
from ore into wallrock, in a direction normal to the
hydrothermal flow direction, is termed transverse.
Based on studies of a large number of deposits of

different types, shows the following average sequence of
metals
At specific deposits, deviations from this sequence are found but generally
do not involve discrepancies of more than one or two positions in the series
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Enclosing a steeply dipping

body of polymetallic ores, the
prinicple ore elements (Pb,
Zn, Cu, Au) give rise to
primary halo that roughly
matches ore body shape
Lower temperature path
elements (Ag, As, Hg) form
primary halos shifted along
the rise of the ore body
Halos from readily volatile

elements (Cl, Br, I) are formed
in top lying over the ore body
The halos from elements of

higher temperatures
association (W, Mo, Co) are
shifted in the direction of dip
(downward) from the centre
of the ore body
From the above, the ore element is lead, low temperature pathfinder element is
mercury, high temperature element is cobalt and readily volatile elements is
iodine
Metallogenic Epochs
Metallogenetic epochs are specific periods

characterized by formation of large number of mineral
deposits within 10-20 million years or much less
In India, the important metallogenentic epochs are

1. Precambrian
2. Late Palaeozoic
3. Late Mesozoic to Early Tertiary
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Metallogenic Epochs ……
Precambrian Epochs
The Precambrian epochs is the most important world
over because of great length of time and presence of
large and varied mineral deposits
The huge sequence of Precambrian metasediments
and associated granitoids, gneisses, etc. are
supposed to have a different metallogenic history
The endogenic deposits have been broadly correlated
to ultrabasic, basic, acid-intermediate and post-
orogenic acidic phases of magmatism.
The exogenic deposits like iron and manganese are
related to sedimentary, metamorphic and other
processes
The iron ore deposits of Precambrian epoch in southern
singhbhum (Bihar),
Keonjhar, Mayurbhanj and Sundargarh (Orissa),
Baster and Durg (Madhya Pradesh), Chanda and Ratnagir
(Maharashtra),
Dharwar, Bellary, Sendur, Shimoga and Chikmagalur (Karnataka)
and Goa
The Chromite deposit in
Singhbhum (Bihar), Dhenkanal, Cuttack and Keonjhar (Orissa),
Mysore and Hassan (Karnataka)
Bhandara and Ratnagiri (Maharashtra)
The Gold deposits in

Kolar, Hutti and Gadag (Karnataka)
Ramagiri and Anantpur (Andhra Pradesh)
Wynad (Tamil Nadu) and Kondrakocha (Bihar)
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Copper deposit in
Singhbhum (Bihar), Khetri (Rajasthan), Malanjkhand (Madhya
Pradesh)
Mailaram, Gani and Agnigundala (Andhra Pradesh), Ingaldalur and
Kalvadi (Karnataka)
Lead and Zing in Zawar, Deri, etc (Rajasthan) Sargipalli, Kesarour,
Karmali (Orissa), Vadodara (Gujarat)
Many more examples are available for Precambrian epoch
Permo-Carboniferous (Late Palaeozoic) Epoch
Towards the upper Carboniferous (Late Palaeozoic), the Hercynian

movements introduced a great changes on the surface of the
globe and this movement is marked by mountain building and
initiation of sedimentary era
In India, the epoch is known by rich coal deposits of Lower
Gondwana for example:
Jharia, Bokaro, Karanpura, Giridih, Ramgarh, Auranga, Hutar,
Daltonganj, Deoghar and Rajmahal of Bihar
Raniganj, Barjora and Darjeeling of West Bengal
Singrauli, Korba, Chirimiri, Sohagpur, of Madhyapradesh
A large number of hypabyssal basic intrusive-dolerites and basalt
and mica-rich ultrabasic traverse these coal fields
Other important mineral deposits of this epoch are fireclay, iron
stone and ochure which occur within Gondwana formation
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Metallogenic Epochs and Provinces……
Late Mesozoic to Early Tertiary Epoch
This epoch is dominated by fissure eruption of basaltic lave flow

(Deccan trap) which is cover 50,000 sq km in western and central
India with semi-precious stones like rock crystal, amethyst, agate,
onyx chalcedony
Rare copper mineralisation is noted in the trap rock
Igneous activities of this epoch marked by granites, granodiorites,
basic and ultrabasic rocks of extra Peninsular India (Main
Himalaya, Manipur-Meghalaya and Andaman. These are
associated with occurrence of fluorite, copper, lead, zinc,
chromaite, magnesite, clay asbestos, magnesite and talc.
Nickel and chromaite in Andaman-Nicobar areas
METALLOGENIC PROVINCES
The metallogenic province is known by the name of dominant and
specific mineral such as Gold province, Copper province, Iron-ore
Province, etc.
It may comprise the mineralisation of more than one epoch, each
superimposed upon the other
In India, many examples for metallogenic provinces, a few of them are
1. Gold provinces of Karnataka (Hutti-Kolar) – Andhra Pradesh
(Anantpur-Godag) – Tamil Nadu (Wynad)
2. Copper province of Singhbhum (Bihar)
3. Copper province of Khetri-Pur, Banera-Bhinder (Rajasthan)
4. Lead-Zinc province of Hesatu-Belbathan (Jharkhand)
5. Iron-ore province of Southern Singhbhum-Keonjhar-Sundergarh-
Mayurbhanj
6. Iron ore province of Drug-Baster-Chanda-Ratnagiri
7. Iron ore province of Karnataka-Goa
8. Manganese Province if Balaghat-Bhandara-Nagpur
41
GEOLOGICAL THERMOMETERS
Minerals which yield information regarding the temperatures of
their formation and of the enclosing deposits are said to be
geologic thermometers
They are very useful in understanding the origin of minerals
 These thermometers that record fairly accurately the specific

temperature condition of formation of deposits
 The thermometers that provide an upper or a lower
temperature above or below which the deposits do not form
 The thermometers that provide a range of temperature within
which the deposit form
 The presence of two or more precise geological
thermometers in a deposit narrows the range of temperature
of formation for the deposits
GEOLOGICAL THERMOMETERS….
Methods for preparation of Geologic thermometry
1. Direct Measurement
 This includes direct measurement of temperatures of lavas,

fumaroles, hotspring, etc. where the formation of minerals take
place.
 A maximum temperature of 12500 C has been recorded for basic
lavas
 Fumeroles have a maximum temperature of about 700 0 C
 According to Bowen, earliest minerals of basic rocks, in general
form between 8700 C – 6000C decreasing with increase of silica
content – Chromite which is high temperature mineral form within
the above temperature
 The surface temperature of Puga hot springs, ladakh is measured up
to 850C. Sulphur, Borax and Potash which occur there may formed
at or above the temperature 850C.
42

2. Determination of Melting points and Inversion points of Minerals
 The melting points of minerals indicate the maximum temperature at
which they can crystallise
 The melting point of galena is known to be 11200C. The galena of
Hesatu-Belbathan belt, Bihar have formed at the temperature below
11200C
 The presence of other substances generally reduce the melting
point of the minerals
melting point of some Inversion point of some minerals
minerals
 Tridymite invert to Cristobalite - 14700C
 Olivine - 18900C
 Sphalerite to Wurzite - 10200C
 Anorthite - 15500C
 Kyanite to Mullite - 10000C
 Antimony - 6300C
 High Quartz (Beta) to Tridymite - 8700C
 Stibnite - 5460C
 Low Quartz (Alba) to High Quartz - 5730C
 Bismuth - 2710C
 Sulphur - 1190C

3. Study of Dissociation, (ii) Exsolution, (iii) Recrystallisation and (iv)
Liquid inclusion in minerals
Dissociation
 Minerals that dissociate water content or other volatile constituents or

any other mineral at certain temperatures may form good geological
thermometers
 For example: Zeolite, when heated, lose water content and thus form
geological thermometer indicate low temperatures of their formations
• Tremolite yields diopside at 9000C

• Calcite disscoiates at 9000C
• Pyrite into Pyrrhotite and sulphur vapour at 6850C
43

Exsolution
 Exsolution is separation of one mineral from another at particular

temperatures
• Magnetite to ilmentite at 7000C
• Chalcopyrite to Pyrrhotite at 6000C
• Stannite to Chalcopyrite at 5000C
• Bornite – Tetrahedrite at 2750C
Recrystallisation
 This method is adopted principally for native minerals
• Copper - 4500C
• Gold - 3600C
• Silver - 2000C

Liquid Inclusion
 It is possible to find out the temperature of formation of the crystals

approximately by noting the amount of contraction of the liquid
inclusion which filled completely the cavities initially
 To determine the temperature of formation by this method the mineral
may be heated till the cavity is completely filled by the inclusion and the
temperature at this point may be read
 The temperature of certain sphalerite was found to be 115 to 1350C
44

4. Changes in the Physical Properties of some minerals
 Some minerals undergo distinct changes in their physical properties at
certain temperatures
• Limestone – Pigment expelled - 6050C
• Mica - Pleochroic haloes destroyed - 4800C
• Smoky quartz – Colour disappears - 3000C
• Amethyst – Loses colour - 240-2600C
• Fluorite - Loses colour - Around 1750C
5. Associated Minerals
 The associated low, intermediate and high temperature minerals give
information about their temperature of formation
High Intermediate Low Temperature
Magnetite Chalcopyrite Marcasite
Pyrrhotite Arsenopyrite Adularia
Cassiterite Galena Chalcedony
Garnet Sphalerite Rhodochrosite
Pyroxene Tetrahedrite Siderite
Element Wt % Oxide Atom %

O 60.8
Si 59.3 21.2
Al 15.3 6.4
Abundance of the elements
Fe 7.5 2.2 in the Earth’s crust
Ca 6.9 2.6
Mg 4.5 2.4
Na 2.8 1.9
Major elements: usually greater than 1%

SiO2 Al2O3 FeO* MgO CaO Na2O K2O
H2O
Minor elements: usually 0.1 - 1%
TiO2 MnO P2O5 CO2
Trace elements: usually < 0.1%
everything else
45
A typical rock analysis

Wt. % Oxides to Atom % Conversion
Oxide Wt. % Mol Wt. Atom prop Atom %
SiO 2 49.20 60.09 0.82 12.25
TiO2 1.84 95.90 0.02 0.29
Al 2O3 15.74 101.96 0.31 4.62
Fe2O3 3.79 159.70 0.05 0.71
FeO 7.13 71.85 0.10 1.48
MnO 0.20 70.94 0.00 0.04
MgO 6.73 40.31 0.17 2.50
CaO 9.47 56.08 0.17 2.53
Na2O 2.91 61.98 0.09 1.40
K 2O 1.10 94.20 0.02 0.35
H2O+ 0.95 18.02 0.11 1.58
(O) 4.83 72.26
Total 99.06 6.69 100.00
Must multiply by # of cations in oxide 
Table 8-3. Chemical analyses of some

representative igneous rocks
Peridotite Basalt Andesite Rhyolite Phonolite
SiO2 42.26 49.20 57.94 72.82 56.19
TiO2 0.63 1.84 0.87 0.28 0.62
Al2O3 4.23 15.74 17.02 13.27 19.04
Fe2O3 3.61 3.79 3.27 1.48 2.79
FeO 6.58 7.13 4.04 1.11 2.03
MnO 0.41 0.20 0.14 0.06 0.17
MgO 31.24 6.73 3.33 0.39 1.07
CaO 5.05 9.47 6.79 1.14 2.72
Na2O 0.49 2.91 3.48 3.55 7.79
K2O 0.34 1.10 1.62 4.30 5.24
H2O+ 3.91 0.95 0.83 1.10 1.57
Total 98.75 99.06 99.3 99.50 99.23
46
GLOBAL METALLOGENY (in Relation to Crustal Evolution)
The continents are widely believed to have developed by

accretion
Each continent has developed from a volcanic nucleus or

nuclei, being joined and added to by peripheral volcanic
nuclei.
The process is aided by the accumulation of volcanic

matter (pyroclastic material) and products of erosion.
The pattern is complicated by later fractures and relative

movement, perhaps drift, of various crustal segments.
This evolutionary pattern seems to form a plausible
framework for the succession of geologic environments
and evolution of ore types.
The process of crustal evolution is considered in six successive stages.

STAGE I: THE EARLY VOLCANIC STAGE
The beginning of crustal evolution is marked by the formation of

broad swells on the basaltic ocean floor.
These represent the early stages in the development of volcanic

islands.
Development of these swells leads to block faulting, extrusion of

lavas, and their protrusion above the sea level to form volcanic
islands (Eg Solomon Is in SW Pacific)
MINERAL DEPOSITS:
Native copper and associated sulfides as orthomagmatic
disseminations and vesicular fillings Eg Solomon Islands.
Nickel and associated sulfides in volcanic sills Eg Kambalda, W
Australia, Manitoba. Precious metals viz. tellurides Eg Fiji.
Minor chemical sedimentation viz. manganese and iron with jasper.
47
STAGE II: EARLY ALPINE TYPE ULTRAMAFIC STAGE
Vulcanism continues, but changes to basaltic andesite, gradually

progressing to andesites, dacites and rhyolites.
Pyroclastic activity becomes prominant with the onset of the andesitic stage
and increases with the increase in the felsic nature of vulcanism.
The older swells are undergoing extensive erosion and much sedimentation.
The sediments become folded, faulted and deformed due to near vertical
block faulting and gravity collapse.
MINERAL DEPOSITS:
Alpine type chromite deposits in intrusives Eg Paleozoic to Tertiary
"Serpentine Belts" everywhere.
Nickel sulfide concentrations and Nickel also occurs as Ni-rich olivine

which may be concentrated to ore by later weathering.
STAGE III: DEVELOPING EUGEOSYNCLINAL STAGE
The volcanic islands are by now well established and are enlarged by bodily uplift,
volcanic accretion and sedimentation. Volcanic products are becoming more felsic
and pyroclastic material is becoming prominent. Earliest plutonic rocks of granitoid
texture and dioritic- granodioritic composition appear (in pipe or stock form). These
are of shallow subvolcanic nature. These may be products of magmatic differentiation
or transformation of the deeply buried pyroclastic rocks.
MINERAL DEPOSITS:
Banded Iron Formations developed as volcanic chemical sediments as a result of sea-
floor exhalative activity. Deposition of these took place in troughs (eugeosynclines) in
inter-island regions of arcs. Considerable jasper and some manganese Eg Guyana.
Stratiforn Sulfide Deposits of marine and marine-volcanic affiliation. All these are
essentially sea floor volcanic accumulations.
A few of these are associated with basaltic and more mafic lavas Eg Cyprus and Japan,
whereas a vast majority are associated with andesitic and dacitic rocks. Eg Base metals
of Ontario, Mount Isa and McArthur River (Precambrian); Bathurst, New Brunswick and
E. Australia (Paleozoic) and Japan (Tertiary).
Some Banded Iron Formations and minor manganese concentrations and barite are
associated with the Stratiform Sulfide Deposits. Most of these deposits are formed near
the continental margins and biological activity (2500 y ago) is always indicated.
48
STAGE IV: ADVANCED EUGEOSYNCLINAL & MIOGEOSYNCLINAL STAGE
The oldest swells have become quite large (Java & Sumatra) with smaller
intervening swells beginning to coalesce (Aleutian-Malaysian).
There is a mixing of volcanic material with products of continental erosion

around volcanic festoons bordering continents. There is, therefore, a hybrid
sedimentation on the continental side of the arc (the miogeosyncline) while
volcanic sedimentation progresses in the outward seaward trough (the
eugeosyncline). Vulcanism at this stage becomes more felsic.
MINERAL DEPOSITS
Stratiform or non-stratiform marine volcanic sulfide ores.
Banded Iron Formations in the eugeosynclines (for some reason major iron
formations are not associated with basemetal sulfide deposits).
Volcanic basemetals are contributed to the reef and off-reef environments on
both sides of the arc (particularly on the miogeosynclinal side). These are
eventually concentrated by sedimentary, diagenetic and later processes to
form Limestone-Lead-Zinc Deposits.
Some manganese deposits (Usinsk Type) also develop in the eugeosynclines
and miogeosynclines.
STAGE V: EARLY CONTINENTAL AND INTRUSIVE STAGE
The volcanic islands are by now welded to each other and also to the continental
margins. Intense fault movement, compressional folding, more felsic plutonic
intrusions, waning of vulcanism and rapid erosion are characteristic of this stage of
crustal evolution. Plutonic rocks are granitic and pegmatitic in composition.
MINERAL DEPOSITS:
Cassiterite deposits as disseminations in granites, contact metamorphic deposits and
pegmatitic deposits.
Quartz-cassiterite veins. Quartz-wolframite veins. Quartz-scheelite veins.
Quartz-gold veins. Stibnite and stibnite-scheelite-gold veins.
Basemetal sulfide veins with arsenopyrite and increasing proportions of Pb & Zn as
compared to Cu. Plutonic type anorthositic iron-titanium oxides.
In the more mafic parts of these intrusions chromite is segregated. Eg Bushveld
Complex.
Sometimes ilmenite, magnetite and minor Fe-Ti-O. Major nickel-copper sulfides (Eg
Sudbury) are also identified with this stage
Chromite deposits formed in ultramafic rocks during the Alpine Type Ultramafic Stage
(II) are well serpentinized by this time and move along large fault systems (along
which they formed) and take up new lithological and structural positions in the
evolving crust.
49
STAGE VI: SHELF AND SHIELD STAGE
Continuing folding, faulting and varying degrees of metamorphism

leads to the formation of a "Continental Shield". This stage is marked
by outpouring of flood basalts and stabilization of the crustal segment.
Erosion and peneplanation lead to the development of broad flat areas

susceptible to inundation during sea-level rises resulting in extensive
deposits of detrital sediments, reefs (carbonate), evaporites and
chemical sediments.
Movement of the shoreline in response to sea-level fluctuations leads

to the interfingering of shallow water marine and fluviatile sediments,
particularly in the lower reaches of braided streams, deltas and
outwash fans.
Mineral deposits forming at this stage include a variety of igneous and

sedimentary ores, and deposits formed during the earlier stages
undergo substantial metamorphism.
MINERAL DEPOSITS:
There are few mineral deposits associated with flood basalts.
Exceptions are the copper bearing lavas of the eweenaw Peninsula,
Lake Superior.
Limestone-lead-zinc deposits often associated with oil bearing strata
and evaporites, Eg Pine Point, Canada.
Non-volcanic sedimentary manganese deposits (orthoquartzite-
glauconite-clay association), Eg Nikopol, USSR, and Morocco.
Ironstones of the Clinton, Lorraine and English type associated with
near-shore, estuarine or lagoonal sedimentation.
"Sandstone Type" Cu-U-V ores formed in coarse sediments of
outwash fans, near-shore braided streams and deltas, Eg Colorado.
Gold-uranium deposits of Witwatersrand-Bhind River- Jacobina Type
in coarse conglomerates and grits of braided stream channels.
Basemetal sulfide deposits of non-volcanic association occurring
with evaporites, Eg Kupferschiefer Marl Slate of Europe and England
and the Copperbelt of Zambia.
50
MAJOR ORE TYPES OF INDIA AND THEIR TECTONIC SETTING
51
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
Process of formation of
mineral deposits
52
Process of formation of mineral deposits
Mineral deposits are classified on the basis of their genesis or the

processes that operates to form them.
1. Magmatic concentration
2. Sedimentation inclusive of evaporation
3. Metamorphism
4. Contact metasomatism
5. Hydrothermal processes
6. Oxidation and supergene enrichment
7. Sublimation
8. Residual and mechanical concentration
Type The mechanism of ore deposition Example

1- Early magmatic
Disseminated crystallization Diamond pipes,
A- Dissemination without concentration some corundum
deposits,chromite
Crystallization differentiation Bushveld chromite,
B- Segregation and accumulation Stillwater, chromite
2-Late magmatic
A- Gravitative liquid
accumulation
1- Residual liquid Crystallization differentiation Titanomagnetite
segregation and residual magma deposits and
2. Residual Liquid accumulation. Platinum deposits in
Injection Bushveld Complex
B- Immiscible liquid
1- Immiscible liquid Immiscible liquid separation Sulfide deposits
segregation. and accumulation.
Same, with injection
2-Immiscible liquid
injection
53
MAGMATIC CONCENTRATION or
Ore Deposits Related to Magmatic Activity
Certain accessory or uncommon constituents of

magmas become enriched into bodies of sufficient size
and richness to constitute valuable mineral deposits
eg. Chromite and platinum.
Magmatic ore deposits are characterized by their close

relationship with intermediate or deep seated intrusive
igneous rocks
They constitute either the whole igneous mass or a part

of it
Magmatic Deposits result from
1. Simple crystallization
2. Concentration by differentiation of intrusive

igneous masses.
There are several modes of formation of magmatic

deposits.
They originate during different periods of magma

crystallization – in some the ore minerals crystallize
early, in others late, and in still others they remained
as immiscible liquids until after crystallization of the
host rock
54
Classification of Magmatic Deposits

I. Early Magmatic Deposits: Those which resulted from straight
magmatic processes (orthotectic and orthomagmatic).
These deposits have formed by:
a. Simple crystallization without concentration
b. Segregation of early formed crystals
c. Injection of material concentrated elsewhere by differentiation.
A. Dissemination
Deep seated crystallization will yield a granular rock in which the early
formed crystals are disseminated. If such crystals are valuable and
abundant, the whole rock or a part of them becomes the orebody. The
individual crystals may be phenocrysts
B. Segregation
Concentration of early formed crystals in-situ. These are early
concentrates of valuable constituents of the magma that have taken
place as a result of gravitative crystallization differentiation, eg.
Chromite. These orebodies are generally lenticular and small in size,
commonly disconnected pod shaped lenses, stringers
55
Early Magmatic Deposits – Indian Examples
a.) Disseminated in the enclosing rock e.g. diamond in kimberlite of

Majhagawan pipe, MP and Wajrakarur pipe, AP. The diamonds might
have crystallised early and were transported with the enclosing
magma, and perhaps, even continued to grow before final
consolidation took place in the present pipes.
b.) Segregated due to gravitational crystallization differentiation e.g.

stratiform and banded graded deposits of chromite in Nausahi-
Sukinda area, Orissa and other places. The early magmatic
segregation may be due to sinking of heavy early formed crystals to
the lower part of the magma chamber or by marginal accumulation.
56
Early Magmatic Deposits – Indian Examples
c.) Injected into the host rocks or the surrounding rocks e.g. vanadiferous
magmatic deposits of Dublabera, Singhbhum district in Bihar. It occurs as
veins and lenses within ultrabasics and gabbro.
The early formed ore mineral, magnetite, did not remain at the site of original
accumulation but have been injected into ultrabasic rocks of Iron-Ore
Formation. Due to sinking of heavy early formed crystals to the lower part of
the magma chamber or by marginal accumulation.
d.) Injected into the host rocks or the surrounding rocks e.g. vanadiferous
magmatic deposits of Dublabera, Singhbhum district in Bihar. It occurs as
veins and lenses within ultrabasics and gabbro.
The early formed ore mineral, magnetite, did not remain at the site of original
accumulation but have been injected into ultrabasic rocks of Iron-Ore
Formation.
57
Schematic model of a fully grown kimberlite pipe
Stratiform chromite deposit,

Bushveld Complex,
South Africa
58
II. Late Magmatic Deposits: Those which consist of minerals

crystallizing from a magma towards the close of magmatic period.
The ore minerals are later than the rock silicates and cut across
them, embay them, and yield reaction rims around earlier
minerals. They are always associated with mafic igneous rocks.
The late magmatic deposits have resulted from:
a. Variations of crystallization differentiation.
b. Gravitative accumulation of heavy residual liquids.
c. Liquid separation of sulfide droplets.
A. Residual Liquid Segregation

In certain mafic magmas, the residual liquid becomes enriched in iron,
titanium and volatiles. This liquid settles to the bottom of the magma
chamber, or crystallizes in the interstices of early formed
crystals. Examples: Titaniferous magnetite layers of the Bushveld
Igneous Complex, S. Africa.
B. Residual Liquid Injection

The iron-rich residual liquid accumulated in the above manner may be
subjected to movement because of:
a. Gentle tilting (causing lateral movement).

b. Pressure and be squirted out to places of lesser pressure.
In both cases it may be injected into adjacent rocks and even in the
earlier consolidated parent silicate mass. Examples: Titanomagnetite
Deposits, Adirondack Region, New York; Allard Lake Deposits; Magnetite
Deposits of Kiruna, Sweden.
59
C. Immiscible Liquid Segregation

Immiscible liquid - Typical example is oil and water. In ore deposits we deal
with silicate and sulfide magmas. As a magma cools, sulfides coalesce as
droplets and due to higher density settle out. Most common sulfides are iron
sulfides, but nickel, copper and platinum also occur.
Sulfide-rich magmas are immiscible in silicate rich magmas. This

gives rise to separation even before crystallization. The accumulated
sulfide may not necessarily be pure – in fact it quite often is an
enrichment of sulfides in the lower parts of the magma.
Deposits formed in this manner are pyrrhotite-chalcopyrite-

pentlandite nickel-copper ores confined to rocks of the gabbro
family. Examples: Ni-Cu Deposits of Insizwa, S. Africa; Nickeliferous
Sulfide Deposits of Bushveld, S. Africa & Norway; Nickel Sulfide
Deposits of Sudbury, Ontario.
D. Immiscible Liquid Injection
Examples: Vlackfontein Mine of S. Africa; Nickel Deposits of Norway.
60
. As magmas cool, they can split

into two liquids of different
composition and density.
. One of these liquids is the silica-

rich melt. It has the most volume
. The other, typically much smaller

in volume, can be rich in metal
oxides, sulfides or carbonates.
Late Magmatic Deposits – Indian Example
a.) Residual liquid segregation wherein the residual magma with

crystallization becomes progressively richer in silica, alkali and water.
It sometimes contains titanium and iron which on crystallization
segregated to form titaniferous magmatic deposit e.g. titaniferous
magmatite of Hassan District, Karnataka, which occurs as
comformable bands in amphibolites and basic schists. Vanadiferous
magnetite deposits of Mayurbhanj, Orissa is another example. Here, it
occurs associated with gabbro-anorthosite suite of rocks.
b.) Residual liquid injection which takes place due to earth’s

disturbance like igneous intrusion. E.g. on dated 23 August, 2007,
Igneous intrusions took place in 8km from Kimin, in Arunachal
Pradesh; the residual liquid rich in iron when injected crystallised to
form magnetite deposits, e.g. magnetite dyke rock of Kasipatanam,
Visakhapatanam district, AP, where it occurs as cutting across the NE-
SW foliation of charnockite-gneiss and also metamorphoses the wall
rocks.
61
Late Magmatic Deposits – Indian Example
c.) Immiscible liquid segregation in which certain salts in magma

under certain conditions separate out an unmixed solutions like oil
and water, and segregate to form important mineral deposits. It has
been observed that sulphur and silica form two hot immiscible liquids
wherein a molten mass consists of various metals. The examples of
this category are lead-zinc-copper-sulphide deposits of Hesatu-
Belbathan Belt, Bihar where they occurs associated with altered basic-
schists in disconnected bodies.
d.) Immiscible liquid injection when the unmixed sulphide rich fraction
accumulated in the magma chamber, as described above, is squirted
out before consolidation towards the places of less pressure, such as
shear zones. They intrude the older rocks and enclose brecciated
fragments of host and foreign rocks. The nickeliferous chalcopyrite
pockets associated with altered basic-schists (chlorite-biotite schist)
of Singhbhum Copper Belt may be cited as an example. This type of
deposits shows transition to hydrothermal type with enrichment of
volatile matters.
Pegmatitic Deposits: Pegmatites are very coarse grained igneous

rocks. Commonly form dike-like masses a few meters to occasionally
1-2 km in length. Economic ore deposits are associated with granitic
pegmatites since felsic magmas carry more water. Residual elements
such as Li, Be Nb, Ta, Sn and U that are not readily accommodated in
crystallizing silicate phases end up in the volatile fraction. When this
fraction is injected into the country rock a pegmatite is formed.
Temperatures of deposition vary from 250-750°C. Pegmatites are
divided into simple and complex. Simple pegmatites consist of
plagioclase, quartz and mica and are not zoned.
Complex have a more varied mineralogy and are strongly zoned.

Crystals in pegmatites can be large, exceeding several meters. Three
hypotheses to explain their formation:
• fractional crystallization
• deposition along open channels from fluids of changing
composition
• crystallization of a simple pegmatite and partial to complete
hydrothermal replacement
62
Pegmatite dyke in a
granodiorite body
Association of Rocks and Mineral Products:
Definite associations exist between specific magmatic ores and certain

kinds of rocks:
1. Platinum occurs only with mafic to ultramafic rocks such as

varieties of norite, peridotite or their alteration products.
2. Chromite (with rare exceptions) is formed only in peridotites,
anorthosites and similar mafic rocks.
3. Titaniferous magnetite and ilmenite are found with gabbros and
anorthosites.
4. Magnetite deposits occur with syenites.
5. Ni-Cu deposits are associated with norite.
6. Corundum occurs with nepheline syenite.
7. Diamond occurs only in kimberlite, a variety of peridotite.
8. Pegmatite minerals, such as beryl, cassiterite, lepidolite, scheelite,
and niobium-bearing minerals occur chiefly with granitic rocks.
J.Saravanavel Economic eology Unit-5 63

12
Characteristics of different rock types:

Peridotite: A coarse grained mafic igneous rock composed of olivine with small
amounts of pyroxene and amphibole.
Anorthosite: A plutonic rock composed mainly of Ca-rich plagioclase feldspars.

Gabbro: A black, coarse grained intrusive igneous rock, composed of calcic
plagioclases and pyroxenes. The intrusive equivalent of basalt.
Syenite: A group of plutonic rocks containing alkali feldspars, a small amount of

plagioclase, one or more mafic minerals, and quartz only as an accessory, if at
all. The intrusive equivalent of trachyte.
Kimberlite: A peridotite that contains garnet and olivine and is found in volcanic
pipes.
Pegmatite: An igneous rock with extremely large grains (> 1 cm in dia). It may be of
any composition, but is most frequently granitic.
HYDROTHERMAL DEPOSITS
64
Hydrothermal mineral deposits are those in which hot, mineral laden

water (hydrothermal solution) serves as a concentrating,
transporting, and depositing agent. They are the most numerous of
all classes of deposit.
The term hydrothermal means hot water with possible temperature of

5000 to 500C. The fluid resulting as an end product of magmatic
differentiation, constitutes hydrothermal solution which carries
metals originally present in the magma to the site of deposition.
The process is responsible for formation of epigenetic mineral

deposits i.e. those formed later than the rocks that enclose them. The
hydrothermal solution in its journey through the rocks loses heat and
metal contents with increased distance.
The deposition may have taken place at high temperature

(hypothermal deposit), intermediate temperature (mesothermal
deposit) or low temperature (epithermal deposit).
Origins of the Solutions
The water in a hydrothermal solution can come from any of several

sources.
It may be released by a crystallizing magma;
it can be expelled from a mass of rock undergoing metamorphism; or
it may originate at the Earth's surface as rainwater or seawater and

then trickle down to great depths through fractures and porous
rocks, where it will be heated, react with adjacent rocks, and become
a hydrothermal solution.
Connate waters, when set into motion by tectonic activity, may also
constitute hydrothermal fluids.
65
66
Composition of the Solutions
The principle ingredient of hydrothermal solutions is water. Pure

water, however, can not dissolve metals.
Hydrothermal solutions are always brines, containing dissolved salts

such as NaCl, KCl, CaSO4 and CaCl2.
The range in salinity varies from that of seawater (around 3.5 wt %) to

about ten times the salinity of seawater.
Such brines are capable of dissolving small amounts of elements

such as Au, Ag, Cu, Pb and Zn. High temperatures increase the
effectiveness of the brines to dissolve metals
67
Conditions necessary for the formation of

hydrothermal ore deposits
 Presence of hot water to dissolve and

transport minerals
 Presence of interconnected openings in the

rock to allow the solutions to move
 Availability of sites for the deposits, and
 Chemical reaction that will result in deposition
68
Openings
Pore spaces, crystal lattices, bedding planes, vesicles, cooling

cracks, breccias, fissures, shear zones, folding and warping,
volcanic pipes, solution and rock alteration etc. are the various
types of openings in the rocks permitting movement of solution
or deposition of ore-minerals.
For large deposits vast quantities of solution and fairly large

confined channel ways are needed. The flow of solution must
be confined to avoid dispersal of mineral matter.
Fissures, shears and permeable beds may provide confined

channel-ways. Volcanic breccias, on the other hand, exhibit
widespread permeability and the mineralizing solution is
spread over a large area which results in dispersed ore. Crystal
lattices permit diffusion which is a slow process and may not
generate large deposits.
The deposition from hydrothermal solutions is influenced due to

chemical changes in solution, reactions between solution and wall
rocks or veins matter and changes in temperature and pressure. The
loses temperature and pressure which decreases solubility and
promotes precipitation.
The heat loss is also influenced by nature of openings. Open fissures

with straight wall would cause less heat loss than the intricate
openings of breccia with large exposed area.
Although hydrothermal ore deposits may form in any host rock,

deposition is influenced or localized by certain kinds of rock.
For example, lead-zinc-silver ores in some parts of Mexico occur in

dolomitic rather than pure limestone
69
Wall rock alteration
The wall-rock alteration is quite common in case of hydrothermal

deposits.
The nature of mineralizing solution like its chemical character,

temperature and pressure as well as character and kind of wall
rock decide about the nature and intensity of alteration.
Sericitization, kaolinisation and silicification are the common
forms of alteration in the wall rock.
High temperature minerals like tourmaline, topaz and amphibole

may develop. Basic and ultrabasic igneous rocks are
serpentinized accompanied by the production of epidote and
chlorite.
Advanced argillic - characterized by the clays dickite, kaolinite and

pyrophyllite (all hydrated aluminum silicates) and quartz. Sericite may
be present as well as alunite and tourmaline. Alteration involves the
extreme leaching of cations, especially the difficult to leach alkalis and
calcium, and the concentration of H+. This type of alteration is
characteristic of many epithermal precious metal deposits and a
smaller number of mesothermal deposits such as Butte, Montana.
Potassic alteration - characterized by secondary kspar + biotite.

Anhydrite may be present, but its susceptibility to solution generally
results in its dissolution in near surface environments. Because it is
characterized by common silicates, potassic alteration is often difficult
to detect. Pyrite and minor chalcopyrite and molybdenite are the only
ore minerals associated with this alteration.
Sericitization (Phyllic) - characterized by the assemblage quartz +

sericite + pyrite. Generally the most common form of alteration.
Sulfides present, in addition to pyrite, include chalcopyrite, bomite and
a variety of less common copper sulfides.
rock. Generally the result of oxidation of Fe.
70
Argillic - characterized by kaolinite + montmorillonite. Somewhat similar to

advanced argillic alteration, but with a lesser degree of leaching of cations.
Also unlike advanced argillic alteration which is associated with vein type
deposits, argillic alteration is more closely associated with disseminated
deposits, porphyry coppers in particular. Sulfides are less common in
association with this alteration type.
Propylitic - characterized by the assemblage chlorite + epidote + calcite. Albite

as well as other carbonates may be present. Due to presence of the green
minerals chlorite and epidote this zone is usually easily recognizable by its
color. Associated sulfides include pyrite, copper sulfides, galena, sphalerite
and a host of complex arsenides. Often this zone can be quite large and is
useful during mineral exploration. Unlike the previous types above which are
characterized by leaching of cations this zone seems to represent the addition
of cations.
Silicification - characterized by quartz or chert. Can be added by solutions as

is the case in many low temperature deposits or the result of complete
leaching of all cations plus aluminum.
Dolomitization - addition of magnesium to limestone to form dolomite.

Common in Mississippi Valley type deposits.
Other alteration types:
Feldspathization - kspar + albite, forms in the deep zones of some

porphyry copper deposits.
Greisenization - tourmaline + topaz + cassiterite + various tungsten-

bearing minerals. Common form of alteration on association with
porphyry tin deposits.
Fenitization - characterized by nepheline, alkali feldspar and Na-bearing

amphiboles. Hematization - characterized by secondary hematite.
Bleaching - not characterized by any specific mineral assemblage, but

rather a color change between altered and unaltered rock. Generally the
result of oxidation of Fe.
71
Types of Deposits
The hydrothermal deposits are formed within a temperature range of 500

to 50°C.
The modes of formation are replacement and cavity filling.
Lindgren divided this class into three subclasses viz. (a) hypothermal,
(b) mesothermal and (c) epithermal, according to the temperature of
formation of the minerals
The replacement deposits are formed at the higher end of the

temperature range and close to the intrusive. Most deposits of gold,
silver, copper, lead and zinc, mercury, antimony and molybdenum
come under this class.
Most deposits of minor metals and many non-metallic minerals are

formed by this process. Cr, Ti, V, Zr, U, Ce, Ta and Pt are absent in
deposits of this class.
The replacement deposits have always an alteration zone

surrounding the ore-bodies. The nature of the alteration varies with
the kind of enclosing rocks. The different types of wall rock
alteration characteristic of different sub-classes of hydrothermal
deposits may be summarised as follows :
1. Hypothermal : Greisenization, Serpentinization
2. Mesothermal : Sericitization, silioification. and argillic

alteration
3. Epithermal : Silicification, argillic alteration &

alunitization.
The wall rock alterations have often been used as a guide to ore-
finding for where weathering has removed the top of the ore-body,
these alteration haloes serve as indicator of hidden ore-bodies.
72
Hydrothermal Deposits Forming Today

1.Imperial Valley, southern California
In 1962, oil/gas drilling struck a 350°C brine at 1.5 km depth. As the brine
flowed upwards and cooled, it deposited a siliceous scale. Over a period
of 3 months, some 8 tons were precipitated, containing 20 wt % Cu and 8
wt % Ag. This was the first unambiguous evidence that mineral deposits
can be formed from hydrothermal fluids.
2.Red Sea
In 1964, oceanographers discovered a sries of hot, dense brines at the
bottom of the Red Sea. The higher density of the brines (i.e. increased
sanility) means that they remain at the bottom of the sea, despite being
hot. The sediments at the bottom of these pools contain ore minerals
such as chalcopyrite, sphalerite and galena. The Red Sea is a
stratabound mineral deposit in the making.
3.East Pacific Rise
In 1978, deep-sea submarines on the East Pacific Rise, at 21°N, found
300°C hot springs emerging in plumes along the oceanic ridge, 2500 m
below sea level. Minerals precipitated out of the solution as soon as it
emerged, and around the vents was a blanket of sulphide minerals. This
is the modern analogue of volcanogenic massive sulphide (VMS)
deposits.
Control of ore localisation

The ore localisation is controlled by the following factors:
Chemical and physical characters of host rock: this determines the location,
shape and size of opening. For example, carbonate rocks permits solution
openings and brittle rocks shatter more readily to localize fractures or
breccia. Permeability which is necessary in rock for passage of solution and
ore localisation is caused due to pore spaces, fissibility, cleavage planes,
brecciation, joints, fractures etc.
Structural features: structural features like fissures, shears, folds, faults,

bedding planes, lamination and unconformity serve important localisers of
hydrothermal deposits.
Intrusives: intrusive being source of ore-bearing fluid, constitute ore loci on a

regional scale.
73
74
Submarine hydrothermal vent or “Black Smoker”
Cavity filling and replacements are the two types of

deposits formed due to hydrothermal processes.
 Cavity filing is due to deposition of minerals in various

types of openings
 Metasomatic replacement or replacement deposit the

earlier formed minerals is replaced by the new mineral.
 In general, replacement deposits are formed at higher

temperature and pressure, and cavity filling deposits
at lower temperature and pressures.
 However, both types of deposits may also form at the

same time and at all temperature.
75
(a) CAVITY FILLING
The precipitation of minerals forms mineralizing solution in the

cavities or the open spaces in rock forms cavity filling deposits.
The walls of the cavity are lined first by the first mineral to be
deposited. The minerals usually grow inward with development of
crystal faces pointed towards the supplying solution in the form of
comb structure.
Successive crust of different minerals may be precipitation and if the

cavity is a fissure, a crustified vein is formed.
Symmetrical crust may result with similar precipitation on both the

walls of the vein, and asymmetrical with unlike crustification on each
side. In case of breccia, the crusts surround the breccia and cockade
ore is formed.
The cavity filling may also give rise to ribbon structure with narrow
layers of quartz separated by thin dark seams of altered wall rock.
The following types of deposits may result due to cavity filling -
Fissure vein:
It is a tabular type of deposit, involving formation of fissure itself by

stresses operating within earth’s crust, and ore forming processes,
e.g. fissure filling deposit of magnesite in Salal area, Jammu.
These fissure veins may be massive or crustified. They may be

simple, composite, linked, sheeted, dilated and chambered.
They may be vertical or inclined. Pinches and swells produced by

movement along irregular fissures may occur. Several minerals, both
ore and gangue, may fill in the fissure.
Fissures may occur in groups, and may have formed at the same time
or may be different ages. The depth of fissure vein is quite variable.
Some of them continue to depth of several thousand metres like
those at Kolar Gold Mine.
76
Segregated Veins of Auriferous Quartz in

Gneiss
Fig. 1. - Gash Viens filled with Lead Ore

Galena Lime stone. a.Crevie opening.b, c.
Crevices with pocket openings.
Fig. 2. - Horizontal Gash Veins or Floors of Lead

in Galena Limestone, a. Crvice with pocket
opening, b. Crevice opening.
Fig. 6. - Fissure Vein with Cavity of "Tug" at Centre. aa
Country rock, bb. Heavy spar, c c. Calc spar. dd. Blende, e e.
Coinby quartz. f. Vug.
77
Crustiform banding
78
Shear zone deposits: a shear zone with sheet like connected openings,
and large exposed surfaces serves as excellent channel ways for
mineralizing solutions and precipitation takes places as thin plates of
minerals or in the form of fine grains, e.g. Singhbhum shear zone
deposits.
Stockwork: it signifies a network of small ore bearing veinlets and

stringers traversing a mass of rock. The veinlets show crustification,
comb-structure and druses, and represent open space fillings. For
example, in Zawar area, Rajasthan, veins and stringers of galena and
sphelerite traverse dolomite mass and form lenticular bodies.
Stockworks of asbestos occur in the Archeaen terrain of Barabana
area, Singhbhum, Bihar.
Saddle reef: it results when alternating competent and incompetent

rocks are closely folded. This gives rise to openings in the crest part of
the arch, which latter on filled with ore minerals. The quartz reefs of
Hutti gold deposit, Karnataka, and those of Wynad gold deposit, Tamil
Nadu are the best illustrations.
Anticlinal fold in sandstones and shales, United Kingdom. The

white material in the hinge of the fold at the center of the
photograph is quartz, and fills a void that opened up during
folding. Such filled-in features are called saddle reefs.
79
Gold-bearing quartz vein of an orogenic gold deposit, which has been

sheared several times. Fluids migrated along the shear bands (dashed)
and mineralized the quartz with sulfides and gold.
80
Ladder veins: this type of deposit forms due to transverse veins or

fracture, e.g. magnesite deposit of Mysore, Karnataka, and asbestos
deposits of Cuddapah district, AP.
Pitches and flats: these are formed due to folding of brittle

sedimentary beds which gives rise to a series of disconnected
deposits. Iron-ore deposits of Bailadila and Chotadongar, Baster
district, MP, lead – zinc deposits of Baghmari (Katuria), Banka district,
Bihar, and talc deposits of Cannore and Kalicut district, Kerela are the
several examples.
Breccia filling deposits: the breccias offer openings spaces in

between the angular fragments for deposition by the mineralizing
solutions traversing through them. These may be volcanic breccia,
tectonic breccia or collapse breccia deposits. Wajrakarur kimberlite
pipe, AP, and fault breccia in Singhbhum Shear Zone, Bihar with
copper, lead, uranium and apatite mineralization may be cited as
examples.
Solution cavity filling: certain solution forming rocks like limestone,

gives rise to this type of deposit e.g. barytes deposits in Krol
limestone of Sirmur district, Himachal Pradesh.
Pore cavity filling: many mineral deposits occur as pore space

fillings, say in sandstone. Oil, gas and water are the most important
among all. Disseminated lead-zinc deposit in gritty conglomerate
dolomite and quartzite of Zawar, Rajasthan is an example of pore
space filling.
Vesicular filling: the vesicular lava flows being permeable form

channel ways for mineralizing solution and sites of mineral deposits.
Copper occurrence is Dras volcanics, Kargil area, Jammu and
Kashmir and in Deccan trap of Maharastra and Gujarat, and agate,
chalcedony, amethyst and opal occurrences in the Deccan trap is the
examples of vesicular fillings.
81
Solution cavity filling: certain solution forming rocks like limestone,

gives rise to this type of deposit e.g. barytes deposits in Krol
limestone of Sirmur district, Himachal Pradesh.
Pore cavity filling: many mineral deposits occur as pore space fillings,
say in sandstone. Oil, gas and water are the most important among
all. Disseminated lead-zinc deposit in gritty conglomerate dolomite
and quartzite of Zawar, Rajasthan is an example of pore space filling.
Vesicular filling: the vesicular lava flows being permeable form

channel ways for mineralizing solution and sites of mineral deposits.
Copper occurrence is Dras volcanics, Kargil area, Jammu and
Kashmir and in Deccan trap of Maharastra and Gujarat, and agate,
chalcedony, amethyst and opal occurrences in the Deccan trap is the
examples of vesicular fillings.
Archaen Gold – Structural Settings
82
Quartz veins formed in this rock.
When minerals are deposited in open

spaces, large crystals form
83
Amygdules (mineral deposits filling extrusive vesicles) in the Neoproterozoic-

aged Catoctin Formation meta-basalt, Shenandoah National Park, Virginia.
84
Metasomatic replacement is defined as a process of simultaneous

solution and deposition by which earlier formed mineral is replaced by a
new one
Metasomatic replacement deposits form, when the hydrothermal

solutions react with some mineral or substances in the crust, dissolving
one substance and replacing it with the ore condition Mostly these
deposits are formed under hypothermal condition
The chemical composition and physical characteristics of the host rocks or

minerals and the composition, temperature and pressure of the invading
mineralising solutions determine the Metasomatic replacement deposits
are characterised by:
(a) Presence of remnants of the country-rock.
(b)Presence of pseudomorphs of replacing minerals after the replaced

ones.
(c) Absence of crustification etc.
Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide (VMS) Deposits

At divergent boundaries, water from the ocean floor flows through
fractures in the oceanic crust. The waters are heated by the nearby
magma source, producing a seawater convection cell which reacts
with neighbouring rocks to leach out metals.
These dissolved metals are transported to the ocean floor where

they mix with cold bottom waters. The sudden decrease in
temperature causes the minerals to precipitate from solution and
they are incorporated into sediments deposited along the ocean
ridge system.
Circulation of fluids and

precipitation of mineral
deposits at divergent
boundaries
85
Ore Deposits Formed by

Metamorphism
86
 Metamorphic processes profoundly alter pre-existing

mineral deposits and form new ones.
 The chief agencies involved are heat, pressure, time,
and various solutions.
 The materials acted upon are either earlier formed
mineral deposits or rocks.
 Valuable nonmetallic mineral deposits are formed from
rocks chiefly by the crystallization and the combination
of rock making minerals.
Role of Temperature and Pressure
 Metamorphic processes occur to make adjustments

between the chemical potential of any system and the
changes in temperature and pressure.
 A particular chemical reaction that cannot occur in one

environment may readily do so under different
temperature and pressure conditions.
 An increase in pressure will cause a reaction to move in

a direction in which the total volume of the system
decreases, for example increasing pressure results in the
following changes with a reduction in the total molar
volume:
87
Olivine + anorthite  garnet

augite +anorthite  garnet + quartz
ilmenite + anorthite  sphene + hornblende
nephelene + albite  glaucophane or jadeite
anorthite + gehlenite + wollastonite  grossularite
andalusite  sillimanite  kyanite
 An increase in temperature normally results in endothermic
reactions. A possible example is the conversion of pyroxene to
hornblende during the metamorphism of diabase to amphibolite.
 In short, metamorphic reactions result from the tendency of mineral

systems to adjust to their physicochemical environment of high
temperatures and pressures in contrast to the low temperatures of
weathering processes, both of which processes generally occur in the
presence of water.
Metamorphism of Earlier Deposits

 When rocks are metamorphosed, enclosed mineral deposits may also
be metamorphosed.
 Unlike rocks that undergo both textual and mineralogical changes,
Ores undergo less mineral re-combinations.
 Textual changes, however, are pronounced. Schistose or gneissic
textures are induced, particularly with sectile minerals, and flow
structure is not uncommon.
 Galena, for example, becomes gneissic. It may also be rendered so fine
grained that individual cleavage surfaces cannot be discerned with a
hand lens.
 It "flows" around hard minerals, such as pyrite. Other minerals, such
as chalcopyrite, bornite, covellite, or stibnite, behave similarly.
 The result is that ores may exhibit streaked, banded, smeared
appearances with indistinct boundaries between minerals of different
color.
 The original textures and structures may be so obscured that it is
difficult to determine to which class the originally deposits
belonged. Such deposits are then classified as "metamorphosed".
88
Formation of Mineral Deposits by Metamorphism
 Several kinds of nonmetallic mineral deposits are formed

as a result of regional metamorphism.
 The source materials are rock constitutions that have
undergone recrystallization or re-combination, or both.
 Rarely, water or carbon dioxide has been added, but other
new constitutions are not introduced as they are in contact
metasomatism deposits.
 The enclosing rocks are wholly or in part metamorphosed;
it is the rock metamorphism that has given rise to the
deposits.
 The chief deposits thus formed are asbestos, graphite, talc,
soapstone, andalusite-kyanite-sillimanite, dumortieritea,
garnet, and possibly some emery.
 Asbestos forms by the metamorphism (hydration) of ultrabasic igneous rocks –

peridotites and dunites.
 Graphite forms by regional metamorphism of organic matter, crystallization
from igneous rocks, contact metamorphism and hydrothermal solutions.
 Talc, soapstone and pyrophyllite form by a mild hydrothermal metamorphism
of magnesian minerals eg tremolite, actinolite, olivine, epidote and mica. Talc
also occurs in regionally metamorphosed limestones, altered ultrabasic igneous
rocks, and contact metamorphic zones.
 Andalusite-kyanite-sillimanite – these minerals are high grade
refractories. Kyanite is formed by the dynamothermal metamorphism of
aluminous silicate minerals. Andalusite is formed by the pneumatolytic action
on aluminous silicates. Sillimanite results from high temperature
metamorphism of aluminous crystalline rocks.
 Garnet forms during the regional and contact metamorphism and is
consequently found in schists and gneisses. It is also found as a constituent of
igneous rocks.
 Emery is a mixture of corundum and magnetite with hematite or spinel and is a
product of contact metamorphism.
89
Bedded manganese deposits in parts of Madhya Pradesh

and Maharashtra, primarily of sedimentary origin, have
been subsequently effected by metamorphism. Braunite,
a manganese silicate, is the important ore mineral
besides several other oxide minerals.
Ore Deposits Formed by Sedimentation

The process of sedimentation results in the formation of
some important mineral deposits viz., iron, manganese,
copper, phosphate, coal, oil shale, carbonates, cement rock,
diatomaceous earths, bentonite, fuller’s earth magnesite,
sulfur and uranium-vanadium deposits.
The essential conditions for the formation of sedimentary

deposits are:
1) an adequate source of material
2) gathering of the solution by solution or other processes
3) transportation of the material to the site of deposition, and
4) deposition of material in sedimentary basins.
5) Compaction, alteration or other chemical changes may

follow deposition.
90
Source of Material:
Materials of sedimentary deposits have been derived chiefly from:
1) weathering of rocks
2) weathering and oxidation of former mineral deposits viz.,
iron, manganese, copper.
The earth’s crust contains on average 5.6% Fe. This means that beneath the
surface, upto a depth of 30 km, the earth’s crust contains about 30 million
tons/km2 of iron.
Of this, only 0.0001% is concentrated in commercial deposits. Iron in
sedimentary rocks comes from the iron bearing minerals of igneous rocks
such as hornblende, pyroxene and mica, from the iron-bearing minerals of
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, and from the red coloring matter of
sedimentary rocks.
Manganese of sedimentary deposits hs been derived from the weathering of
Mn-bearing minerals in rocks, former sedimentary concentrations and lode
deposits of manganese. Mn makes up about 0.095% of the earth’s crust,
there being 50 times as much iron as manganese. There are over 200
minerals containing manganese as an essential constituent.
The source of sedimentary phosphate is phosphorous bearing

minerals , among which apatite is the most common.
Some phosphorous is also derives from the weathering of
collophanite and dahllite in sedimentary rocks. Constituents of
sedimentary carbonates viz., industrial limestone, dolomite and
magnesite are derived from the sea or saline waters to which they are
largely supplied by rock weathering.
Constituents of clay deposits, bentonite and fuller’s earth originate in
rock weathering.
Solution & Transportation:
Solution of material constituting sedimentary deposits goes on during
weathering. This is true of Fe, Mg, P, CO3, Cu, and some rare metals, but not
of clays. The chief solvents are carbonated waters, humic and other organic
acids and sulfate solutions.
91
Carbonated Waters:
These are very effective solvents of limestones, iron, Manganese and

phosphorous. Vast quantities of metals are transported as
carbonates by carbonated waters. Ferrous iron is soluble whereas
ferric iron offers resistance.
To undergo solution, ferric iron must first b converted to the ferrous

state. Organic matter aids such a conversion. The Precambrian iron
ores were probably transported as ferrous bicarbonate solutions or
in the colloidal state.
Humic and other Organic Acids:
These are the decomposition products of vegetation and are

considered excellent solvents. Weak organic acids dissolve large
quantities and are the most effective of all solvents. It has been
noticed that iron is not carried as bicarbonate in surface waters rich
in organic matter.
Sulfate Solutions:
These are excellent solvents of Fe and Mn but rarely abundant enough
to effect large scale solution and transportation.
FeS2 + 7O + H2OFeSO4 + H2SO4
Most of the materials (except coal) are transported by rivers and

subsurface waters.
Most often these substances reach the sea, but some are arrested en
route and are deposited in inland water bodies or basins. The
dissolved substance remain in solution so long as the solution does
not undergo any appreciable physical or chemical change. Some or all
of the iron and manganese may be lost if the solution traverses
limestone country.
If Fe and Mn escape these hazards, they may be transported to bogs,

lakes, playas or the sea, where their concentration and deposition
takes place.
92
Five important processes are associated with the sedimentary

mineralisation, viz.
1.Residual concentration.
2. Mechanical concentration.
3. Oxidation and Supergene Enrichment.
4. Remobilisation by meteoric circulating water.
5. Sedimentation.
The manner of deposition depends upon:
a) The nature of solvent

b) The place of deposition
c) The pH and Eh (redox) conditions, eg. in the sea or swampy basins.
Deposition from solutions depends upon the environmental relations of

chemical sediments in normal sea water.
Depositional Separation of Manganese & Iron:
Depositional Separation of Manganese & Iron:
Separation of manganese and iron occurs if precipitation is taking

place from carbonate solutions. This happens because
manganese carbonate is more stable in carbonate solutions than
iron carbonates, and is hence carried further than the latter.
The separation of iron and manganese in an oxidizing environment

takes place because the iron oxides precipitate at a lower oxidation
potential than the comparable manganese compounds at any
given pH.
Similarly under fixed Eh, iron starts precipitating as an oxide at a

lower pH than manganese. In a neutral environment both iron and
manganese may precipitate together as carbonates.
93
Residual concentration:
The term 'residual concentration indicates the concentration of ores as
residue. Residue left as insitu after weathering, followed by transportation
sometimes give rise to valuable ore deposits.
These are the insoluble products of rock weathering, the process which
removes the undesired constituents of rocks or minerals. The residue may
continue to accumulate until their purity and volume make them
commercially important.
Of the three modes of weathering, the chemical mode of weathering is of

paramount significance for the formation of residual deposits
The effects of weathering usually do not extend deeper than a couple of
meters but occasionally reach 30 to 60 meters. It is most active in tropical
and sub-tropical climates.
In such climates, rock decay is carried further; leaching is more complete;

the silicates are thoroughly broken down and surface water readily removes
the silica, thus bringing about the concentration of the residual material
which, when useful, forms valuable mineral deposits.
Process of Formation of Residual Deposits:

 The first condition is the availability of rocks or lodes containing
valuable minerals, of which the undesired substances are soluble
and the desired ones insoluble under surface conditions.
 The climatic conditions should favour chemical decay. Tropical &
sub-tropical climatic conditions are most favourable.
 The relief must not be too great, or the valuable minerals will be
washed away as soon as they are in the least concentrated.
 Long continued crustal stability is essential for residues to
accumulate in quantity, and the deposits may not be destroyed by
erosion.
 Important deposits include: Iron ores, manganese, bauxite, clays,
nickel, phosphate, kyanite, barite, ochers, tin, gold, etc.
 Given these conditions, a limestone formation with minor iron oxides
will slowly be dissolved leaving the insoluble iron oxides as a
residue. As bed after bed of limestone disappears, an overlying
mantle of iron ores of sufficient thickness, and grade accumulates to
make a workable deposit.
94
Residual deposits therefore form in two ways:
1) the residue is simply an accumulation of a mineral that has not changed

during the process e.g. iron oxides in banded iron formations, and
2) the valuable mineral first comes into existence as a result of weathering

processes, and then persists and accumulates e.g. the feldspars of a
syenite decomposes upon weathering to form bauxite, which persists at
the surface while other constituents are removed in solution.
Valuable deposits of iron ore, manganese, bauxite, clays, nickel, phosphate,

kyanite, barite, ochre, tin, gold and other substances occur as residual
concentrations.
Residual Deposits and their Source Materials:
Iron Concentrations:
1) Lode deposits of siderite or iron sulfides - these residues are

rarely used as iron ores.
2) Disseminated iron minerals in non-aluminous limestones.
3) Limestones that have been partly replaced by iron minerals, either

before or during the period of weathering.
4) Basic igneous rocks.
5) Ferruginous siliceous sediments.
95
Lateritic Residuum (a-c) and

Ferricrete (d-f)
Manganese Concentrations:
1) Limestones or dolomites low in alumina but containing

disseminated syngenetic manganese carbonates and oxides.
2) Limestones containing disseminated introduced manganese.

Carbonate rocks precipitate manganese under certain conditions.
3) Manganiferous silicate rocks such as crystalline schists or

altered igneous rocks.
4) Lode deposits of manganese minerals or ores high in manganese

e.g. veins, replacement deposits or contact metasomatic deposits
(containing rhodochrosite, rhodonite, manganiferous siderite and
calcite, spessartite, tephroite, alleghenite, piedmontite,
hausmannite, manganosite, etc.).
96
Bauxite Formation:
Rocks relatively high in aluminum silicates and low in iron and free
quartz e.g.
1) nephline syenite.
2) Limestones or clays in limestones
3) Clastic sediments derived from Archaean rocks
4) Basalts
5) Clay alluvium
6) Feldspathic sandstones
Clay Formation:
The source rocks are crystalline rocks and silicic granular rocks rich
in feldspars and low in iron minerals such as:
1) Granites and gneisses
2) Basic ignous rocks
3) Feldspar rich pegmatites
4) Syenites
5) Limestones
6) Shales
7) Sericitized igneous rocks
Formation of Mineral Deposit by Mechanical Concentration:
When mineral grains of different density are moved by flowing water, the less
dense grains will be most rapidly moved, and a separation of high-density
and low-density grains can be effected. Mineral deposits formed as a result of
gravity separation based on density are called placer deposits.
For effective concentration, placer minerals must not only have a high
density (greater than about 3.3 grams per cubic centimetre), they must also
possess a high degree of chemical resistance to dissolution or reaction with
surface water and be mechanically durable.
The common sulfide ore minerals do not form placers, because they rapidly
oxidize and break down.
Ore minerals having suitable properties for forming placers are the oxides
cassiterite (tin), chromite (chromium), columbite (niobium), ilmenite and rutile
(titanium), magnetite (iron), monazite and xenotime (rare-earth metals), and
zircon (zirconium). In addition, native gold and platinum have been mined
from placers, and several gemstone minerals--in particular, diamond, ruby,
and sapphire--also concentrate in placers.
97
Requirements for mechanical concentration:

(a) The valuable minerals should be of high specific gravity.
(b) They should be chemically resistant to weathering.
(c) They should be of adequate durability.
(d) There should be a continuous supply of placer minerals for
concentration.
Factors Affecting Formation of Placer Deposits:

(i) Specific gravity of minerals.
(ii) Specific surface of the particles.
(iii) Shape of the particles.
(iv) The ability of a body of flowing water to transport the particles
and the viscosity of the transporting medium.
These are essentially four factors which have much significance

in the formation of placer deposits, they are:
(i) Geomorphological factors.

(ii) Climatic factors.
(iii) Hydrographic factors which is associated with the river
action and the deposits at the meandering of the river and
the junction between the tributaries.
(iv) Tectonic factors, which is associated with the rejuvenation
of the base level of local and general erosion, creating
conditions for recurrent cycles of erosional activity for
development of alluvial placers.
98
Types of placer deposits:

(a) Eluvial placers: Placer deposits along hill slopes are formed due to
weathering and erosion of the country rocks containing low-grade
deposits of the desired materials and are known as eluvial placers.
(b) Deluvial placers: When the weathered and disintegrated material is
shifted down hills deluvial (scree or talus) placers are formed.
(c) Proluvial (colluvial) placers: Accumulation of the material at the foot
of a slope can lead to the development of proluvial placers.
(d) Alluvial placers: Running water is the most important agency in the
formation of alluvial placers. Irregularities on the floor of the
channel in the form of natural barriers or riffles encourage
deposition of placer deposits. Besides, at the meander¬ing of the
river and at the confluence of tributaries, alluvial placers are
formed.
(e) Aeolian placers: These are because of wind action, by which the
lighter sand particles are blown away leaving behind a mass of
coarser detritus containing valuable minerals.
(f) Beach placers: These are formed along the shores of lakes seas and
oceans, mainly by the wave action.
99
Elluvial and Residual Deposits
Alluvial
Deposits
100
Placer deposits occur in any area where current velocity is

low, such as;

2) behind rock bars

1) between ripple marks
Placer
Stream Direction Placer Stream Direction Deposit
Deposit
3) on the inside of
4) in holes on the
. meandering
bottom . of a stream
streams
Placer
Placer Stream Direction Deposit
Deposit
Alluvial Deposits
101
Alluvial
Deposits
Beach Placers
102
Ore Deposits Formed by Oxidation and Supergene

Enrichment
 The portion of the ore-body lying above the water-table is described as the
zone of oxidation, since within this zone the oreminerals forming the
deposit may be oxidised readily in presence of air and water.
 By the reaction of the surface water containing free oxygen with the ore a
solvent is formed. This solvent is very reactive and is helpful to oxidise the
whole of the rock up to the water-table.
 An orebody thus becomes oxidized and generally leached of many of its

valuable materials down to the groundwater table, or to depth where
oxidation cannot take place.
 This process is called as 'Infiltration' deposits also. This involves

weathering and leaching of the upper parts of a mineral deposit (zone of
oxidation) and re-deposition of the ore-minerals at lower levels (zone of
secondary or supergene enrichment).
As the cold, dilute, leaching solutions trickle downwards, they may lose a part
or all of their metallic content within the zone of oxidation to give rise to
oxidized ore deposits
The oxidized or near-surface part of an orebody is made colorful due to the

oxidation of sulfides to oxides and sulfates.
As the down trickling solutions penetrate the water table, their metallic
content may be precipitated in the form of secondary sulfides to give rise to a
zone of secondary or supergene sulfide enrichment.
The lower, unaffected part of the

orebody is called the hypogene zone.
103
Secondary enrichment
An especially important class of residual deposit is formed by both the
removal of valueless material in solution and and redeposition of
valuable ore minerals.
Because solution and redeposition can produce highly enriched

deposits, the process is known as a secondary enrichment.
Different circumstance of Secondary enrichment

1) The first circumstance arises when gold-bearing rocks--even rocks
containing only traces of gold--are subjected to lateritic weathering.
Under such circumstances, the gold can be secondarily enriched into
nuggets near the base of the laterite.
The importance of secondary enrichment of gold in lateritic regions

was realized only during the gold boom of the 1980s, especially in
Australia.
104
2.) The second circumstance involves mineral deposits containing

sulfide minerals, especially copper sulfides, that are subjected to
weathering under desert or tropical conditions.
Sulfide minerals are oxidized at the surface and produce sulfuric acid,
and acidified rainwater then carries the copper, as copper sulfate,
down to the water table.
Below the water table, where sulfide minerals remain unoxidized, any
iron sulfide grains present will react with the copper sulfate solution,
putting iron into solution and precipitating a copper mineral.
The net result is that copper is transferred from the oxidizing upper
portion of the deposit to that portion at and just below the water table.
Secondary enrichment of porphyry copper deposits in the

southwestern United States, Mexico, Peru, and Chile is an important
factor in making those deposits ores. Lead, zinc, and silver deposits
are also subject to secondary enrichment under conditions of desert
weathering.
3.) The third circumstance in which secondary enrichment is

important involves Banded Iron Formations and sedimentary
manganese deposits.
A primary BIF may contain only 25 to 30 percent iron by weight, but,

when subjected to intense weathering and secondary enrichment,
portions of the deposit can be enriched to as high as 65 percent iron.
Sedimentary manganese deposits, especially those formed as a

result of submarine volcanism, must also be secondarily enriched
before they become ores.
105
Chemical Changes:
There are two main chemical changes within the zone of oxidation:
a) Oxidation, solution and removal of the valuable material.

b) Transformation, in situ, of metallic minerals into oxidized compounds.
Most metallic minerals contain pyrite, which rapidly yields sulfur to form
iron sulfate and sulfuric acid:
FeS2 + 7O + H2O →FeSO4 + H2SO4

2FeSO4 + H2SO4 + O → Fe2(SO4)3 + H2O
The ferrous sulfate readily oxidizes to ferric sulfate and ferric hydroxide:
6FeSO4 + 3O + 3H2O → Fe2(SO4)3 + 2Fe(OH)3

The ferric sulfate hydrolizes to ferric hydroxide and sulfuric acid:
Fe2(SO4)3 + 6H2O → 2Fe(OH)3 + 3H2SO4
Ferric sulfate is also a strong oxidizing agent and attacks pyrite and other
sulfides to yield more ferrous sulfate:
Fe2(SO4)3 + FeS2 →3FeSO4 + 2S
The ferric hydroxide changes over to hematite and goethite and forms the ever
present “limonite” that characterizes all oxidized zones;
The part played by ferric sulfate as a solvent can be seen by the following
reactions:
Pyrite FeS2 + Fe2(SO4)3 → 3FeSO4 + 2S
Chalcopyrite CuFeS2 + 2Fe2(SO4)3 → CuSO4 + 5FeSO4 + 2S
Chalcocite Cu2S + Fe2(SO4)3 →CuSO4 + 2FeSO4 + CuS
Covellite CuS + Fe2(SO4)3 →2FeSO4 + S
Sphalerite ZnS + 4Fe2(SO4)3 + H2O →ZnSO4 + 8FeSO4 + 4H2SO4
Galena PbS + Fe2(SO4)3 + H2O + 3O →PbSO4 + 2FeSO4 + H2SO4
Silver 2Ag + Fe2(SO4)3 → Ag2SO4 + 2FeSO4
Most of the sulfates formed are readily soluble, and these cold dilute solutions
slowly trickle downwards through the deposit till the proper Eh-pH conditions
are met to cause deposition of their metallic content.
If pyrite is absent in deposits undergoing oxidation, only minor mounts of
solvents are formed, and the effects are mild. This is illustrated in the New
Cornelia Mine, Ajo, Arizona.
106
Gossan:
Oxidation, solution and consequent downward move¬ment of the valuable

minerals lead to the concentration of useless residual materials and some of
the desiccated products of oxidation upon the surface, where the ore-body
had its outcrop and these together form a hard mantle known as gossan or
cap-rock.
The gossan is made up principally of limonite, gangue minerals and some of

the oxidised products of the ore minerals. Sometimes, false gossans are,
however, produced as a result of precipitation of extraneous ferruginous
solutions upon the exposed surfaces of the country-rocks.
But in the majority of cases, gossans supply many decipherable inferences as

to the size, character and mineral contents, of the hidden ore deposits.
Therefore gossans are considered as sign boards of oxidised as well as
enriched zones beneath the surface.
107
Ore Deposits Formed by Evaporation
 Evaporation is an important mineral forming process, which

supplies valuable materials used by the housewife, farmer,
builder, chemist, engineer, manufacturer and even birds, beasts
and plants.
 Great sections of the oceans may be cut off during slow

oscillations of land and sea and be gradually evaporated to yield
deposits of gypsum, common salt and potash.
 Ground waters reaching arid surfaces leave behind valuable

minerals upon evaporation.
 Lakes may disappear under arid conditions to form playas
Conditions of Formation:
Evaporation proceeds most rapidly in warm humid climates. Evaporation o
bodies of saline water leads to concentration of soluble salts, and when
supersaturation is reached, the salts are precipitated.
Deposition of minerals by evaporation depends on supersaturation, which in
turn depends upon other factors, chief of which are:
a) temperature
b) pressure
c) depositional environment, and
d) seasonal & climatic changes
Sea water is the prime source of minerals formed by evaporation. About 3.45%
of which consists of dissolved salts of which 99.7% by wt. Is made up of only
seven ions:
Na+ (30.61), Mg2+ (3.69), Ca2+ (1.16), K+ (1.10), Cl- (55.04), SO42- (7.68) and
HCO3- (0.41).
About 45 other elements whose concentration is known in sea water occur as
trace minerals in evaporites.
Few carbonates occur in marine evaporites as compared to terrestrial
evaporites. Calcite, dolomite and magnesite are the chief carbonates of marine
evaporites.
108
Deposition from Oceanic Waters:

 The salts of oceanic waters are mainly obtained from the weathering of
terrestrial rocks. Rain water carries soluble salts from continental areas to
the oceans, evaporates, leaving behind the salts, to return to the continents
as more rain.
 Small mounts are contributed by submarine volcanism, and by solution
from oceanic rocks.
 The total amount of salts in the ocean is estimated to be 21.8 million km3,
enough to form 60 m thick layer over the ocean bottom. Of this common
salt would constitute 47.5 m, MgCl2 5.8 m, MgSO4 3.9 m, CaSO4 2.3 m and
the remaining salts 0.6 m.
 The rivers of the world are estimated to contribute 4 billion tons of salt to
the ocean annually.
 Ocean water also contains gold, silver, base metals, manganese, aluminum,
vanadium, nickel, cobalt as well as iodine, fluorine, phosphorous, uranium,
arsenic, lithium, rubidium, cesium, barium and strontium.
Of these, iodine concentrates in sea weeds, copper in shellfish, manganese,

copper, nickel and other metals in nodules which alone have become
concentrated into potentially commercial deposits.
To attain the necessary conditions to induce precipitation, bodies of sea
water must become isolated from the ocean in places where evaporation
exceeds inflow. Such isolation may be effected by:
a) formation of barrier reefs
b) cutoffs near coasts where sills or reefs isolate sinking inland basins
c) formation of sand bars
 If the original body of water contained 100 km3 of water and this were to
be concentrated to 50 km3, the iron oxide and calcium carbonate
present would be precipitated. The water would still contain 3500
million tons of salt of which 2700 million tons would be common salt.
 If evaporated to 20 km3, gypsum would be precipitated. When the
volume reaches about 10 km3, common salt would be deposited.
 Subsequent evaporation would bring about deposition of magnesium
sulfate and chloride followed by the bittern salts.
109
Deposition from Salt Lakes:
 The deposits formed from the evaporation of salt lakes are similar to
those obtained from ocean water because salt lakes contain the same
salts as the ocean, but generally in greater proportions.
 The relatively small size of lakes makes them more responsive to climatic
changes resulting in greater fluctuations of deposition.
 Evaporites formed during periods of dessication may be redissolved
during periods of subsequent expansion.
 Since lakes constantly receive new supplies of fresh water, salts and
sediments, their deposits are generally thin bedded alternations of impure
salts and clays.
 On salt playas, desert winds distribute sands and silt upon which later
salts may be deposited during subsequent lake periods.
Deposition from Groundwater:
 Evaporation of groundwater is universal and in arid regions the

evaporites may accumulate as long as the climate remains dry.
 Groundwater contains salts similar to those of the ocean and salt
lakes but their concentration is low and the proportion of individual
salts may vary according to the character of the soil, bedrock,
topography and climate.
 Calcium carbonate is almost always present; magnesium, sodium,
potassium, iron and manganese compounds are common. Silica,
phosphorous and locally boron and iodine are relatively abundant.
 Deposition ensues when evaporation occurs at or near the surface,
or in caves. If the site of evaporation is fed by fresh supplies of
groundwater, extensive deposits may eventually result.
 Evaporation of groundwater will proceed most rapidly where it is
supplied relatively close to the surface viz., valley bottoms, slopes
where hills and valleys merge, and long hill slopes interrupted by
gentler or reverse grades.
110
Deposits of economic importance are:
a) nitrate salts with iodine

b) boron
c) calcium and sodium carbonate
d) common salt
e) Gauber’s salt
f) soda
g) epsom salts
h) borax
111
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
Metallic Mineral Deposits
112
Precious Metals - GOLD

Gold was the earliest metal mined by the mankind
The references of gold mining are seen in holy scriptures like the
Rid Veda, the Puranas, the shastras, the Hebrew, creek and
Roman literatures, etc.
INDIA
• Between 1967 and 1998 about 19 tons of gold has been mined
from the KGF, 2 tons from Ramagiri & about 20 tons from Hutti
Gold Mines – a total of about 41 tons
• India’s current production is only3 tons/annum from its only

producing mine at Hutti and about 6 tons as a by product of
copper mining
• The South Africa is the leading producer with 40 % of total

world production, Russia – 17%, USA 7%, Canada 6.6 %,
Australia 5%, India – 0.1 %
Gold potential of the Indian terrain

• There were over a hundred gold mining centres in the early part of the last
century & these were mostly operated by the Britishers. The mines were located
in parts of Kolar, Hutti, Gadag, Chitradurga & Shimoga in Karnataka; Wynad
& Nilambur in Kerala; Kotagiri & Dharmapuri in Tamil Nadu, Ramagiri &
Jonnagiri in AP State; Kunderkocha, Lawa, Mayisara & Sonapet in Jharkand;
Sonadehi in Chhattisgarh; Parsori & Pular in Maharashtra. Gold panning by
local people is a prominent activity in many parts of India.
• From a total of 127,242 tons of gold metal produced in the world, 76,500 tons
came from precambrian terrains (Archaen & proterzoic). A major portion of
India, barring the Indogangetic alluvial tract & Deccan lavas, is composed of
precambrian rocks – yet our contribution to the precambrian gold resource is a
meagre 1.17% (900 tons of which has come from a single precambrian belt ie
Kolar)
• Gold-bearing potentiality of a geological terrain can be expressed in terms of
kilograms of gold per sqkm area comprising gold metal already produced + gold
reserve in the ground identified by exploration & available for mining in the
future. For Western Australia this index works out 50kg/sqkm, for Canada
55kg/sqkm and for S. Africa it is 80kg/sqkm. In comparison the index for India is
a mere 1.6kg/sqkm (excluding Kolar) inspite of the fact that India has been
known for wide spread gold mining in the past. Surely there is much scope for
finding new mineable gold resources in the country.
113
Mineralogy of Gold
Chemical Au
Formula
Composition Gold, with small amounts of silver; sometimes also copper and iron
Variable (Au,Ag) ;
Formula (Au,Ag,Cu,Fe)
Color Golden yellow to brass yellow
Streak Golden yellow
Hardness 2½ - 3
Crystal Forms (Isometric) Dendrites, wires, nuggets, encrustations, and small flakes are the
and Aggregates common forms. Octahedral, dodecahedral, and cubic crystals also occur, but they
are uncommon and are often distorted. Crystals usually have some level of
hopper growth.
Transparency Opaque
Specific Gravity 15.5 - 19.3
Luster Metallic
Cleavage None
Fracture Hackly
Tenacity Ductile and malleable
Other ID Marks Excellent conductor of electricity
114
Distinguishing Pyrite and Marcasite (also known as "Fools" Gold - different

Similar Minerals streak (black), less dense (4.8 - 5.2), harder (6 - 6½)
Chalcopyrite - different streak (black), less dense (4.1 - 4.3),
harder (3½ - 4)
Commonly Quartz, Pyrite, Arsenopyrite, Silver, Limonite
Occurs With
Complex Soluble only in aqua regia and fuming HCL

Tests
(Aqua regia - (HCl),(HNO3) Mixture of hydrochloric and nitric
acids. It is an extremely destructive mixture and can dissolve
gold and platinum, as well as many other minerals
Note:
Aggregate composed of skeletal or tree-like formations (Dendrites)
Aggregate composed of long, slender, curvy, interwoven wires.
Nugget - Compact, waterworn, amorphous mass, found in placer
deposits.
Encrustations: A disorganized, crusty, mineral coating that can be
thin or thick.
The Breckenridge District of Colorado is

well known for fine wire crystal gold
specimens. The area was very rich in
the early days and many fine specimens
like this one were melted down for their
bullion.
115
Gold
Comments: Well crystallized
bright metallic gold specimen.
Location: Red Ledge mine,

Nevada Co., California. Scale:
3.5 x 6 cm in size.
Gold, Silver
Mineral: Gold: Au
Silver: Ag
Comments: Very well crystallized Electrum (Silver rich gold) on quartz. The
analysis gave 31.47% silver.
Location: Verespatak (now Rosia Montana), Transylvania, Romania.
Scale: 2.8 x 3.4 cm.
116
Mineral: Arsenopalladinite: Pd8(As,Sb)3

Isomertieite: Pd11Sb2As2
Gold: Au
Bornite: Cu5FeS4
Comments: Light grayish grain of intimately intergrown isomertieite and
arsenopalladinite (in the center of the picture), with pale
yellow gold and brownish to violet bornite. Polished section
(from microprobe analysis) in reflected light.
Location: Noril'sk, Putoran Mts, Taymyrskiy Autonomous Okrug,
Eastern-Siberian Region, Russia.
Scale: Picture size 0.1 mm.
Mineral: Gold: Au
Petzite: Ag3AuTe2
Comments: Dark, stubby petzite crystals with native gold on quartz.
Location: Rosia Montana (Verespatak), Transylvania, Romania.
117
Mineral: Gold: Au
Comments: Two skeletal octahedral crystals of gold. Stereo pair
images..
Location: Berezovsk Mine, Russia.
Scale: Crystal size 1.1 cm.
Mineral: Gold: Au
Rucklidgeite: (Bi,Pb)3Te4
Comments: Polished section (PPL) image of sphalerite(sph)-chalcopyrite
ore associated with hessite (he), rucklidgeite (rk), pyrite (py)
and native gold (Au).
Location: Level 1070 m., Massive sulphide deposits of the Hanson-Flin
Flon-Snow Lake, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Canada.
Scale: Picture Size 0,12 mm.
118
119
USES of GOLD
Gold has been used as a precious metal throughout the history of mankind.
Most of the gold produced goes into the monetary reserve and forms a
monetary base for currency.
This is due to its resistance, beauty, rareness, and the fact that it is very easy to
work with. Many exotic gold ornaments from the past have been found. In India
it is used in the textile Zari work.
Especially noteworthy are the golden ornaments from the tombs of the
Pharaohs in Egypt, where gold masks, statues, coins, and much jewelry was
archeologically excavated. Gold has been used for coinage throughout the
centuries, and is currently accepted internationally as a standard value.
Nowadays, the main use of gold is for jewelry.
As pure gold is easily bent and dented, it is always alloyed with other metals
when used in jewelry. This makes it more durable and practical for ornamental
use. The purity of the gold based on the alloyed metal is measured in karat
weight. The karat measurement determines the percentage of gold to other
metals on a scale of 1 to 24 , with 24 karats being pure gold.
Due to gold's distinctive properties as a metal, it has several industrial uses. It

is used in photography, dentistry, coloring, and is currently being studied for
cancer treatments.
Varieties of Gold
The color of pure gold is bright golden yellow. Besides for strengthening the gold,
other metals may be alloyed with gold to give the gold distinct color tinges. The
different types of gold are based on the particular color tinge:
Rose Gold - Gold with a slightly reddish hue, caused by copper
White Gold - Pale, almost silver-colored gold, caused by nickel (and

sometimes zinc or platinum)
Green Gold - Gold with a slightly greenish hue, caused by copper and silver
Blue Gold - Gold with a slightly bluish hue, caused by iron
120
Mode of Occurrence and Origin

Gold occurs mainly in tw forms
1) Lodes and 2) placers
(i) Lodes Deposits
The lode deposits are primary in nature. The Primary gold deposits occur in intrusive
rocks (dyke rocks) having composition of diorites, quartz – diorites and granites and
their metamorphic equivalents
Gold is found commonly associated with sulphides of non-ferrous and related metal
like chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, arsenopyrite, pyrite and antimonite
Quartz and limonite are the main gangue associates
The iron hats (gossan) or limonites at times contain appreciable quantities of gold.
Gold mostly occurs in quartz-vein (where yellow brown or blue quartz has been
found to be favourable carrier for example: Kundrakocha, Singhbhum district, Bihar)
These quartz veins also known as lodes or reefs, which contain either native
gold or gold sulfides and tellurides.
Mode of Occurrence and Origin…

(i) Lodes Deposits….
The lode deposits are mostly formed through igneous emanations during the last
stages of chilling of magma which came up along some opening like fissures, faults,
fractures, shear zone and folds to upper layers of earth crust
During cooling of magma gold crystallises in native state or in combination with other
elements like Ag, Cu, Hg, Sb, Bi, Se, Te, As and S depending upon their physical
and chemical conditions prevailing there
The Bulk deposits are formed at the end stages of differentiation they are
hydrothermal in origin with accumulation of gases and water which act as carrier e.g.
Kolar gold field.
A few lode deposits are formed at various stage of processes e.g. Magmatic
segregation deposits (Utah Gold hill, Gold curry, etc.) and Contact metasomatic
deposits (Montana Cable Mine, British Columbia)
Narainswamy et al (1960) state Kolar gold deposit formed by the high temperature
hydro-thermal mineralization
121
Gold load deposits with Quarz reef
Small bits of gold are scattered

through this piece of
mesothermal vein quartz from
the mother lode region of
California. The gold is mostly
concentrated around the edges
of dark colored spots of iron
oxide that were likely originally
clots of pyrite. This is very rich
gold ore.
122
These are crystals of Calaverite - a gold, silver and tellurium mineral. This is very
high grade gold ore from the Cripple Creek district in Colorado. Many old time
miners mistook this type of mineral for low grade sulfides, but this silvery metallic
material probably is 40 percent gold by weight. Tellurides are often associated
with rich ore - and that was true at Cripple Creek as it was elsewhere.
Gold does not commonly combine with other elements, but there are exceptions.
These are the telluride minerals such as Calaverite. This very rich gold ore
specimen came from the El Paso gold mine in the Cripple Creek district in
Colorado.
123
(ii) Placer Deposits

Placer deposits are sourced from pre-existing gold deposits and are
secondary deposits.
Placer deposits are formed by alluvial processes within rivers, streams

and on beaches.
Placer gold deposits form via gravity, with the density of gold causing it
to sink into trap sites within the river bed, or where water velocity
drops, such as bends in rivers and behind boulders.
Often placer deposits are found within sedimentary rocks and can be
billions of years old, for instance the Witwatersrand deposits in South
Africa.
Sedimentary placer deposits are known as 'leads' or 'deep leads'.
Placer deposits are often worked by fossicking, and panning for gold is
a popular pastime.
Laterite gold deposits are formed from pre-existing gold deposits

(including some placer deposits) during prolonged weathering of the
bedrock. Gold is deposited within iron oxides in the weathered rock or
regolith, and may be further enriched by reworking by erosion. Some
laterite deposits are formed by wind erosion of the bedrock leaving a
residuum of native gold metal at surface
This very large nugget gold specimen contains significant

quartz and is from Alaska. It's rounded shape shows the signs
of wear and tumbling in a river environment.
124
Montana Bob Dansie assembled this fantastic collection placer of gold using
various Minelab metal detectors. He dug each flake, one nugget at a time. Most if
this placer material is from Arizona, but it also includes some gold from other
locations. The upside down jar with the small gold contains several pounds of
small flakes and pieces placer gold.
These angular pieces of gold have not been shaped by the flows of a stream.
They were mined on the hilltop near the rocks in which they were formed.
They are from California and were also recovered by the author.
125
This is a piece of gold ore from the famous Witwatersrand gold deposits of
South Africa. The ore consists of conglomerate pebbles mostly of quartz, in a
sandy matrix, with abundant pyrite in the cement. The gold, which occurs in
the cement but not in the pebbles, is closely connected with the pyrite and is
not visible to the naked eye. It is generally agreed that this auriferous
conglomerate represents an ancient placer, although the gold and pyrite have
been re-disolved and moved around or recrystalized after emplacement. Most
geologists see these ores as fossilized placer deposits altered by heat and
water flows.
The vast majority of gold mined in

Nevada is tiny - microscopic in size.
However a small percentage is
large and here is an example of a
pan full of gold taken from the
Round Mountain Mine in Nye
County. Only about 3% of their total
production is coarse like this, but
even 3 % of all their gold is a large
quantity. The round Mountain Mine
is operated by Kinross and is
located North of Tonopah in Nye
county. Check out this web page if
you want to learn more about
Nevada's Rich Micron Gold
deposits.
126
Gold Distribution in India
127
Distribution of Gold in India
All gold productions of India have come from the vein deposits (lode
deposit) and very little from placers.
The vein deposits may be further classified into
1) Principal deposits (active mine) which are at the moment

producing gold. E.g. the Kolar and the Hutti gold fields
2) Potential deposits which at one time or other have produced
gold and may hold promise of turning out to be commercially
important. e.g. Anantour gold field (Andhra), Gadag gold field
(Karnataka) and Wynad gold field (Tamil Nadu)
3) Minor occurrences which have not been fully assessed or have
been explored to some extent and found to be importants
Age Types of Category Locality and geological details

deposits
Dharwars A. Lode 1.Principal (a) Kolar (Karnataka): Gold is associated with
Deposits deposits champion quartz-lodes and sulphide bearing
(Active reefs, especially oriental lode with schist belt,
mines) belonging to hypothermal class
(b) Hutti (Karnataka): Gold is associated with
quartz-reefs within metabasalts, represented
by greenstones passing into chlorite-schist
2.Potential a) Ramgiri, Anantpur dist (A.P). The auriferous

deposits belt, 150-200m wide and comprising quartz-
(abandoned vein zone is spread over a strike length 15km
mine) within schistose rock
b) Gadag (karnataka): associated with Qz vein
with greenstone for 50 km
c) Wynad, TN: associated with quartz reefs within
biotite gneiss and hornblende-granulite
d) Kundrakocha, Bihar: quartz vein with cherty
phylite
128
Age Types of Category Locality and geological details

deposits
Dharwars A. Lode 3.Minor Gooty (Anantpur dist), Bisanatham (Chittoor) and
Deposits Occurrences Gavanikonda (Kurnool) of A.P.
Sithaura (Nalanda), Sonapet (Ranchi) and
Pahariha, lowa and Mysara (Singhbhum) of Bihar
Alech hills (Jamnagar) of Gujarat
Kojhikoda and Cannore (Kerala)
Pleistocene B.Placer Gold washing carried out in the alluvial and gravel
& Recent Deposits beds of many rivers in parts of Assam, Bihar
andH.P.
The rivers subansiri, lohit, Dihang, Buri, Dihang,
Buri and Janglu of Assam-Arunachal
Sona, Subernarekha and South keol of Singhbhum
Several streams different part of India
State
Proved Probable Possible Total Remarks
Andhra Pradesh
(i)Ore (million tonnes) 1.396 1.583 3.861 6.840 Primary Gold
(ii) Metal (tonnes) 6.0 7.4 18.3 31.7 Reserve
Bihar
(Kundrakocha) Primary Gold
(i) Ore - - 0.008 0.008 Reserve
(ii) Metal - - 0.1 0.1 Reserves of Gold
Karnataka in India
(i) Ore 6.855 6.063 0.695 13.613 Primary Gold
(Recoverable
(ii) Metal 32.6 29.4 2.9 64.9 Reserve
Reserves as on
Kerala
1.4.1990)
(i) Ore - 2.552 22.198 24.750 Both primary
(ii) Metal - 2.3 2 4.4 and placer gold
reserve
Madhya Pradesh
Ore - - 1.7 1.7 Primary Gold
Reserve
India Total
Reserve
Ore 8.251 10.198 26.162 45.211
Metal 38.6 39.2 23.3 101.1
129
as on 01.04.2005
World Distribution: Many localities for fine specimens. In Russia, in Siberia, along
the eastern slope of the Ural Mountains; important localities near Yekaterinburg
(Sverdlovsk), as at Beresovsk; in the Miass district; large crystal groups from along
the Lena River, Sakha. Sharply crystallized from Romania, at Ro¸sia Montan˘a
(Verespatak) and S˘ac˘arˆımb (Nagy´ag).
In Australia, many occurrences, as at Bendigo, Ballarat, and Matlock, Victoria; along

the Palmer River and at Gympie, Queensland; from Kalgoorlie, Western Australia,
with gold telluride ores, also very large alluvial nuggets. At the Porgera mine, Mt.
Kare, Papua New Guinea.
The world’s most important gold district is the Witwatersrand, Transvaal, South Africa,
which, however, only rarely produces crystalline material. In Canada, especially in
Ontario, in the Porcupine and Hemlo districts.
In the USA, in California, in the Mother Lode belt of the Sierra Nevada, with fine
examples from both lode and placer deposits. In South Dakota, from the Homestake
mine at Lead, Lawrence Co.; in Colorado, wire and leaf gold from Breckenridge,
Summit Co.; in Lake Co., at Leadville; in Alaska, in lode mines in the Juneau district
and placers along the Yukon River. Near Santa Elena, in the Grand Savannah River
region, Venezuela, a placer producing exceptional skeletal crystals.
A bonanza gold rush occurred at Serra Pelada, Par´a, Brazil.
130
PROSPECTING GUIDES
1.Host Rock and Associated Minerals
 Intrusive rocks of composition diorites, quartz-diorites and granites are

found to be suitable host rocks of primary gold
 The associated minerals are sulphides of non-ferrous and the related
metals such as chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, arsenopyrite, pyrite and
stibnite besides quartz and limonite
 In vein deposits yellowish brown or blue quartz has been found to be
favourable carriers of gold
 The limonite or iron hat (gossan) is also of great interest
2.Rock Examination
 The outcrops of quartz veins, silicified rock and quartz boulders should be
examined carefully for visible gold specks or sulphide minerals
 Free gold is often found confined to fine cracks
3. Soil-Cover Areas
 In soil cover areas, the soil under uprooted trees, animal burrows, rain-rill,
etc may be examined for mineralised fragments of quartz or other rocks
 The gravels of river channel are looked for mineralised fragments
PROSPECTING GUIDES
4. Pebble and Boulder Tracinhg
 Find out the primary gold lode by tracing the mineralised quartz fragments
pebble or any other rock in the river gravel upstream
5. Panning
 Panning is the principal prospecting method in case of placer gold

 The samples should be taken from the lowest layers of gravels (near bed
rock)
6. Specimen Collection
 A specimen/sample for chemical analyses should be one to two kg with
small fragments of rock taken from different perts of ore body
7. Soil-Cover Areas
 The gold values of 2 g/tonne and above are suggestive of the area for
detailed exploration
 The value 4 g/t are indicative of economic deposit worth mining
131
Precious Metals - SILVER

Silver is a precious metal next to gold
Silver is a metallic chemical element with the chemical symbol Ag and atomic
number 47.
A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it has the highest electrical
conductivity of any element and the highest thermal conductivity of any metal.
The metal occurs naturally in its pure, free form (native silver), as an alloy with
gold and other metals, and in minerals such as argentite and chlorargyrite.
Most silver is produced as a by-product of copper, gold, lead, and zinc
refining.
Silver has long been valued as a precious metal, and it is used to make
ornaments, jewelry, high-value tableware, utensils (hence the term silverware),
and currency coins.
Today, silver metal is also used in electrical contacts and conductors, in
mirrors and in catalysis of chemical reactions. Its compounds are used in
photographic film and dilute silver nitrate solutions and other silver
compounds are used as disinfectants and microbiocides. While many medical
antimicrobial uses of silver have been supplanted by antibiotics, further
research into clinical potential continues.
The world mine reserve of silver is estimated at around 420 million kg

85% of above from USA, Canada, Mexico, Peru, Russia, Africa, Japan and
Australia. Amongst Mexico is the topest
Silver mining through open pit and underground operation
Physical Properties of Silver

Cleavage: None
Color: Silver white, Gray white, Gray, Specific gravity: 10 - 11, Average = 10.5
Diaphaneity: Opaque
Fracture: Hackly - Jagged, torn surfaces, (e.g. fractured metals).
Habit: Arborescent - "Tree like" growths of branched systems (e.g. silver).
Habit: Dendritic - Branching "tree-like" growths of great complexity (e.g. pyrolusite).
Habit: Massive - Uniformly indistinguishable crystals forming large masses.
Hardness: 2.5-3 - Finger Nail-Calcite
Luminescence: Non-fluorescent.
Luster: Metallic, Magnetism: Nonmagnetic, Streak: silver white
Melting point: 10000C
Metallic conductor: Heat and electricity
132
Atomic Mass 107.8682

Atomic Number 47
Name Origins Anglo Saxon, siolfur = "silver": Latin, argentum
Year Discovered Prehistoric
Discovery Credits Known to ancient civilizations.
Soft, malleable metal with characteristic silver
sheen. Stable to water and oxygen but attacked
by sulfur compounds in air to form black sulfide
layer. Dissolves in sulfuric and nitric acid. Used
in photography, silverware, jewelry, electrical
industry, and glass (mirrors).
Remarks
Diagnostic tests:
Easily reduced on charcoal using a blowpipe or
propane torch after roasting the sample forming
a malleable silvery bead.
Silver, along with lead and mercury form white,
insoluble chlorides from aqueous solutions.
Silver Minerals and their Characters

Minerals Chemical Comp Chief Characters
Native silver Ag (usually associated Usually filiform, arborecsent or massive

with small amounts of
other metals – Cu, Au,
Pt, Hg, Pb, Zn, Bi, etc.
Argentite (Silver Ag2S Blackish gray in colour and streak, metallic
glance) lustre
Stephanite (Brittle Ag5SbS4 Iron black in colour and streak, brittle, H= 2-

Silver Ore) 2.5, sp.g = 6.26
Prousite (Light red Ag3AsS3 Commonly granular and massive, red in
silver Ore) colour and streak, H = 2-2.5, Sp.g. = 5.55-
5.64
Pyragyrite (Dark Ag3SbS3 Commonly massive, black to cochineal red
red silver ore) in colour and streak H= 2-3, sp.g. 5.7-5.9
Ceragyrite (Horn AgCl Usually massive and wax like and also in
Silver) encrustations, pale shades of grey. Some
times greenish or bluish streak, shining, H =
2-3, sp.gr = 5.8
Hessite Ag2Te Lead grey, metallic, sectile, H = 2.5, sp.gr =
8.4
133
Native Silver
Native Silver
Arborescent habit silver crystals etched out of calcite

Origin: Kongsberg, Norway
Sample size: 3 x 3 x 1 cm
134
Native Silver with Lead
Rich lead - silver ore from the famous mines of Wallace, Idaho. These
mines have been mined to very deep levels below the surface.
Native Silver with sulphur
This sulfide rich silver ore from Nevada is dark gray and colored by a
heavy content of metallic sulfides. The rich silver minerals pyrargyrite
and stephanite boost the silver content of this bonanza grade ore.
135
Silver on galena
Origin: Comstock Lode, Storey County, Nevada, U.S.A.
ex. John Sinkankas Collection
Sample size: 2 x 1.75 x 0.5 cm
Mineral: Silver: Ag
Comments: Numerous fine, silver wires to 4 mm in diameter attached to a matrix of
massive white calcite and minor sulfides.
Location: Himmelsfahrt mine, near Freiberg, Saxony, Germany.
Scale: 4 x 4.5 x 6 cm.
136
Silver with copper

Origin: Keweenaw Peninsula, Houghton Co., Michigan, U.S.A.
Sample size: 2.7 x 2.1 x 1.5 cm
Photo courtesy of:
Chemical Formula: Ag2S

Argentite
Composition: Molecular Weight = 247.80 gm
Silver 87.06 % Ag
Sulfur 12.94 % S
Empirical Formula: Ag2S
Environment: Low temperature ore veins.
IMA Status: Not Approved IMA
Locality: Mexico, Saxony, Great Britain and
Kongsberg, Norway are notable localities. Link
to MinDat.org Location Data.
Name Origin: After the Latin, argentum,
meaning "silver". From the Greek, akanta,
Mineral: Acanthite: Ag2S meaning "arrow." Argentite is stable above 179
Argentite: Ag2S C. Acanthite is stable below 179 C.
Comments: Dark metallic acanthite crystals up to 3 mm. Most of the crystals are a cubic
habit, so the acanthite is pseudomorphing the original argentite.
Location: San Juan de Rayas Mine (Rayas Mine), Guanajuato, Mun. de Guanajuato,
Guanajuato, Mexico.
Scale: 18x12x12 mm.
137
Physical Properties of Argentite

Cleavage: {001} Poor, {110} Poor
Color: Black, Lead gray.
Density: 7.2 - 7.4, Average = 7.3
Diaphaneity: Opaque
Fracture: Sectile - Curved shavings or scrapings produced by a knife blade, (e.g.
graphite).
Habit: Arborescent - "Tree like" growths of branched systems (e.g. silver).
Habit: Blocky - Crystal shape tends to be equant (e.g. feldspars).
Habit: Skeletal - Crystals form crude outlines with missing faces.
Hardness: 2-2.5 - Gypsum-Finger Nail
Luster: Metallic
Magnetism: Nonmagnetic
Streak: black
Chemical Formula: Ag5SbS4

Stephanite is 68.5% Silver by weight.
Colors: Dark Gray to black.
Its streak is black.
Hardness: 2
Density: 6.2 to 6.3
Cleavage: The cleavage is perfect
parallel to (010) and the fracture
uneven.
Crystallography: Orthorhombic
Stephanite crystallizes in hemimorphic
orthorhombic crystals. The crystals are
highly modified, 125 forms having been
identified upon them. They have
usually the habit of hexagonal prisms,
their predominant planes. Crystals are
usually small. Also twinned in
Stephanite Ag5SbS4 pseudohexagonal crystals.
Luster:. Sub-metallic to metallic
Optics: (Refractive Index) Opaque
138
Stephanite Ag5SbS4…
Composition, Structure and Associated Minerals:
Stephanite, though a comparatively rare mineral, is an important ore of silver
in some mining camps. It is found associated with other sulphantimonites of
silver, etc. Crystals usually short prismatic and tabular parallel to the base. It
occurs massive, in disseminated grains and as aggregates of small crystals.
Analyses indicate a composition very close to the requirements of the
formula Ag5SbS4.
Occurrence, Localities and Origins:

The mineral is associated with other silver ores in the primary ores and the
secondary zone of enrichment of veins at Freiberg, Saxony; Joachimsthal
and Pribram, Bohemia; at Guanajuato and Arizona, Sonora, etc., at many
points in Mexico, Peru and Chile and other mines in the Rocky Mountain
region and at many points in Mexico and Peru. It is particularly abundant
in the ores of the Comstock Lode, and other silver deposits in Nevada, and
of the Las Chispas Mine, Sonora, Mex. It is formed at low to moderate
temperatures.
Proustite
Chemical Formula: AgAsS3 (Light Ruby

Silver)Sulfo-arsenite of silver, silver is 64.5
% by weight. May contain a small amount
of antimony substituting for arsenic.
Colors: Ruby Red to Brownish red
Its streak is deep red to brownish black.
Hardness: 2.0
Density: 5.5
Cleavage: Imperfect, but it is easily sectile,
and can be cut with a knife like lead.
Crystallography: Rhombohedral
Found in pointed crystals, but more
commonly occurs as granular and massive
forms.
Luster:. Adamantine luster. Transparent to
translucent. High refractive index.
139
Composition, Structure and Associated Minerals:
Proustite, or light ruby silver, is isomorphous with pyrargyrite. It differs from

the latter mineral in containing arsenic in place of antimony. It occurs both
massive and in crystals, and like pyrargyrite is an important silver ore. The
mineral occurs in veins associated with other compounds of silver such as
native silver, acanthite (argentite), stephanite, and sometimes with galena and
arsenopyrite. It is most commonly found in the zone of secondary enrichment
of silver veins, but also is formed as a primary ore mineral in some near
surface epithermal systems rich in silver.
Occurrence, Localities and Origins:

Overall, proustite is a fairly rare mineral, occurring in silver veins associated
with various other sulpharsenites and sulphantimonites. It is generally less
abundant than pyrargyrite. Found in the silver mines of Saxony; Bohemia; at
Chaftarcillo, Chile, in fine crystals; common in the silver mines of Peru and
Mexico. Found in Colorado in the silver mines of the San Juan Mountains and
elsewhere; in various epithermal silver districts in Nevada, etc.
Handsome crystal specimens of proustite occur at Freiberg and other places
in Saxony, at Wolfach in Baden, at Markirchen in Alsace and at Chanarcillo in
Chile. It is associated with pyrargyrite and with other ores of silver. In parts of
the western United States it is quite abundant, more particularly in the Ruby
district, Colorado, at Poorman lode in Idaho, and in all other localities where
pyrargyrite occurs. In some locations it is an important silver ore
Pyrargyrite
Chemical Formula: Ag3SbS3
Pyrargyrite is 59.7% Silver by weight.
Also known as Dark Ruby Silver.
Colors: Dark Gray to black.
The mineral is apparently opaque and
its color is grayish black in reflected
light, but is transparent or translucent
and deep ruby red in transmitted light.
streak is purplish red.
Hardness: 2 to 2.5
Density: 5.85
Cleavage: The cleavage of pyrargyrite
is distinct parallel to R(1011). Its
fracture is conchoidal or uneven.
Crystallography: Orthorhombic
Crystals are usually distorted and often
with complex development, and
frequently twinned.
Luster:. Adamantine, transparent to
translucent.
Optics: (Refractive Index) 2.9 (very
high index of refraction)
140
The Comstock lode district was

perhaps the largest single silver ore
find ever made in the USA. The
Comstock lode is famous for its ore
bodies of bonanza grade silver ore
rich in sooty silver sulfide minerals
like acanthite (formerly known as
argentite). The ore also contains
considerable other sulfide minerals
and some free gold as well.
The Comstock is famous for great
bonanzas of crushed, mineralized
quartz, in part exceedingly rich in
silver minerals, were found at
intervals along the lode, especially in
chambers or vertical fissures
probably produced by normal faulting
of the hanging wall. The ores consist
of quartz and some calcite, in places
banded with pyrite, galena,
chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and finely
distributed rich silver minerals. The
valuable minerals are mainly native
gold, acanthite (argentite), stephanite,
and polybasite.
Origin: Elura Mine (Endeavor Mine), Booroondarra, Cobar, Robinson Co., New
South Wales, Australia
Sample size: 5 x 4 x 75 mm
Dendritic crystallized native silver on a small amount of matrix with minor calcite.
Origin: New Nevada Mine, Batopilas, Andres del Rio District, Mun. de Batopilas,
Chihuahua, Mexico
Sample size: 20 x 5 x 35 mm
141
Iron black in colour

and streak, brittle,
H= 2-2.5, sp.g =
6.26
Ag5SbS4
Silver 68.33 % Ag
Antimony 15.42 % Sb
Sulfur 16.25 % S
Mineral: Silver: Ag
Stephanite: Ag5SbS4
Comments: Thick, ropy, native silver wires with blocky, well-crystallized

stephanite on white and tan calcite matrix.
Location: Freiberg, Erzgebirge, Saxony, Alemania, Germay.
Scale: Picture size 3 cm.
The sooty black colored material in this specimen is cerargyrite, an important

ore of silver. In many deposits located in desert regions, silver sulfide minerals
like acanthite (argentite), stephanite, and polybasite or oxidized by exposure to
air and water into a silver chloride, also known as cerargyrite. as a result, this
type of silver ore is only found near the surface. Once miners get down below
the water table, this type of mineral and ore will disappear and only sulfides will
be found in its place. This rich specimen was taken from the Tonopah Divide
mine, in the Divide district of Nye County, Nevada.
142
Telluride minerals such as calaverite, are also important silver ores in some
mining districts. This sample of rich gold and silver ore comes from the
Cripple Creek district in Colorado. The mossy metallic colored mineral on this
specimen is calaverite, a mineral rich in both gold and silver.
In the Calico District, deposits of silver chloride in fissure veins, and in small
fractures and pockets in volcanic tuffs and sandstones, probably of the
Pliocene series. Below the oxidation zone, rich chlorides give way to silver
bearing sulfides as shown in this specimen. They occur in Southwestern
California, in that portion of the State belonging to the Great Basin geologic
province. The ore was thought by Lindgren to have come in heated solution
from below and to have filled the fissures and overflowed, forming the surface
deposits in the tuffs. They are considered epithermal in origin.
143
Rhodochrosite and silver ore, Peru:

This beautiful specimen of silver ore comes from the country of Peru in South
America. The dark colored minerals are the ones which are silver bearing, while
the red and pink colored crystals are Rhodochrosite, a common manganese
mineral that is found in a number of silver ores.
Mode of occurrence and Origin

 Silver ores occur in a variety of ways such as
 Veins, stringers and disseminations, replacement deposits, contact
metamorphic deposits or alluvial
 The upper part of the silver deposits like Ceragrgyrite (AgCl), Bromyrite
(AgBr) and Iodyrite (Agl) are weathered and form the gossan in the
surface
 Hydrothermal solutions might be responsible in bringing about the
replacement or cavity filling deposits
 Massive or load replacement of silver-lead ores are numerous
 The most of the world’s silver is from the fissure veins of mesothermal
and epithermal types
144
Hydrothermal deposits
Silver grains to 2-3 mm in granitic matrix

Origin: Sophia mine, Wittichen, Schwarzwald, Germany
Silver occur in veins
Vein and leaf silver in two large fractures 4 and 3.5 cm long.
The exposed silver is aver 1 cm in length.
Origin: O'Brien mine, Cobalt, Ontario, Canada
Sample size: 6.5 x 4 x 2 cm
145
Distribution
 In India there is no silver deposit at present
 Silver is found associated with lead, zinc, copper and gold
 The Galena of Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar
are argentiferous
 Lead-zinc samle from Zawarmala mine, udaipur Rajasthan have
18ppm silver
 The lead occurrences in Heasatu-Belhathan belt, Bihar and
Birgana, UP are found to be argentiferous galena
Production
 In India silver is recovered as a by-product from the smelting od
lead, zinc, gold and copper
 The production of silver during 1990-91, 91-92, 92-93 respectively
35, 38 and 47 thousand kg
Precious Metal - Platinam

Platinum was first found in the alluvial deposits of river Pinto in
Colombia, S America from where it was taken to Europe in 1735
by Spanish Mathematician Antonio de Ulloa
No workable platinum deposits in India.
The Ural mountains of Russia where platinum was discovered in
1819
Canada, Africa, Australia, S America and Alaska are the other
main producing countries
Platinum Nugget, California

Natural Platinum Crystals
146
Mineralogy - Platinam
Chemical Formula: Pt
Colors: Steel-gray with a bright metallic shine.
The color of platinum is a little more gray than that of silver. Its streak is
also gray.
Hardness: 4 to 4.5
Hardness unusually high for a metal.
Density: 14 to 19 depending on impurities
Cleavage: None
Crystallography: Isometric
Usually found in small grains or scales. Sometimes in irregular masses
and nuggets of larger size. Crystals very rare and commonly distorted.
Luster:. Bright metallic luster.
Optics: (Refractive Index): Opaque
• It is malleable and ductile, a good conductor of electricity, and it is
infusible before the blowpipe except in very fine wire.
• Its melting temperature is 1755.
• Platinum is unattacked by any single acid, though soluble, like gold, in a

mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids (aqua regia).
 Platinum is a rare metal which occurs almost exclusively native

and in fine scale and minute grains
 Platinum is usually alloyed with several percent of iron and with

smaller amounts of iridium, osmium, etc.
 The amount of metallic platinum present seldom exceeds 80 per

cent.
 Though the metal occurs usually in grains and plates, nevertheless

its crystals are sometimes found. On them cubic faces are the
most prominent ones, though the octahedrons, the dodecahedrons
and tetrahexahedrons have also been identified. Like the crystals
of silver and gold, those of platinum are frequently distorted.
147
 Platinum is a rare metal which occurs almost exclusively native and in

fine scale and minute grains in the following forms
1. Native state – Element Platinum

2. Arsenide – Sperrylite (PtAs2)
3. Aresen-sulphide – Cooperite (Pt (As,S)2)
4. Alloyed with other metals of its group
Sperrylite Formula: PtAs2

Sperrylite in chalcopyrite
148
Crystal system: cubic
Crystal class: 2/m -3

Sperrylite - PtAs2
Colour: tin-white
Diaphaneity: opaque
Luster: bright metallic
Habit: crystals cubic or cubo-octahedral,

may be highly modified
Hardness: 6 to 7
Specific gravity: 10.46 to 10.6
Cleavage: 1; {001} distinct
Tenacity: conchoidal, brittle
Streak: black
Sperrylite
Origin: Oktyabr'sk mine, Norl'sk, Krasnoyark ray, Yaymyrskiy Nats.

Okrug, Siberia, Russia
Sample size: 2 x 5 x 4.5 cm
149
Cooperite
Formula: (Pt,Pd,Ni)S
Cleavage: None
Color: Steel gray.
Density: 9.5
Diaphaneity: Opaque
Fracture: Conchoidal - Fractures developed in brittle materials
characterized by smoothly curving surfaces, (e.g. quartz).
Hardness: 4-5 - Fluorite-Apatite
Luster: Metallic
Cooperite
Formula: (Pt,Pd,Ni)S
Creamy-grayish fractured grains of cherepanovite with gray granular cooperite,

white massive grains of iridian ruthenian platinum and white crystals of iridian
ruthenian osmium. Polished section in reflected light
Origin: Placer Deposit, Northern Pekul'nei River, Pekul'nei Range, Chukotka

(Tchukotka) Okrug, Chukot Peninsula, Far-Eastern Region, Russia
Picture size: 0.12 mm
150
MODE OF OCCURRENCE AND ORIGIN

The platinum may occur in five modes
1. Early Magmatic Concentrations
 Disseminations: Sparse dissemination with chromite in
dunite. E.g. Urals, Alaska, Colombia
 Segregations by fractional crystallization – e.g. Rustern
burg, S.Africa
2. Late Magmatic concentrations
 Immiscible liquid segregations – e.g. Vlackffontein,
S.Africa
 Immiscible liquid injections – e.g. Sudbury, Canada
3. Contact Metasomatic Deposits – e.g. Potgietersmast,
S.Africa
4. Hydrothermal – e.g. Waterburgs, S.Africa & Sudbury,
Canada
5. Placers – e.g. Urals, Colombia, Alaska
 Platinum are primarily found in ultrabasic rocks, usually

associated with chromite and nickel ores
 In Ural mountains it occurs sparse disseminations with chromite
in dunites
 The erosion of the platinum rich ultrabasic rocks has yielded
placer deposits in Urals, Alaska, Colombia
 In South Africa, the platinum associated with dunite pipes of the
differentiated Bushveld igneous complex, chromite and nickel-
sulphides of the complex
 The platinum associated with the nickel-copper sulphide deposits
- Immiscible liquid segregations – e.g. Vlackffontein, S.Africa
151
Metallogenic Epochs
 Late mesozoic to Early Tertiary: Occurs in Zambales, Phillipines

as the ‘Alpine’ type. The minor occurrence in Dhangawan
Bauxite, M.P., India
 Late Palaeozoic: Occurs in Alpine type of ultramafic intrusion
related Hercynical folding movement in Ural mountains, Russia
and dunitic rocks of New Zealand
 Precambrian: Occurs in stratiform type of Bushveld Igneous
complex, Transvaal, South Africa. Late magmatic injection in
frood Breecia, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada. The placer occurrence
reported in Assam, West Bengal and Bengal
Distribution: No workable deposits has so far been

located in India. But some small occurrences reported
1. Assam: Platinum associated with gold was reported by Dalton & Hanny in the
sands of the Noa Dihing River observed by Mallet (1882). The source for this
platinum is ultrabasic suite Patkoi range
2. Bihar: Dunn (1937) recorded the occurrence of platinum associated with gold
in the sands along the Gurma river near Dhadka. The origin of such platinum
may possibly be connected with basic intrusive rocks
3. Karnataka: The gold washings of the Kolar mines have shown traces of
platinum
4. Madhya Pradesh: H.L. Chibber found traces of platinum in a sample collected
from the bauxite deposit of Dhangawan on Jabalpur – Katni road
5. Tamil Nadu: The stratiform magnesio-chromites laminated with ultramafics of
Sittampundi complex have indicated presence of platinum and palladium.
6. West Bengal: A sample of alluvial gold from Guram river have the minute
grains of platinum (Chatterji, 1937)
152
153
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
FEROUS AND ALLIED METALS
154
IRON
Iron is the second most abundant metallic element in the Earth’s
crust and accounts for 5.6% of the lithosphere.
The principal minerals of iron are the oxides (haematite and

magnetite), hydroxide (limonite and goethite), carbonate (siderite)
and sulphide (pyrite).
Iron, like most metals, is found in the Earth's crust only in the form
of an ore, i.e., combined with other elements such as oxygen or
sulfur.
Haematite and magnetite are the two important iron ores from which
iron is extracted. Of these, haematite is considered to be superior
owing to its high grade.
It is rarely found in native state except in meteorites and some
eruptive rock
The mineral containing iron must be mineable at profit is called iron
ore. The total world iron production in 1990 is 1,008 million tonnes
and India is 55.5 million tonnes and nearly 5.5%
The chief ores of iron are its oxides and carbonates
Mineral Formul Crystal Opaci Hard

Color Lustre Streak SG Fracture
Name a System ty ness
Blackish
brown, Adam
reddish or antine- Orange to 3.3
Orthorh Opaqu 5 to Uneven;
Goethite FeO(OH) yellowish
e
metalli brownish to
ombic 5.5 brittle
brown, c to yellow 4.3
brownish dull
yellow
Steel-gray Metalli
Trigonal to iron- Deep red Subconc
c,
- black, thin Opaqu or 5 to hoidal to
Hematite Fe2O3
e
subme 5.26
Hexago fragments brownish 6 uneven;
nal deep blood tallic,
red brittle
red dull
Yellow,
Amorph
brown,
ous/ Non 2.7 Uneven,
FeO.OH. brownish- Opaqu Yellowish- 4 to
Limonite Cryptoc
e
metalli to subconch
nH2O black, brown 5.5
rystallin c 4.3 oidal
orange-
e
brown
Splen
Subconc
Iron-black, dent 5.5
Opaqu hoidal to
Magnetite Fe3O4 Cubic grayish
e
metalli Black to 5.17
black
uneven;
c to 6.5
brittle
dull
155
The chief ores of iron are its oxides and carbonates
Mineral Crystal Hardne

Formula Color Opacity Lustre Streak SG Fracture
Name System ss Low
Pale brass-
yellow to
Orthorhombi Greenis Uneven;
Marcasite FeS2 tin-white, Opaque Metallic 6-6.5 4.92
c h black brittle
darkens on
exposure
Conchoida
Brass- l to
Pyrite FeS2 Cubic Opaque Metallic Empty 6-6.5 5.01
yellow uneven;
brittle
Bronze-
Subconch
Monoclinic yellow to
grayish oidal to
Pyrrhotite Fe1-xS and bronze-red; Opaque Metallic 3.5-4.5 4.53
black uneven;
hexagonal tarnishes
brittle
dark brown
Pale
yellowish,
pale green,
Transluc Conchoida
yellowish Vitreous,
ent to l to
Siderite FeCO3 Trigonal brown, pearly or White 4 3.96
subtransl uneven;
brown, silky
ucent brittle
reddish
brown,
white
Chemical Formula: Fe
Composition: Molecular Weight = 55.85 gm Iron 100.00 % Fe
Empirical Formula: Fe0+
Environment: In meteorites and rarely basalts that have intruded carbon-rich
sediments.
Cleavage: {001} Perfect, {010} Perfect, [100} Perfect
Color: Iron black, Dark gray, Steel gray.
Diaphaneity: Opaque
Habit: Disseminated - Occurs in small, distinct particles dispersed in matrix.
Habit: Granular - Generally occurs as anhedral to subhedral crystals in matrix.
Hardness: 4-5 - Fluorite-Apatite
Luster: Metallic
Magnetism: Naturally strong NATIVE IRON
Streak: gray
156
Iron
Gray metallic native iron in basalt. Cut (but not polished) section.
Origin: B?eimar, Kassel, Hesse, Germany
Picture size: 7 mm
Owner: Thomas Witzke
Mineral: Iron: Fe
Comments: Specimen of volcanic rock containing dark gray grains of native
Iron. This locality is one of the very few known localities for
terrestrial native iron.
Location: Disko Island, Greenland.
Scale: Picture size 1 cm.
157
Mineral: Defernite: Ca6(CO3)2-x(SiO4)x(OH)7(Cl,OH)1-2x (x=0,5)

Hematite: Fe2O3
Comments: Specular hematite rich with crystalline grains of reddish
brown defernite.
Location: Kombat Mine, Kombat, Grootfontein District, Otjozondjupa
Region, Namibia.
Scale: 3.9 x 2.5 cm.
Hematite
Chemical Formula: Fe2O3
Composition: Molecular Weight = 159.69 gm
Iron 69.94 % Fe, Oxygen 30.06 % O, 100.00 % Fe2O3
Environment: Magmatic, hydrothermal, metamorphic and sedimentary.
Color: Reddish gray, Black, Blackish red.

Density: 5.3
Diaphaneity: Subtranslucent to opaque
Fracture: Conchoidal
Habit: Blocky - Crystal shape tends to be equant (e.g. feldspars).
Habit: Earthy - Dull, clay-like texture with no visible crystalline affinities, (e.g.
howlite).
Habit: Tabular - Form dimensions are thin in one direction.
Hardness: 6.5, Luminescence: Non-fluorescent.
Luster: Metallic
Magnetism: Magnetic after heating
Streak: reddish brown
158
Mineral: Hematite: Fe2O3

Comments: Black, platy hematite and minor white magnesite.
Location: Brumado, Bahia, Brazil.
Scale: 9 x 4.5 cm.
Mineral: Hematite: Fe2O3

Rutile: TiO2
Comments: Acicular, golden yellow crystals of rutile epitaxially overgrown on
black crystals of hematite. The overgrowths are perpendicular to the
trigonal crystallography of the hematite.
Location: Novo Horizonte, Bahia Brazil.
Scale: 4 x 3.5 x 3 cm.
159
Magnetite
Composition: Fe3 04
Iron 72.36 % Oxygen 27.64 % O
Environment: Common accessory mineral in
igneous and metamorphic rocks. Can be
biogenically produced by a wide variety of
organisms.
Cleavage: None
Color: Grayish black, Iron black.
Diaphaneity: Opaque
Fracture: Sub Conchoidal - Fractures developed in brittle
materials characterized by semi-curving surfaces.
Habit: Crystalline - Fine - Occurs as well-formed fine sized
crystals.
Habit: Massive - Granular - Common texture observed in granite
and other igneous rock.
Habit: Massive - Uniformly indistinguishable crystals forming
Magnetite large masses.
Hardness: 5.5-6 - Knife Blade-Orthoclase
Magnetite octahedrons on albite
Origin: Hinter-Kohlergraben, Binntal, Luminescence: Non-fluorescent.
Switzerland Luster: Metallic

Picture height: 18 mm Magnetism: Naturally strong
Streak: black
Large, well-formed magnetite crystals to 2.5cm associated

with 6 cm frosted quartz crystals and unusual yellow calcite
crystals to 2cm.
Origin: Dashkesan, Azerbaijan
160
Marcasite with Quartzite
Marcasite (FeS2) with Calcite
Marcasite (FeS2)
Cleavage: {010} Indistinct

Color: Bronze, Light brass yellow, Tin white.
Density: 4.89
Diaphaneity: Opaque
Fracture: Uneven - Flat surfaces (not cleavage) fractured in an uneven pattern.
Habit: Globular - Spherical, or nearly so, rounded forms (e.g. wavellite).
Habit: Stalactitic - Shaped like pendant columns as stalactites or stalagmites
(e.g. calcite).
Hardness: 6-6.5 - Orthoclase-Pyrite
Luster: Metallic
Streak: gray brownish black
161
Goethite FeO(OH)
Cleavage: {010} Perfect, {100} Distinct
Color: Brown, Reddish brown, Yellowish brown, Brownish yellow, Ocher yellow.
Diaphaneity: Subtranslucent to opaque
Habit: Acicular - Occurs as needle-like crystals.
Habit: Radial - Crystals radiate from a center without producing stellar forms (e.g.
stibnite)
Habit: Reniform - "Kidney like" in shape (e.g.. hematite).
Hardness: 5-5.5 - Apatite-Knife Blade
Luster: Adamantine - Silky
Streak: yellowish brown
Occurrence: A common weathering product derived from numerous iron-bearing

minerals in oxygenated environments; an important component of ore in
weathered iron deposits. Also a primary precipitate in hydrothermal, marine, and
bog environments upon oxidation of reduced iron-bearing waters.
Goethite with quartz

Origin: Bottalack, Cornwall, England
162
Origin: Nandan, Guangxi Province, China

163
Goethite
Origin: Mesabi Range, Minnesota, U.S.A.
Sample size: 10.5 x 8 x 6 cm
Mineral: Goethite: Fe+++O(OH)

Comments: Stellate crystalline aggregates of acicular goethite crystals.
Location: Pribram, Bohemia, Czech Republic.
164
Iron 62.01 % FeO

Siderite
Carbon 37.99 % CO2
FeCO3
Cleavage: {1011} Perfect,
Color: Yellowish brown, Brown, Gray, Yellowish gray, Greenish gray.
Density: 3.96
Diaphaneity: Translucent to subtranslucent
Fracture: Brittle - Conchoidal - Very brittle fracture producing small,
conchoidal fragments.
Habit: Botryoidal - "Grape-like" rounded forms (e.g.. malachite).
Hardness: 3.5 - Copper Penny
Luster: Vitreous (Glassy)
Streak: white
Environment: Primarily bedded, biosedimentary deposits, also in metamorphic
and igneous rocks
Siderite FeCO3
Iron 62.01 % FeO

Carbon 37.99 % CO2
Mineral: Arsenopyrite: FeAsS

Siderite: Fe++CO3
Comments: White, metallic arsenopyrite and tan siderite crystals.
Location: Panasqueira (2000, 3rd level), in the region of Beira Baixa, Portugal.
Scale: 11 x 7 cm.
165
Mineral: Siderite: Fe++CO3

Comments: Bladed siderite crystal groups on crystallized quartz matrix.
Location: Peyrebrune, Tarn, France.
Scale: 8.7 x 6.5 x 4.7 cm.
Classification of Iron-ore Deposits

Metamorphic banded deposits: The major iron ore deposits of India fall within
this group. They are typically sedimentary or volcano-sedimentary and
metamorphosed rocks consisting of rich iron-ore and siliceous (chert) bands
The banded magnetite quartzite are typical example
The Indian iron ore deposits of Bihar-Orissa belt, Bailadila (M.P) and
Karnataka are Indian example
Continental sedimentary deposits: These are assumed to have formed in
fresh water (Fluvial or lagoonal) or under brakish swamp (Lacustrine)
conditions.
Ironstone of Raniganj and Auranga coalfields are typical examples of this type
of deposits
Marine sedimentary deposits such as oolites, detrital, placer and mixed type:
The type area is in lorrain, france. The Indian example is magnetite deposits
of coastal regions such as at Travancore associated with ilmenite and heavy
mineral sand
Volcano-sedimentary: These related to volcanic group of initial geosynclinal
magmatism. Insignificant minor pockets of iron ore in Dras-Thasgam area,
Ladakh are the Indian Example
166
Classification of Iron-ore Deposits

Liquid magmatic deposits: They are during the early crystallizaion of Plutonic
rocks, mainly by gravitational differentiation. Tirano-vanadium bearing iron
ore deposits of Mayurbhanj district, Orissa
Intrusive magmatic deposits: They are related to alkaline rocks of the
Precambrian shields. Apatite – Magnetire rocks of Singhbhum represent this
type
Contact metasomatic deposits: The granitoid intrusions within the limestone
and are widely distributed. Main ore mineral is magnetite
Polymetallic skarn ore deposits: These occur associated with sedimentary

deposits which are latter affected by regional metamorphism. No Indian
example for this type. Deposit at Utah is best example
(a) Coarse fragments of goethite–

kaolinite-rich mottled saprolite with
yellowish-brown cutans characteristic of
broad ridge crests. Hammer for scale
(b) Hematite-rich ferruginous pisoliths

and nodules with yellowish- to reddish-
brown cutans on upper backslopes
167
(c) Fine, black hematite–maghemite-rich

ferruginous pisoliths
Fe-saprolite, lithic fragments and quartz.
(e) Coarse fragments of ferruginous saprolite
(f) Goethite-rich iron segregations after sulfide-rich rocks
168
The Indian Iron ore deposits can be classified into six

basic type
 Banded ferruginous formation of Precambrian age: The ores

can be classified into massive ore, laminated ore and blue
dust. This is major type in the country
 Sedimentary iron-ores of sideritic or limonitic composition e.g
found in coal fields of Bihar and West Bengal and Tertiary
formation of Assam
 Lateritic iron ore: Associated with Deccan trap, also
widespread in the country
 Apatite magnetite rocks of Singhbhum Copper belt
 Titaniferous and vanadiferous magnetites: S.E Singhbhum of
Bihar, Mayurbhanj of Orissa, Tumkur of Karnataka
 Fault and fissure fillings of hematite of Valdurthi and
Ramalkota in Kurnool and in Cuddapah districts
Geological and Geographical Distribution of Iron ore in

India
Formation Types of Deposit Occurrences/Deposits
Precambrian
Basic & Ultrabasic Titaniferous and SE Singhbhum (Bihar), Mayurbhanj
Vanadiferous (Orissa), Tumkur (Karnataka)
magnetite
Granodiorite Apatite-Magnetite Singhbhum Copper belt and
Granite rock (Residual) Mayurbhanj,Assam Jantia Hills
Banded iron ore Hematites (Massive, Singhbhum; Bonai, Keonjihar &
formation Shaly, Powdery) Mayurbhanj (Orissa); Poonch (J&K);
Baster, Durg and Jabalpur (MP), Chanda
and Ratnagiri (Maharashtra); Dharwar,
Bellary, Sundar, Shimoga and Chikmagalur
(Karnataka)
Banded iron ore Magnetite-Quartzite Guntur (AP), Salem (Tamil Nadu), Shimoga
formation (Karnataka), Mandi (HP)
(Metamorphosed)
Bijawar/Gwalier Hematite & Bijawar, Gwalier, Indore, Rewa (MP);
Ferruginous Mohindargarh (Haryana), Jhun-Jhunu,
Quartzite Sikar, Jaipur (Rajasthan); Cuddapah
169
Geological and Geographical Distribution of Iron ore in

India
Formation Types of Deposit Occurrences/Deposits
Gondwana
Barakar - Ironstone Birbhum(W Bengal) and Auranga coal field
Mahadeva (Bihar)
Ironstone-shale Ironstone and Raniganj coal field (W Bengal)
siderite
Triassic
Sirban Limestone Hematite & Siderite Udhampur (J&K)
Jurassic
Rajmahal trap Ironstone Rajmahal (Bihar), Birbhum (West Bengal)
(inter-trappean
beds)
Eocene and Ironstone NE districts of Assam, Kumaon (UP),
Miocene Travancore and Malabar (Kerala)
Quaternary Laterite Several states of India. Derived from
different formations including Deccan trap
170
171
172
173
MANGANESE
 The metallic manganese on earth is rated as the 12th most
abundant element in the lithosphere, estimated around
28.46x1018 tonnes or so i.e., 0.1087% by proportion of weight.
 Thus it almost becomes a scarce one, so far as its deposits are
concerned. Industrially manganese metal is a vital component of
steel and its major use is for metallurgical purpose.
 The 96% of global production of manganese today is from barely
7 countries viz. CIS,RSA, Brazil, Gabon, Australia, China and India
in decreasing order of tonnages raised annually.
 The global resource base is close to 12 billion tonnes including
Indian reserve of about 240 million tonnes.
 Indian manganese ores are preferred by many as they are
generally hard, lumpy and amenable to easy reduction. The
deposition of manganese in varying geological processes but the
sedimentary mode of formation far outweighed other methods
such as supergene enrichment etc.
174
In nature, manganese does not occur in the native state

The following are the common Manganese minerals
Mineral Name Formula
1. Oxides
Pyrolusite MnO2
Hydrated oxide of Mn
Psilomelane
(Ba,H2O)2Mn5O10
Manganite MnO(OH)
Brownite Mn2O3
Hausmanite Mn3O4
2. Carbonate
Rhodocrosite MnCO3
3.Silicate
Rhodonite MnSiO3
Pyrolusite and Psilomelane are two important ores of Manganese
Pyrolusite (MnO2) Manganese 63.19 % Oxygen 36.81 %
A mass of silvery-metallic pyrolusite

composed of many smaller crystals with
some open specimen with larger crystals
up to 3mm or so.
Mineral: Pyrolusite: MnO2

Comments: Steel-gray metallic prismatic pyrolusite crystals.
Location: Hori Blatna, Czech Republic.
175
Pyrolusite (MnO2)
Cleavage: {110} Perfect
Color: Steel gray, Iron gray, Bluish gray.
Diaphaneity: Opaque
Fracture: Brittle - Generally displayed by glasses and most non-metallic
minerals.
Habit: Dendritic - Branching "tree-like" growths of great complexity (e.g.
pyrolusite). Earthy - Dull, clay-like texture with no visible crystalline
affinities, (e.g. howlite). Reniform - "Kidney like" in shape (e.g.. hematite).
Hardness: 6-6.5 - Orthoclase-Pyrite
Luster: Sub Metallic
Streak: black
Formed in low-temperature hydrothermal or hot-spring manganese
deposits.
OCCURRENCES: As a weathering product, typically as botryoidal masses,
in unconsolidated deposits -- e.g., residual clays.
Hydrated oxide of Mn
Psilomelane
(Ba,H2O)2Mn5O10
Cleavage: None
Color: Iron black, Dark steel gray.
Diaphaneity: Opaque
Fracture: Uneven - Flat surfaces (not cleavage)
fractured in an uneven pattern.
Habit: Botryoidal - "Grape-like" rounded forms (e.g..
malachite). Reniform - "Kidney like" in shape (e.g..
hematite).
Hardness: 5-6 - Between Apatite and Orthoclase
Luster: Sub Metallic
Magnetism: Nonmagnetic Mineral: Psilomelane: (Ba,H2O)2Mn5O10
Streak: brownish black Comments: Banded massive psilomelane.
Location: Compton, Virginia, USA.
176
Botryoidal form - Psilomelane
Psilomelane on massive barite.
Manganite MnO(OH)
Cleavage: {010} Perfect
Color: Black, Gray, Grayish black.
Diaphaneity: Opaque
Fracture: Brittle - Generally displayed by glasses and
most non-metallic minerals.
Habit: Massive - Fibrous - Distinctly fibrous fine-
grained forms. Prismatic - Crystals Shaped like Slender
Prisms (e.g. tourmaline). Pseudo Orthorhombic -
Crystals show an orthorhombic shape.
Hardness: 4 - Fluorite Mineral: Manganite: MnO(OH)
Luminescence: Non-fluorescent. Comments: Lustrous feathery crystals

of manganite to 0.75 cm.
Luster: Sub Metallic Location: N'Chwaning Mine,
Kalahari Manganese
Magnetism: Nonmagnetic Field, Northern Cape
Province, South Africa.
Streak: dark brown
Environment: Formed in low-temperature hydrothermal
or hot-spring manganese deposits.
177
Mineral: Manganite: MnO(OH)

Sudoite:
Mg2(Al,Fe+++)3Si3AlO10(OH)
8
Manganite - Ilfeld, Germany
Comments: Pinkish to nearly white
earthy sudoite with dark
manganite.
Location: Ilfeld, Nordhausen, Erfurt
district, Harz Mts, Thuringia,
Germany.
Mangenite
Shiny, black prismatic needles in
vugs & veins of reddish brown host
rock.
Crystals sparkle, tips could be semi-
opaque.
178
Rhodocrosite MnCO3
Cleavage: Perfect
Color: Pinkish red, Red, Rose red, Yellowish
gray, Brown.
Density: 3.69
Diaphaneity: Translucent to subtranslucent
Fracture: Brittle - Conchoidal - Very brittle
fracture producing small, conchoidal
fragments.
Habit: Botryoidal - "Grape-like" rounded forms
(e.g.. malachite), Columnar, Massive - Granular -
Hardness: 3 - Calcite
Streak: white
Rhodochrosite - Wolf Mine, Herdorf, Germany

Rhodochrosite replacing barite
Origin: Huaron, Pasco, Peru
Rhodochrosite with quartz
179
Rhodonite MnSiO3
Cleavage: {110} Perfect, {110} Perfect

Color: Pink, Rose red, Brownish red, Black,
Yellow.
Diaphaneity: Transparent to translucent
Fracture: Uneven - Flat surfaces (not
cleavage) fractured in an uneven pattern.
Habit: Massive - Granular - Massive -
Uniformly indistinguishable crystals
forming large masses. Tabular - Form
dimensions are thin in one direction.
Hardness: 6 - Orthoclase
Streak: white
Mineral: Rhodonite: (Mn++,Fe++,Mg,Ca)SiO3

Comments: Light red rhodonite and minor quartz.
180
Mineral: Rhodonite: (Mn++,Fe++,Mg,Ca)SiO3

Comments: Deep red blocky prismatic crystals of rhodonite to 3cm.
Location: Broken Hill mine, New South Wales, Australia.
Uses
 Manganese ore are important raw materials in iron and

steel industry and as ferro-manganese alloy
 It improve strength, toughness, hardness and
workability of steel
 The 90 % of world Mn is used for iron and steel
metallurgy
 Mn used for dry cell batteries
 It is used in cotton industry as dye
 Also used in medical, glass industries, etc.
181
Based upon the utilisation in the user industries, an Expert Group of the
Dept. of Minesr ecommended the following specification for the manganese
ore
Annual consumption in India
182
Mode of Occurrence
The greenstone hosted manganese deposits are older in age and

have general close association of Banded Iron Formation such as in
the Dharwarian rocks of Karnataka, Goa as also the Iron Ore
Supergroup of Orissa, namely in Benai-Keonjhar tracts of North
Orissa.
The time sequence changes over from Archaeau to Protuozoic, both

the Khoudalit-hozted as well as the Adilabed beds of ore with the
Penganga sequence have no association of iron or BIF, indicate
progressive separation of iron from manganese.
Tertiary-Quaternary lateritisation processes with alternates wet and

dry spells of climate, had affected the manganiferous sequences of
the subtrata. Thus the ‘lateritoid’ ores are situated over some
gondites and the Khondalite hosted material as also on the BIF-
associated greenstone hosted ore material.
 The manganese ore deposits of M.P.-Maharashtra belt,

Visakhapatnam-Srikakulam belts of Andhra Pradesh,
Gangpur Manganese belt of Orissa and a part of North
Kanara deposits are bedded type.
 The deposits of Singhbhum-Keonjhar-Bonai belt, Bellary-

Hospet and North Kanara belt of Karnataka are mainly of
lateritoid type.
 Manganese ores of Bonai-Keonjhar belt are known for their

low phosphorous content.
 More than 50% of the manganese ore deposits of M.P and

Maharashtra are of high grade.
183
The state-wise ore reserves of recoverable material as per National

Mineral Inventory (NMI) compiled by Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM) as
on 01-04-1990 are as under:
Additional ore reserve of Karnataka and Goa worked out by GSI but not included in the
NMI of IBM. The total resources of Indian manganese ore, as on data, may hence be
deemed to be around 240 million tonnes.
INDIAN OCCURANCES of Mn ore

Adilabad district, Andhrapradesh
The Mn ore occur as this lenses with chert and jaspar within
limestone. Deposits are minor nature with low phosphorous content
Srikakulam district, Andhrapradesh
The Mn ore associated with Kodurite rock (Garnet Granulite) forming a
part of Khondalite formation and ore formed due to supergene
enrichment. The ore is low grade due to high phosphorous content
Visakhapatnam district, Andhrapradesh
The Mn ore associated with Kodurite and Khondalite formation
Singhbhum district, Bihar
Associated with rocks of Iron ore and Kojham formation as lenticles parallel
to bedding and as lateritic materials at places
Goa
The deposits are of Lateritoid type found at surface or near
Panch Mahal, Vadodara district, Bihar
The ore are partly lateritid and partly primary associated with less
metamorphosed Dharwars
184

Bellary, Chitradurga, Uttarkannad, Dharwad, shimoga, Tumkur
districts, Karnataka
The deposits are of varying dimensions, associated with limestones,
schistose grits and ochery-schists of the Shimoga-Chitradurga schist
of Dharwar group. The ore are of lateritoid type and the indvidual
deposits are lenticular and impersistent
Balaghat district, Madhya Pradesh
They represent gondite type of deposits associated with
metamorphosed Dharwar rocks
Bhandara, Nagpur districts, Maharashtra
The ore bodies are banded braunite-quartzite and grade on to quartz
spessartite – rhodonite bearing gondite. Waethering has given rise to residual
enrichment deposits
Ratnagiri district, Maharashtra
They represnet secondary enrichment deposits associated with lateritised
Dharwarian metasediments, composed of quartzite, banded hematite-
quartzite and phylite. The ore generally more ferruginous

Sundargarh & Keonjhar (Bonai-Keonjhar area) districts, Orissa
The ore bodies occur as lenses or in irregular shape in shales,
brecciated cherts and laterites capping them belonging to Iron-ore
group of rocks.
Bonai-Keonjhar belt of north Orissa contributes 90% of the production of
manganese ore of the State whose share comes to 36% of the country’s total
production. This belt is one of the most important manganese ore producing
region of India because of its low phosphorus content in the ore.
Bonai-Keonjhar iron ore manganese belt forms a 60 km long & 25 km wide

synclinorium. The banded iron formations; which broadly define the outline of
the synclinorium. Manganese ore bearing shales occur within the core region
of the fold
Koraput, Kalahandi, & Bolangir and Patua districts, Orissa
The ore bodies associated with Khondalite suite of Eastern Ghats group
Sambalpur District, Orissa: The deposits are associated with laterites on the
meta sediments
Banswara district, Orissa
The deposits are associated with laterites on the meta sediments
185
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
CHROMIUM
186
Chromite is the only economic source of Chromium. It has a wide

range of uses in metallurgical, chemical, refractory industries.
The properties of chromium that makes it most versatile and

indispensable are its resistance to corrosion, oxidation, wear and
galling and enhancement of hardenability.
In metallurgical industry, chromite is used for manufacturing low-

carbon and high carbon ferro-chrome and charge chrome which in
turn are used as additives in making stainless steels and special
alloy steel.
Hard lumpy chromite is used for producing high carbon ferrochrome

while friable ore and fines briquettes are used for low carbon
ferrochrome. Both briquette fines and lumpy ores are used in
production of charge chrome.
In chemical industry, chromite is used for production of sodium bichromate

which is the source material for making various chromium-based
chemicals.
These chrome-chemicals are used in chromium plating, leather tanning,
furniture and fixtures, vehicles, safety matches, as dyes in clothings,
drilling muds and as catalysts and pigments.
The most objectionable impurities are silica and lime.
In refractory industry, chromite is used as a refractory material because of
its high melting point (1,700o to 1,900o C). Generally, refractories are made
using magnesite and chromite together and depending on the chromite to
dead-burnt magnesite (DBM) ratio, bricks are called chrome-mag bricks
(50 to 55% chromite) and mag-chrome bricks (45 to 50% chromite).
Dense chrome bricks containing 100% chromite are also manufactured.
Chromite refractories used for lining of open hearth steel furnaces serve
as neutral refractories.
The refractory industry prefers hard lumpy ore containing low silica and
low lime.
Chromite is also used in ceramic industry and electrode making industry
187
Chromium 46.46 %
Chromite (FeCr2O4)
Iron 24.95 %
Cleavage: None
Oxygen 28.59 %
Color: Black, Brownish black.
100.00 %
Diaphaneity: Opaque
Fracture: Uneven - Flat surfaces (not cleavage)
fractured in an uneven pattern.
Habit: Granular - Generally occurs as anhedral to
subhedral crystals in matrix. Massive –
Granular, Nuggets - Irregular lumps produced
by stream transport
Hardness: 5.5 - Knife Blade
Luster: Metallic
Magnetism: Naturally weak
Streak: brown
Environment: Cummulate mineral found in ultramafic
portions of layered mafic intrusions. Common
in meteorites. an accessory mineral in alpine-
type peridotites except carbonaceous
chondrites, and in lunar mare basalts
Locality: Campo Formoso ultramafic complex, Bahia, Brazil

Chromite in octahedral crystals
188
Origin: Onverwacht, Eastern Bushvel, RSA

Sample size: 3 x 5 cm
Massive black chromite in serpentine matrix

Origin: Psonas, Euboea Island, Greece
Sample size: 4.5 x 6.5 cm
Origin: Clear Creek area, New Idria District, San Benito Co., California, U.S.A.
Sample size: 5.7 x 4.9 x 4.1 cm
189
Massive black chromite in serpentine matrix

Origin: Psonas, Euboea Island, Greece
Sample size: 4.5 x 6.5 cm
ChromferideFe3Cr
Chromium 11.04 % Cr
Iron 88.96 % Fe
______
100.00 %
190
Ferchromide Cr3Fe
Chromium 87.47 % Cr
Iron 12.53 % Fe
______
100.00 %
191
WORLD RESOURCES AND PRODUCTION
The huge deposits of South Africa, constituting more than 75% of known
world resources, are now the major sources of chromite ore globally.
The important countries where considerable reserves of chromite ore are

known and mined for production of ferro-chrome and charge-chrome etc.
are Brazil, Republic of South Africa, Kazakhstan, India, Russia and Finland.
Internationally,
79% consumption of chromite made in metallurgical industry, 13% in

chemical industry and 8% in refractory industry, on an average. In the
metallurgical industry, 60% is consumed for stainless steel productions
192
GEOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF INDIAN CHROMITE DEPOSITS
 Archaean Greenstone Association: Sukinda and Baula-

Nausahi in Orissa, Sinduvalli and Byrapur in Karnataka,
Bhandara – Napur belt, Sindhudurg belt and Chandrapur belt in
Maharashtra, Roro and Jojohatu in Jharkhand , Ponda-
Dudsagar area in Goa.
 Proterozoic Granulite Association: Kondapalli in Andhra

Pradesh, Sitampundi complex of Tamil Nadu.
 Mesozoic Ophiolite Association: Chromite occurrences in

Manipur, Nagaland, Andaman & Nicobar Islands and Jammu &
Kashmir.
Major share (98.6%) of chromite resources in the country is located in

Orissa. The chromite deposits occur in number of localities along NE-SW
belt associated with ultramafic complexes of Sukinda, Baula-Nausahi and
similar occurrences of ultramafic rocks at Bhalukasoni and Ramgiri.
 Chromite deposits of Sukinda and Katpal ultramafic belt of Cuttack and

Dhenkanal districts, Orissa constitutes 95% of the country’s chromite
resources. Here chromite with nickel ore occurs as concentration and
disseminations in the ultramafic rocks, in the form of lenses, pockets, thin
seams and stringers.
 Chromite deposits of Nausahi in Keonjhar district, Orissa occur in band and
lenses within serpendine, peridotite, pyroxenite, gabbro, Vanadiferous
magnetite and anorthosite resembling well known stratiform of world
 Other states contributing to the country’s resources of chromite are Manipur,
Karnataka, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
 In Manipur, chromite is associated with serpentine.
 In Karnataka, the ultramafic rocks bearing chromite occur in two belts; viz
Nuggehalli, Arsikhera and Nanjangud in Mysore district.
 In Maharashtra, it occurs in altered ultramafic rocks.
 In Andhra Pradesh, it occurs in Eastern Ghat group of rocks in Khammam and
Krishna district.
 In Tamil Nadu, chromite associated with amphibolites bands are found in
Sitampundi complex of anorthosites.
 In Nagaland, nickeliferrous chromite has been located in ultramafic belt.
 The major chromite resources are from Sukinda followed by Baula-Nausahi
area of Orissa.
 Small resources have been established in Karnataka, Maharashtra and
Jharkhand
193
194
1. Massive chrome ore

included in the gabbro of the
brecciated zone collected
from sub surface Bangur
mine of Orissa Mining
Corporation.
2. Granular chromite ore from
Roro-Jojohatu
3. Banded chrome ore
showing crude layering of
chromite and altered
peridotite collected from a
quarry in Nuasahi mines of
IMFA.
4. Field photograph of well
preserved mm scale rhythmic
banding displayed by
Rangapura ultramafic body,
Karnataka. Dark bands
correspond to chromitite and
the light bands to
serpentinised dunite-
peridotite.
5. Small scale slump structure in rhythmically layered chromitite of TISCO

mines, Grade-1 quarry.
6. Disseminated chrome ore from a bore hole in Kalarangi chromite mine of
Orissa Mining Corporation (OMC).
195
Igneous breccia containing chromite clasts (view

approximately 16 m high) (Boula, Orissa, India).
MINING & PRODUCTION

 The production of chromite at 4799 thousand tonnes during 2007-08 is
decreased by 9 % as compared to that in the previous year owing to
decrease in market demand.
 The number of reporting mines was 21 in both the years.
 Six principal producers operating 12 mines together accounted for 90%
of the total production during the year.
 The contribution of 13 mines, each producing more than 10000 tonnes
per annum was 99.70 % of the total production.
 The share of public sector in total production was 30% in 2007-08 as
compared to that of 31% in the previous year.
 About 30% of the total production was reported from captive mines in
current year as compared to that 26% in the previous year.
196
Locality: Kraubath, Leoben, Styria, Austria

Chromite in partly serpentinized dunite, upper left some chromian clinochlore.
Polished slab,
Locality: Augraben, Kraubath, Leoben, Styria, Austria

Black chromite grains in serpentinite matrix.
Width of the picture:15mm
197
Locality: Caledonia Mine, Holguín Province, Cuba

Black nodular chromite in matrix.
Locality: Finero Ultramafic Complex, Different Municipalities, Verbano-Cusio-

Ossola Province, Piedmont, Italy Cromite crystals in peridotite.
198
MINING & PRODUCTION

 Chromite is mined mostly by opencast method in the country.
 M/S TISCO is operating open cast mine at Sukinda.
 M/s OMC has open cast chromite mines at South Kaliapani, Kaliapani,
Sukrangi, Kalarangi,Kathpal and Bangur in Orissa.
 Other open cast mines are Ostopal of M/s FACOR, Suruabil of M/s
Mishrilal Jain, Kamarda of M/s B. C. Mohanty, Chingudipal and Sukinda of
M/s IMFA, Tailangi of M/s IDCOL and Bangur of M/s ICCL.
 OMC is also developing underground mine near Bangur, in Baula-Nausahi
chromite belt.
 Underground mines are confined to Byrapur of M/s MML in Karnataka and
Boula and Kathpal mines (both underground and open cast) of M/s FACOR
and Nuasahi of M/s IMFA (underground development was going on) in
Orissa.
 In Sukinda area, deposits of chromite lying below 100 m depth may have
to be exploited by highly specialized underground mining techniques.
 M/s Mysore Mineral Ltd. is mining chromite ore in Hassan District,
Karnataka.
 Out of the existing six leases, two are underground mines (Byrapur
chromite mines) and the rest four leases namely, Thagdur, Jambur,
Bhakhtahalli, Aldahalli, opencast method in working is practiced.
199
Great intrusive body with

530km length, The Great Dyke,
Zimbabwe
The image shows Archeozonic mafic
dyke in Zimbabwe (approx.
2.46billion years). The great dyke is
3-12km wide and stretches out
530km from north-northeast to south-
southwest, crossing the whole
southern Zimbabwe region. The
image focuses on 80km at the
southern edge.
In the image, a few faults can be
observed across the great dyke, of
which the most peculiar right lateral
fault at the upper part from northwest
to southeast direction, causing the
dyke to slide by a few kilometers. A
river runs along the fault.
Valuable metal deposits including
platinum and chrome are distributed
all over the great dyke, providing an
important source of income for the
country's economy.
NON-FEROUS AND ALLIED METALS
200
COPPER
Copper, the pinkish coloured and comparatively softer metal, is well known to all of
us. It is one of the few metals to occur in native metal form as nuggets and masses in
nature and is being used prior to iron by mankind since ancient past. Hence, it is the
metal that has high cultural significance.
On record this metal was known to some of the oldest civilizations and has a history
of use that is at least 10,000 years old. A copper pendant was found in what is now
northern Iraq that dates to 8700 BC. Evidence of regular use of copper artifacts also
came from Mehrgarh in Baluchistan (earlier part of India) datable to 6500 BC.
Use of copper compounds also dates back to before 4000 BC. In the past it was also
used in making mirror.
The archaeological studies made on the basis of excavations at Ganeshwar, an old

mining town located east of Khetri in north Rajasthan (India), ascribe the earliest
Indian copper mining to Indus valley civilization (3000-1500 BC). Large number of the
ancient copper mining and metallurgical sites (slag heaps) present in almost all
States of the country bear testimony to it. In Kumaun (central Himalaya) copper
smithy is considered an old traditional technology.
Mention of copper mining and metallurgy in country exists in several ancient works
e.g. Kautilya's Arthsastra (3rd Century BC) to Ain-i-Akbari in 1590 AD.
The Faynan district of Jordan is known for its rich copper ore deposits. A three
thousand-year-old industrial scale metal production operation in the region is
now being touted as "King Solomon's mines." Photograph by Kenneth Garrett.
201
During the ancient period ‘native copper’ was the initial source of this metal
until it was possible to extract copper from its ores, which are far more
abundant in nature and, therefore, form the main source of copper today.
Copper possesses some of very special characters such as excellent

ductility, high conductivity of heat and electricity, resistance to corrosion,
ability to form alloys with other metals and beauty. It is completely soluble
with gold. Its length can be increased as much as 5,000 times. Hence, it is an
ideal metal for making wire.
Copper has 29 distinct isotopes ranging in atomic mass from 52 to 80. Two
of these, 63Cu and 65Cu, are stable and occur naturally, with 63Cu
comprising approximately 69% of naturally occurring copper. The other 27
isotopes are radioactive and do not occur naturally. The most stable of these
is 67Cu with a half-life of 61.83 hours
When found in free metallic state it is called ‘native copper’ forming

polycrystalline mass, wire, distorted crystals, grains etc. In nature it occurs
in mineral form. It forms a primary mineral in basalts, the volcanic rocks.
It’s most common mineral forms are sulphides, carbonates and oxides.
Copper constitutes 70 parts per million of the Earth's crust and is present to
the extent of 0.020-0.001 parts per million in seawater.
NATIVE COPPER
Copper in calcite
202
Crystallized loose grouping of native copper partly encrusted by tiny red cuprite crystals
Copper altering to malachite
203
COPPER SULPHIDE ORE

Hardness /
Opacity/ Lustre/ Cleavage /
Copper Ore Color SG Low/ SG Habit
streak Fracture
High
Crystals sphenoidal,
Chalcopyrite Brass-yellow, Opaque 3.5-4 {011} sometimes
resemble tetrahedrons;
CuFeS2 tarnishes Metallic 4.35 distinct
massive, compact; reniform,
Tetragonal iridescent Greenish black 4.35 Uneven; brittle
botryoidal
Opaque
Bornite 3.3 {111} in traces Crystals cubic, octahedral or
Copper-red or Metallic
Cu5FeS4 5.079 Conchoidal to dodecahedral, rare; massive,
bronze, Light grayish
Cubic 5.079 uneven granular
black
{110} indistinct Crystals pseudohexagonal
Chalcocite Opaque 2.5-3
Blackish gray Conchoidal; prisms formed by twinning;
Cu2S Metallic 5.5
to black brittle, somewhat short prismatic or thick
Monoclinic Blackish gray 5.8
sectile tabular; massive
Opaque
{0001} perfect
Covellite Submetallic to 1.5-2 Crystals thin tabular
Light to dark Uneven; brittle,
CuS dull 4.681 hexagonal plates; massive,
indigo-blue thin laminae
Hexagonal Shining gray- 4.681 foliated
flexible
black
{110} perfect,
Enargite Opaque 3 {100} and {010} Crystals prismatic or tabular;
Grayish black
Cu3AsS4 Metallic 4.45 distinct, {001} massive, granular or
to iron-black
Orthorhombic Grayish black 4.45 indistinct prismatic
Uneven; brittle
Tetrahedrite Crystals tetrahedral,
Opaque, 3-4.5 Empty
(Cu,Fe)12Sb4S Steel-gray to modified, contact penetration
Metallic, Black to 4.6 Subconchoidal to
13 iron-black twins; massive, coarse
brown to dark red 5.1 uneven; brittle
Cubic granular to compact
COPPER OXIDE ORE

Hardness /
Opacity/
Copper Ore Color SG Low/ Cleavage / Fracture Habit
Lustre/ streak
SG High
Transparent to Crystals cubic,
translucent octahedral or
Red, brownish
Cuprite Adamantine or 3.5-4 dodecahedral; hair-like
red, purplish {111} interrupted, {001} rare
Cu2O submetallic to 6.14 forming wads or mats
red to almost Conchoidal to uneven; brittle
Cubic earthy 6.14 (chalcotrichite);
black
Brownish red, massive, compact,
shining granular
Crystals acicular or
Translucent to
{201} perfect, {010} fair short to long prismatic,
Malachite Bright green to opaque 3.5-4
Subconchoidal to uneven; wedge-shaped
Cu2(CO3)(OH)2 dark or Vitreous to 4.05
crystals brittle; massive terminations, small;
Monoclinic blackish green adamantine 4.05
material tough massive; compact
Pale green
crusts; botryoidal
Crystals varied in
habit and often
Transparent to
Azurite Light blue to modified; tabular or
nearly opaque 3.5-4 {011} slightly imperfect; {100}
Cu3(CO3)2(OH) very dark blue, short prismatic, equant
Vitreous 3.77 fair; {110} in traces
2 usually azure or rhombohedral;
Blue, lighter than 3.77 Conchoidal; brittle
Monoclinic blue massive, stalactitic,
color
earthy, nodular
concretions
204
COPPER silicate and native ORE
Color Hardness / Cleavage / Fracture Habit

Opacity/
Copper Ore SG Low/
Lustre/ streak
SG High
Transluscent
Chrysocolla Green, Vitreous, greasy, 2-4
None Reniform, botryoidal
Cu2H2Si2O5(OH)4 bluish dull 2
Uneven to conchoidal masses
Monoclinic green, blue White to pale blue 2.2
or green
Copper-
Crystals cubic,
red,
octahedral,
Copper, Cu brown; Opaque 2.5-3
Empty dodecahedral,
Cubic pale rose Metallic 8.94
Hackly; malleable and ductile tetrahexahedral;
Native when Pale red 8.94
arborescent, wirelike,
fresh, pale
massive, powdery
pink
Chalcopyrite Well-formed crystals of chalcopyrite and

Chemical Formula: CuFeS2 quartz.
Iron 30.43 % Fe, Copper 34.63 % Cu,
Sulfur 34.94 % S
Common in sulfide veins and
disseminated in igneous rocks.

Color: Brass yellow, Honey yellow.
Diaphaneity: Opaque
Fracture: Brittle - Generally displayed by glasses and most non-metallic minerals.
Hardness: 3.5
Luster: Metallic
Streak: greenish black
205
Bornite (Cu5FeS4)
Iron 11.13 % Fe,Copper 63.31 % Cu,
Sulfur 25.56 % S
Disseminated in igneous intrusions and a
primary and secondary mineral in copper
ore veins
Cleavage: {111} Imperfect
Color: Copper red, Bronze brown, Purple.
Diaphaneity: Opaque
Fracture: Conchoidal - Fractures developed in brittle materials
characterized by smoothly curving surfaces, (e.g. quartz).
Habit: Granular - Generally occurs as anhedral to subhedral
crystals in matrix. Massive - Granular - Common texture observed
in granite and other igneous rock. Reniform - "Kidney like" in
shape (e.g.. hematite).
Hardness: 3 - Calcite
Luster: Metallic
Streak: grayish black
206
Bornite (Cu5FeS4)
Chalcocite (CU2S)
Copper 79.85 % Cu, Sulfur 20.15 % S

Color: Blue black, Gray, Black, Black gray, Steel gray.
Diaphaneity: Opaque
Fracture:Conchoidal
Habit: Euhedral Crystals - Occurs as well-formed crystals
showing good external form. Granular - Generally occurs as
anhedral to subhedral crystals in matrix. Massive - Uniformly
indistinguishable crystals forming large masses.
Hardness: 2.5-3 - Finger Nail-Calcite
Luster: Metallic
Streak: grayish black
207
Cuprite Cu2O Copper 88.82 %, Oxygen 11.18 %

Cleavage: {111} Imperfect
Color: Brown red, Purple red, Red, Black.
Density: 6.1
Diaphaneity:Transparent to translucent
Fracture: Brittle - Conchoidal - Very brittle fracture
producing small, conchoidal fragments.
Habit: Capillary - Very slender and long, like a thread
or hair (e.g. millerite).
Habit: Massive - Granular - Common texture
observed in granite and other igneous rock.
Hardness: 3.5-4 - Copper Penny-Fluorite
Luster: Adamantine
Magnetism:Nonmagnetic
Streak: brownish red
Dark red ball or sphere of cuprite crystals set on a pearly white dolomite crystal
matrix.
208
Malachite Cu2(CO3)(OH)2
Secondary mineral in the oxidized zones of copper ore deposits
Cleavage:{201} Perfect, {010} Fair

Color: Green, Dark green, Blackish green.
Density: 3.6 - 4, Average = 3.8
Diaphaneity:Translucent to subtranslucent to opaque
Fracture: Uneven - Flat surfaces (not cleavage) fractured in an
uneven pattern.
Habit: Botryoidal - "Grape-like" rounded forms (e.g..
malachite). Massive - Fibrous - Distinctly fibrous fine-grained
forms. Stalactitic - Shaped like pendant columns as stalactites
or stalagmites
Hardness: 3.5-4
Luster: Vitreous - Silky
Streak: light green
Dark blue stubby pyramidal azurite crystals

and green botryoidal-shaped radial
aggregates of malachite.
Botryoidal malachite
209
Azurite Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2
Cleavage: {011} Perfect, {100} Fair
Color: Azure blue, Blue, Light blue, Dark
blue.
Density: 3.77 - 3.89, Average = 3.83
Diaphaneity: Transparent to
subtranslucent
Fracture: Brittle - Conchoidal
Habit: Prismatic - Crystals Shaped like
Slender Prisms (e.g. tourmaline).
Stalactitic - Shaped like pendant columns
as stalactites or stalagmites. Tabular - Blue, hairy crystals of cyanotrichite
Form dimensions are thin in one direction. with dark-blue, blocky azurite on a
green, malachite matrix
Hardness: 3.5-4 - Copper Penny-
Fluorite
Streak: light blue
Azurite with malachite
210
Copper-bearing ores fall into three main classes i.e. oxide, carbonate and the
sulfide. There are more than 150 ore minerals of copper.
The important oxide ores include cuprite (Cu2O) and tenorite (CuO).
The carbonate ores are malachite (Cu2CO3(OH)2) and azurite
(Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2).
The common sulfides of copper include chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), covellite (CuS),

chalcocite (Cu2S) and bornite (Cu5FeS4).
Fresh copper sulphides form deeper parts of the ore zones or lodes, which are
not exposed to weathering. Near the surface, these get altered by oxidation
and other chemical actions to native metal, oxides and carbonates.
These secondary copper minerals also form rich ore and owing to
characteristic green or blue colour, even small amounts of copper ore is
identified easily in the rocks.
Cuprite is a secondary mineral, which forms in the oxidized zone of copper

sulfide deposits. It has a relatively high specific gravity of 6.1; and is also
known as ‘ruby copper’ due to its distinctive red color. The tenorite is dull
grey-black colored mineral of copper.
The malachite is a green-colored copper mineral, which crystallizes in the

monoclinic system, and most often forms botryoidal, fibrous or stalagmitic
masses.
Azurite is a soft, deep blue copper mineral produced by weathering of copper

ores. It occurs as massive to nodular, and often stalactitic in form. It tends to
lighten in color over time due to weathering into malachite. Both the minerals
were used as mineral pigment for centuries.
The chalcopyrite is brassy yellow in colour, shows metallic lustre and

tarnishes to iridescent blue, green, yellow and purple. Its hardness is 3.5 to 4
on the Mohs scale and specific gravity 4.2. It breaks with conchoidal fracture
and becomes magnetic on heating. When exposed to air, it oxidizes to a
variety of oxides, hydroxides and sulfates. Chalcopyrite occurs in a variety of
ore types such as huge masses, irregular veins and disseminations. Its streak
is diagnostic as green tinged black. Half of the world's copper deposits are in
the form of chalcopyrite ore.
The covellite is a rare copper sulfide mineral of indigo blue colour and was the
first discovered natural superconductor. It is commonly found as secondary
mineral, rarely as a primary mineral, and very rare as volcanic sublimate.
211
Chalcocite is opaque, dark-gray to black in colour with a metallic lustre. It has

a hardness of 2½ - 3 with an orthorhombic crystal system. It is a secondary
mineral that forms from the alteration of other minerals; it has been known to
form pseudomorphs of different minerals.
Bornite is brown to copper-red in colour on fresh surfaces that tarnishes to

various shades of blue to purple. Its striking iridescence gives it nickname
‘peacock ore’. It crystallizes in orthorhombic system and occurs mostly as
granular masses and disseminations in different rocks. It has of grayish black
streak. It is also magnetic after heating.
Copper ores occur in varied forms viz. in native form as wire, grains, crystals
etc., in mineral form as disseminations, veins, stock work etc. in variety of
rocks.
Mode of Occurrence and Origin of Copper
Copper occurs in a variety of ways

Magmatic Segregations – Dissiminated forms, veins and lodes
Contact metamorphic deposits – bedded deposits
Porphyry copper deposits – Stocks, chonoliths intrusions of monzonite or diorite
porphyry of early Tertiary age
In India, Copper lodes occur mostly in veins, stringers, patches, dissiminated
forms, fracture and cleavage fillings, etc. and associated with different types of
rocks mostly Dharwar and Cuddapah age
Copper associated with lead, zinc, silver, gold, etc.
Copper deposits mostly originated by hydrothermal solutions
212
Copper is extracted from its ores by two principal methods i.e.

pyrometallurgical and the hydrometallurgical method.
In the first method ore is crushed into powder. Minerals are concentrated into
slurry. Copper minerals are separated by flotation. Smelting of concentrate
and extraction of metal follow it; by heat, flux and addition of oxygen. Sulfur,
iron and other undesirable elements are removed and product is called ‘blister
copper’. It is further refined by fire and electro-refining methods.
The second method i.e. ‘solvent extraction’ and ‘electro-winning’ is most

dominant leaching process in use today in recovering copper by chemical
solutions. It involves two major stages: solvent extraction - the process by
which copper ions are leached or extracted from the ore using chemical
agents; and electro-winning - electrolysis of Cu ions plated onto the cathode
and thereafter removed in elemental form.
The most common copper-base alloys are the ‘bronze’ made of copper and tin,
and the ‘brass’ made of copper and zinc. Bronze was the first to be produced
by man during ancient period and is of two kinds i.e. wrought bronze and the
cast bronze. Alloying it with other elements such as aluminum, silicon,
manganese, beryllium, lead etc different types of bronzes are produced, which
have different usage. The bronze figure of a dancing girl recovered from
Mohenjodaro is a testimony of the knowledge of copper alloying of the Indians
during Harappan (Sindhu-Sarasvati) civilization.
Brass is comparatively stronger than bronze; its colour changes with zinc
content. German brass looking like gold contains 20 parts zinc in hundred,
and is used in making cheaper ornaments by rolling it into thin foils. The naval
brass is made of tin, copper and zinc and it strongly resists corrosion in
seawater
Copper is one of the oldest metals ever used and has been one of the
important materials in the development of civilization. Today it has become a
major industrial metal, ranking third after iron and aluminum in terms of
quantities consumed.
Copper has been fashioned into ornamental objects and cooking utensils.
Coins have been made of copper throughout history. Copper is also used in
pigments, insecticides, and fungicides. Electrical uses of copper, including
power transmission and generation, building wiring, telecommunication,
electrical and electronic products account for about three quarters of total
copper usage.
Copper is the third most abundant trace mineral in the body. The human body
contains approximately 100-500 mg of copper but it's role is important as it
serves as a cofactor for enzymes involved in hemoglobin and collagen
formation and is involved in incorporating iron into the structure of
hemoglobin. It strengthens blood vessels, bones and nerves.
213
Copper producing localities in the world are too numerous to mention here.
Worldwide famous localities are Broken Hill (Australia); Daye, Hubei
Chengmenshan, Jiurui, Jiangxi Province (China); Ogonja (Namibia); and
Callington District, Cornwall (England). In addition, Bolivia, Kazakhstan also
produce significant amount of copper.
In India, Hindustan Copper Limited (HCL) under Ministry of Mines carries out
mining and production of copper. The Company’s mines and plants are spread
across four operating Units, one each in the States of Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh, Jharkhand and Maharashtra i.e. Khetri Copper Complex (KCC) at
Khetri Nagar, Rajasthan; Indian Copper Complex (ICC) at Ghatsila, Jharkhand;
Malanjkhand Copper Project (MCP) at Malanjkhand, Madhya Pradesh; and
Taloja Copper Project (TCP) at Taloja, Maharashtra.
The Khetri Copper Belt, situated in Aravalli Range in Jhunjhunu and Sikar
districts, Rajasthan, hosts several copper deposits. The area comprises of
tightly folded Proterozoic metasediments that rest over basement gneisses.
The prominent copper deposits in the belt are Khetri, Kolihan, Banwas,
Chandmari, Dholamala, Akwali and Muradpur-Pacheri. KCC was established in
1967. It has two mechanized underground mines namely 'Khetri' and 'Kolihan'
with capacity of 1.0 million tonnes of ore per annum.
It’s ore resources include 26 million tonnes @ 1.13 % Cu at Khetri Mine; 20.64 million
tonnes @ 1.35 % Cu at Kolihan Mine; 25.02 million tonnes @ 1.69 % Cu at Banwas Block
and 12.10 million tonnes @ 1.03 % Cu at Intervening block.
The Malanjkhand copper belt comprises of a large body of copper ore in granitic rocks.
Its prominent deposits include Malanjkhand, Shitalpani, Gidhri Dhorli, Jatta and Garhi
Dongri. GSI had initiated systematic explorations for this deposit in 1969. MCP was
established in 1982. It has an open pit mine, and concentrator plant. It has 221.00 million
tonnes @ 1.31% copper resources at Malanjkhand Mine.
The Singhbhum copper belt of Jharkhand comprises of Proterozoic volcano-

sedimentary sequence with a prominent shear zone called Singhbhum shear zone.
Copper mineralisation is localized along this shear zone.
Prominent deposits are at Chapri, Rakha, Surda, Kendadih, Pathargora and Dhobani. A
British company established the ICC LTD in 1930 at Ghatsila. It was merged with HCL in
1972. It has a cluster of underground copper mines, concentrator plant and smelter. Its
operating mine is Surda having 26 MT of ore @ 1.20% Cu. Additional reserves include
47.19 million tonnes @ 0.97% copper at Rakha mine; 12.85 million tonnes @1.73%
copper at Kendadih Mine; 63.50 million tonnes @1.14% copper at Chapri Block. The
Taloja copper project, set up in 1990, has a plant to produce mainly copper rods (CCR)
with ore input from HCL mines. The capacity for the production of primary copper in
India has risen from a mere 47,500 t/pa till 1997 to 9,47,000 tonne in 2008-09, with the
result that India is now a net exporter of refined copper.
214
COPPER ORE IN INDIA
Bihar
SInghbhum Copper Belt – It is localised in a shear zone moulded
along the northern and northeastern margin of singhbhum granite
massif
Precambrian Archaean quartz-chlorite-biotite schist, metamorphosed
basic rock and soda granite
Hesatu-Belbathan belt – The mineralised rocks occur as lenses or
pockets within chotanagpur granite-gneiss
Precambrian - Tremolite-Actinolite-Schist, Calc-granulite and
amphibolite
215
Chalcopyrite and pyrite are the principal sulphides in the

mineralised zone. Chalcopyrite is dominant and comprises about
70 to 80% by volume of the total sulphides.
Pyrrhotite is locally developed and is more common in the deeper

levels (generally at depths greater than 300 m).
The other sulphides present in the mineralised zone consist

pentlandite, molybdenite, marcasite, tetradymite, tetrahedrite,
cubanite and arsenopyrite, violarite, millerite etc. The principal
gangue minerals are quartz, chlorite, biotite, magnetite, apatite
felspar and tourmaline.
RAJASTHAN
Copper mineralisation is mostly confined to the rocks of the Delhi
Supergroup in northern Rajasthan and is mostly distributed in three
distinct belts: namely :
Khetri copper belt and a parallel eastern zone in Jhunjhunu
and Sikar districts on the west.
Nim-Ka-Thana copper belt in Sikar district in the middle and
Alwar-Jaipur belt in Alwar and Jaipur districts on the east
216
KHETRI COPPER BELT, JHUNJHUNU DISTRICT

Khetri copper belt extends over a strike length of 80 m from Singhana
(28°06' : 76°54') in the NNE of Raghunathgarh (27°39' : 75°21') in the SW.
It trends NNE-SSW in the northern part while to the south of Kantli river,
there is a swing towards ENE-WSW. The Kantli river probably flows
along a fault trending NNW-SSE with the mineralised belt to the south of
the river shifted further westwards.
The Khetri copper belt is located in a semi-desert tract. It is reported

that copper was mined at Khetri even during the Mauryan period. The
first recorded mention of copper mining activity, during the Mughal
period is in ‘Ain-e-Akbari’ (1590 AD).
The Khetri copper belt is made up of the Alwar and Ajabgarh

Groups of rocks of the Delhi Supergroup (Precambrian).
The older Alwar Group predominantly comprises felspar and

amphibole bearing quartzites with lenticular intercalations of
phyllites, amphibolites, amphibole-magnetite rock, amphibolite etc.
The Ajabgarh Group is dominantly made up of meta-pelitic rocks,

viz., phyllites with andalusite, chiastolite/staurolite; carbonaceous
phyllites; biotite-schist ± garnet ± andalusite; and quartz-chlorite
schist ± garnet with intercalations of banded amphibole
(anthophyllite / cummingtonite) quartzite, felspathic quartzite with
lenses of magnetite amphibole rock and amphibole marble ±
magnetite.
217
Sulphide mineralisation occurs in a variety of rock types, viz.,

garnetiferous chlorite-quartz schist/quartzite, chlorite-biotite and
amphibole bearing schist, amphibole biotite-chlorite-quartz schist,
carbon phyllites, garnetiferous chlorite quartzite, felspathic quartzite,
amphibole quartzite, amphibolite, amphibolemagnetite schist,
andalusite bearing phyllite etc.
The bulk of the mineralisation occurs close to the contact of the Alwar
quartzites with the meta-pelites of the Ajabgarh Group.
MADHYA PRADESH
Malanjkhand copper deposit:The Malanjkhand (22°02' : 80°43' - 54 B/12)
copper deposit located in the Balaghat district is presently under
exploitation by open cast mining by M/s. Hindustan Copper Limited.
The zone of copper mineralisation is located in the approximately

2.6 km. long arcuate Malanjkhand hill (elevation about 600 m. above
m.s.l.).
The rocks of the basement complex (Malanjkhand granitoid) comprise

granites and quartz reefs intruded by rnetabasics. The basement rocks
are overlain by the upper Precambrian metasediments of Chilpi Ghat
Series with an erosional unconformity. The granitic rocks range in
composition from a biotite granite to quartz diorite and are highly
kaolinised,seriticised and saussuritised in the mineralised zone. The
metasediments comprise conglomerates, grits, phyllites and shales.
copper mineralisation is localised in the quartz reefs, associated with the

granites.
218
TAMIL NADU
In Tamil Nadu, only one basemetal deposit, Viz., the multimetal copper-lead-zinc
deposit at Mamandur is so far known.
This deposit lies in the Peninsular Archaean complex in the transition zone
between charnockites on the west and migmatites on the east. The Mamandur
area is made up of migmatites and charnockites with bands of garnetiferous
biotite sillimanite gneiss, magnetite quartzite and a suite of ultrabasic rocks
comprising pyroxenite, gabbro, norite and anorthosite. The general trend of
foliation is NNE-SSW to NE-SW with dips of 60 to 65° towards SE. Galena from
the mineralised zone has given an Isotope age of 2581 to 2600 M.Y.
Arumanullur (8°19'15'' : 77°24'35'' - 57 H/7) and adjacent areas,

Kanyakumari District
In this area, sulphide mineralisation is found in meta-norite bands

which occur interbanded with charnockites and garnetiferous biotite sillimanite ―
graphite gneisses, Incidence of pyrite - pyrrhotite - chalcopyrite
have been recorded from a number of meta-norite bands occurring in
the Arumanullur area and in the areas lying about 3 to 10 km to the
north and north-east of Arumanullur.
KARNATAKA
Only a few small low grade deposits of basemetal are so far known
from Karnataka. But a large number of occurrences of basemetal
mineralisation, particularly copper mineralisation have been recorded
from a variety of geological settings from different parts of the State.
The deposits / occurrences can be broadly grouped into the following
4 categories
1. Those associated with the metavolcanic - metasedimentary
greenstone belts of the Dharwar Supergroup.
2. Those associated with sheared quartz veins and metabasic rocks
traversing the granitoids of the Peninsular Gneissic Complex.
3. Those associated with ultramafic complexes.
4. Those occurring in the schist belts occurring as enclaves within
thePeninsular Gneissic Complex.
At present, two small deposits, one at Ingaldhalu located in the
Chitradurga schist belt and the other at Kalyadi located in Dharwar schist
enclave within the Peninsular Gneissic Complex are being worked on a
scale of about 200 tonnes per day by the Chitradurga Copper Company
which is a subsidiary of the Hutti Gold Mines Co., Ltd.
219
ANDHRAPRADESH
Several small basemetal deposits and a large number of occurrences

are known from Andhra Pradesh. These deposits and occurrences are
mostly hosted in rocks of the Cuddapah Supergroup and to a lesser
extent in rocks of the Kurnool Group, Pakhal Supergroup, Dharwar and
Sargur Supergroups and Peninsular Gneissic Complex.
The copper deposit at Mailaram in the Sargur Supergroup are being

worked on a small scale respectively by M/s. Hindustan Zinc Limited
and the Andhra Pradesh Mining Corporation Limited.
LEAD
220
This metal was probably one of the first metals to be produced by man
because it is highly malleable, easy to smelt and work with. The earliest
lead beads are reported from Catal Hüyük (Turkey) dated as 6400 BC.
Chemical symbol of lead ‘Pb’ is derived from Latin ‘plumbum’ for soft metal
(originally ‘plumbum nigrum’ for ‘black plumbum’).
Lead metal is bright bluish-white in color when freshly cut, tarnishes to dull
grey when exposed and shows a silvery lustre when melts.
It is very soft, ductile and highly malleable metal and poor in electrical
conductivity. It breaks with hackly fracture and shows isometric crystal
system.
It is highly resistant to corrosion, hence, is used for storage of acids. It

becomes stronger by adding small amount of other metals. Earth crust
shows lead concentration of 13 ppb.
Lead is poisonous, hence, is dangerous to human health. It is also the end

product of radioactive decay. Lead has several isotopes but four (204Pb,
206Pb, 207Pb, 208Pb) are stable ones, and its common radiogenic isotope
of 202Pb has a half-life period of about 53,000 years
Occurrence of metallic or native lead is very rare. It occurs as ore minerals

mostly associated with zinc-cadmium-silver, and some copper ores in varied
geological environments and different rock formations.
A total of 59 ore minerals of lead are known but the most common are galena
(PbS), cerussite (PbCO3), anglesite (PbSO4) and minium (Pb3O4).
In Ancient Egypt galena was used as ‘kohl’ to be applied around the eyes, to
reduce desert glare and repelling insects.
Within the zone of weathering or oxidation, galena alters to anglesite or

cerussite.
221
GALENA (PbS),
Galena is the most important
lead mineral and contains
about 86.6% lead. Sometimes
it contains silver upto 1%,
hence, is known as leading
silver ore.
It shows silver grey colour

with a bluish tinge,
metallic lustre,
2.5 to 2.75 hardness on Mohs
scale,
7.2 to 7.6 specific gravity,
sub-conchoidal fracture and
lead-grey streak.
It occurs in isometric crystal

system; often showing
octahedral forms
Cerussite (PbCO3),
Cerussite, also known as white lead
ore or lead-spar, contains about 77.5%
lead.
It crystallizes in orthorhombic system,

and frequently occurs as twinned
crystals, granular mass and
sometimes in fibrous form.
It is colourless, white or with grey/

greenish tinge and
adamantine and resinous lustre
conchoidal fracture.
Its hardness is 3.0 to 3.5,
specific gravity of 6.5. Mineral: Cerussite: PbCO3

Hydrocerussite: Pb3(CO3)2(OH)2
Initially it was used in paints and
cosmetics. Comments:Platy crystals of milky white
hydrocerussite covering cerussite.
222
Anglesite (PbSO4)
Anglesite is an oxidation product
of galena
shades of various colours.
It occurs as prismatic
(orthorhombic-dipyramidal)
crystals and earthy masses.
hardness of 2.5 to 3.0
6.3 specific gravity
brittle to conchoidal fracture and

adamantine (in crystals) and Anglesite: PbSO4
Crystalline anglesite with minor
earthy lustre. duftite. The crystal at the top of the
specimen is partially doubly
Secondary, weathered deposits of terminated.
lead ore
The important lead-zinc deposits of India include Rampura-Agucha (Bhilwara

district), Rajpura-Dariba and Sindesar (Rajsamand district), Zawar (Udaipur),
Sawar and Kayar-Ghugra (Ajmer district), Basantgarh and Deri (Sirohi district)
in Rajasthan;
Amba Mata (Banaskantha district) in Gujarat;
Buniyar (Baramula district) in Jammu and Kashmir;
Rangpo and Pachekhani (East district) in Sikkim;
Rupa-Shergaon (West Kameng district) in Arunachal Pradesh;
Sargipalli (Sundargarh district) in Orissa;
Mamandur (South Arcot district) in Tamil Nadu;
Bandalamottu, Dhukonda (Guntur district) and Zangamrajupalle (Cuddapah
district) in Andhra Pradesh;
Imalia (Jabalpur district) in Madhya Pradesh;
Askot (Pithoragarh district) in Uttar Pradesh; and Gorubathan (Darjeeling
district) in West Bengal.
Currently lead is produced by HZL alongwith zinc at Zawar (located in Aravalli
rocks), Rampura-Agucha, Rajpura-Dariba and Sindesar (located within cover
sequences in BGC) mines in Rajasthan; Sargipalli mine in Orissa and
Agnigundala mine in Andhra Pradesh.
223
Lead is the main constituent of lead-acid batteries and is widely used as a

coloring agent in stained glasses for reducing the radiation transmission.
Because of its high specific gravity it is used as fishing sinkers and in
balancing wheels of vehicles. It is also used in polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
plastic for coating the electrical metal wires, and for shielding from
radiation in x-ray laboratories. In electronics its use as soldering agent is
well known. Molten lead is used as a coolant in lead-cooled fast reactors.
It is the traditional base metal of organ pipes, mixed with varying
proportions of tin to control the tones. Sheet-lead is used for sound
proofing system. Lead has many applications in building constructions
e.g. sheets as architectural metals in roofing, cladding, flashings, gutters
and joints, etc. It is well-known that lead was used as water proofing
media (17th century) in Rajsmand Reservoir located in Udaipur district,
Rajasthan.
ZINC
Chemical symbol: Zn
Atomic number: 30
Atomic mass: 65.409(4) g/mol
Melting point: 419.53°C
Boiling point: 907°C
Density: 7.14 g.cm-3
Crystal structure: hexagonal
Hardness: 2.5 Moh’s scale
Lustre: metallic
Magnetic ordering: diamagnetic
ID marks: bluish white silvery colour
224
Centuries before zinc was recognized as a distinct element, zinc ores

were used for making brass. A prehistoric statuette containing 87.5%
zinc was found in a Dacian archaeological site in Transylvania
(modern Romania).
Palestinian brass from the 14th to 10th centuries BC contains 23%

zinc.
The primitive alloys with less than 28 per cent zinc were prevalent in
many parts of the world before India.
Brass in Taxashila has been dated from third century BC to fifth

century AD.
Recently two brass bangles belonging to the Kushana period are

discovered from Senuwar (U.P.), which also shows 35 percent zinc.
Zinc was rediscovered in Europe by Marggraf in 1746.
It got its name after German word ‘zinke’ for this metal.
In English and French it became ‘zinc’, in German and Dutch ‘zink’, in

Spanish ‘cinc’ and in Welsh ‘sinc’ (pronounced "shink").
The Greek word for zinc is ‘pseudargyros’, literally meaning "pseudo-

silver" for its silvery lustre. In Russian, it is ‘tsink’.
In India it is known as ‘Yashad’, Jasta, Jast, Naag in Hindi/ Sanskrit,

Tunga in Tamil and Naagam in Malyalam.
225
Zinc is a bluish-white, lustrous, diamagnetic metal
Zinc makes up about 75 ppm (0.007%) of the Earth's crust. It is the 24th
most abundant element in the Earth's crust. Soil contains 5 to 770 ppm of
zinc with an average of 64 ppm. Seawater has only 30 ppb zinc.
After iron, aluminum and copper, zinc is the fourth-most used metal,
competing with lead. A sheet of zinc looks like an aluminum sheet but it is
more than twice as heavy.
The hardness of zinc at Mohs scale is 2.5. Zinc is brittle at ordinary

temperatures but malleable at 100 to 150°C. Above 210°C, it becomes brittle
again and can be pulverized by beating. Zinc is a fair conductor of
electricity.
For a metal, zinc has relatively low melting (419.53°C) and boiling points
(907°C).
Zinc is not very ductile or malleable, especially when pure.
It is relatively resistant to corrosion in air or water, and therefore, is widely

used as a protective layer on iron products to protect from rusting.
Zinc is recovered from a number of different zinc ores.
The types of zinc ores include sulfide, carbonate, silicate and oxide.
Most significant of these ores are
zinc sulphide or sphalerite i.e. (Zn,Fe)S,
zinc carbonate or smithsonite (ZnCO3),
zinc silicate or willemite (Zn2SiO4) and
zinc oxide or zincite (ZnO).
Ores of lead, zinc, cadmium and silver often occur together.
226
Sphalerite (Zn,Fe)S is the most

important zinc ore as it contains 64.06%
zinc.
It occurs mostly as veins.
It shows brown, yellow, red, green and
black colour,
uneven fracture and occur as colloform
(Forming from a gel or colloidal
mass)17
, euhedral crystals and granular
masses.
It has 3.5 to 4 hardness,
brownish white streak,
3.9 to 4.2 density and adamantine lustre.
It is fluorescent and triboluminescent.
It occurs in isometric-hextetrahedral
crystal system, which is analogous to
diamond. Sphalerite: (Zn,Fe)S
Sphalerite is a polymorph (many shapes Highly lustrous, black, complex

but same chemistry) and has two sphalerite crystals to 15 mm in size
minerals i.e. wurtzite and matraite. It is completely covering the top of a
sometimes difficult to identify sphalerite sulfide matrix.
due to its variable colour, lustre and
crystal habit.
Sphalerite on quartz
Yellow sphalerite Sphalerite on calcite

crystal with small pyrite
crystals on top
227
The smithsonite (ZnCO3),

commonly shows various
shades of green and purple;
has a silky to pearly lustre;

and occurs in trigonal crystal
system and botryoidal form.
It shows white streak,

hardness of 4 to 4.5 and
specific gravity of 4.4.
Fraipontite: (Zn,Al)3(Si,Al)2O5(OH)4
Zinalsite: Zn2AlSi2O5(OH)4·2(H2O) (?)
Smithsonite: ZnCO3
Pearly white, sub-mm fraipontite (zinalsite)
crystals associated with green smithsonite.
Creedite: Ca3Al2(SO4)(F,OH)10·2(H2O)
Smithsonite: ZnCO3
Purple transparent crystals of creedite to 6 mm on
matrix of creamy botryoidal crystalline smithsonite.
The willemite(Zn2SiO4) is
somewhat rare zinc mineral.
It has vitreous to resinous
lustre, hardness of 5.5;
specific gravity from 3.9 to
4.2, trigonal crystal system,
conchoidal to uneven
fracture and white streak. It
fluoresces a bright green
colour under ultra-violet light. Sky blue botryoidal willemite
Some willemite specimens with dark to white dolomite.
even show phosphorescence.
Phosphorescence is the
ability of a mineral to glow
after the initial light is
removed. Pinkish gray crystalline
glaucochroite
intermixed with pale
green willemite, with
dark red zincite and
white calcite.
228
The zincite (Zn2SiO4) is also rare zinc

mineral, which is orange-yellow to deep
brown or red in colour. It shows orange-
yellow streak, conchoidal fracture, hardness
of 4 and specific gravity between 5.4 and 5.7.
It occurs in hexagonal crystal system forming
small crystals and masses
Zincite: (Zn,Mn)O
Orange Zincite hexagonal pyramid.
Zinc ores occur in a variety of geological environment Principal lead-

zinc deposit types include carbonate-hosted ores, sandstone-hosted
ores, shale-hosted deposits and volcanogenic deposits.
Zinc mines are throughout the world with the largest producers being
Australia, Canada, China, Peru and United States. Most zinc mines are
underground (80%) but some are of the open pit type (8%). China
produced 2,600,000 tonnes i.e. one-fourth of the global zinc output in
2006 while India produced 420,000 tonnes.
Important zinc-lead deposits, mostly localized within Precambrian peninsular shield,

include Zangamrajupalle and Gollapalle in A.P.; Amjhore within Vindhyan rocks in
Bihar; Amba Mata in Delhi Supergroup of rocks in Gujarat; Kolari within Sakoli
Group of rocks in Maharashtra; Agucha within Banded Gneissic Complex; Deri and
Kayar-Ghugra within Delhi Supergroup; Rajpura-Dariba, Devpura, Samodi,
Sindesar and Tiranga within Pur-Banera belt of Pre-Aravalli; and Paduna and Zawar
within Aravalli Supergroup of rocks in Rajasthan; Mamandur within Peninsular
Archaean Complex of rocks in Tamil Nadu; and Gorubathan within Extra-peninsular
Daling Formation (Pre-Cambrian - Cambrian) in West Bengal.
229
Important zinc-lead deposits, mostly localized within Precambrian peninsular

shield, include Zangamrajupalle and Gollapalle in A.P.;
Amjhore within Vindhyan rocks in Bihar;
Amba Mata in Delhi Supergroup of rocks in Gujarat;
Kolari within Sakoli Group of rocks in Maharashtra;
Agucha within Banded Gneissic Complex;
Deri and Kayar-Ghugra within Delhi Supergroup;
Rajpura-Dariba, Devpura, Samodi, Sindesar and Tiranga within Pur-Banera

belt of Pre-Aravalli; and Paduna and Zawar within Aravalli Supergroup of
rocks in Rajasthan;
Mamandur within Peninsular Archaean Complex of rocks in Tamil Nadu; and
Gorubathan within Extra-peninsular Daling Formation (Pre-Cambrian -

Cambrian) in West Bengal.
Zinc production in India initially was done by government through a public

sector company i.e. Hindustan Zinc Limited. It was the biggest company in
India, which took care of mining to extraction of zinc.
In April 2002, HZL was privatized. Vedanta Group (still named HZL) is now
conducting mining and production zinc and associated metals in the
country. Reserves and resources of 232.3 Mt of ore containing 27.5 Mt of
zinc-lead metal are present as on 31.3.08.
HZL’s operations include three lead-zinc mines (Agucha in Bhilwara district,

Zawar in Udaipur district and Rajpura-Dariba in Rajsamand district in
Rajasthan), three zinc smelters (Debari and Chanderiya in Rajasthan; Vizag
in A.P.).
HZL’s zinc production increased from 283,698 tonnes in 2006 to 426,323

tonnes in 2008. The expansions at the Sindesar Khurd and Kayar mines will
be completed in phases by early 2012. A zinc smelter of Binani is located at
Alwaye in Kerala.
230
Molybdenum
Molybdenum is a refractory metal used principally as an alloying agent in

steels, cast irons and super alloys to enhance hardness, strength, toughness
and wear and corrosionresistance.
Primarily added in the form of molybdic oxide or ferromolybdenum, it is

frequently used in combination with chromium, columbium, manganese,
nickel, tungsten or other alloy metals to achieve desired metallurgical
properties.
The versatility of molybdenum has ensured it a significant role in

contemporary technology and industry, which increasingly require materials
that are serviceable under higher stresses, greater temperature ranges and
more corrosive environments.
Moreover, molybdenum finds significant usage as a refractory metal in

numerous chemical applications including catalysts, lubricants and pigments.
The variety of molybdenum materials, few of which afford acceptable

substitutions has resulted in a demand that is expected to grow at a greater
rate than most other ferrous metals.
231
From the period of the Greek and Roman civilizations to the late 18th
century, terms such as ‘molybdaena’ were applied to minerals that were
soft and ‘lead like’ in character, probably including minerals now known as
galena, graphite and molybdenite.
This confusion was resolved in 1778 when the Swedish chemist, Karl
Scheele, demonstrated that molybdenite, the principal molybdenum
mineral was a discrete mineral sulphide.
World War I generated the first appreciation of utilisation of molybdenum,

when it was substituted for tungsten in high speed steels and used as an
alloying element in certain steels for military armament.
The Climax deposit in Colorado and the Questa deposit in New Mexico
were initially exploited from 1917 to 1919. Development of the Climax
deposit being the world’s largest, proved the viability of high tonnage
extraction of relatively low grade ore and established United States as the
leading producer of molybdenum.
Molybdenum is a silver-white metallic element with an atomic

number of 42, atomic weight of 95.95 and a density of 10.2 grams per
cubic centimetre.
Molybdenum is a strong carbide forming element and much of its
alloying effect in steel is imparted through the formation of carbides.
It has a melting point of about 2,610°C.
significant physical properties of molybdenum metal are good
thermal conductivity (about one half that of copper), the lowest
coefficient of thermal expansion of the pure metals, high strength at
elevated temperatures and resistance to corrosion in a variety of
mediums. Molybdenum metal is stable in air or water at moderate
temperatures but above 500°C, it oxidises readily.
Molybdenum does not occur in nature in its free or native state, but
is found only in chemical combination with other elements. Small
deposits of molybdenum bearing minerals occur throughout the
world, but the only molybdenum mineral of commercial importance
is molybdenite. Wulfenite, powellite and ferrimolybdite are common
but have provided very little molybdenum.
232
Chemical Formula: MoS2

Help on Composition: Composition:
Molybdenum 59.94 % Mo
Sulfur 40.06 % S
Cleavage:{0001} Perfect
Color: Black, Lead gray, Gray.
Density: 5.5
Diaphaneity: Opaque
Fracture:Sectile - Curved shavings or
scrapings produced by a knife blade,
(e.g. graphite). Molybdenite: MoS2
Habit:Disseminated - Occurs in small,
Sharp metallic molybdenite crystal on matrix.
distinct particles dispersed in matrix.
Foliated. Massive
Hardness: 1 - Talc
Luster: Metallic
Streak: greenish gray
Molybdenite (MoS2) is a lead-grey metallic mineral that

characteristically occurs in thin, tabular, commonly hexagonal plates
and also disseminated as fine specks. It has a specific gravity of 4.6
to 4.7, a hardness of 1 to 1.5, a greasy feel and it soils the fingers.
Superficially, it resembles graphite, for which it is commonly

mistaken. However, molybdenite differs from graphite by bluish tinge.
233
Molybdenite concentrate is converted to technical grade molybdic oxide.
Molybdic oxide is the major form of molybdenum used by industry and the
base material for production of ferromolybdenum, chemicals and
molybdenum metal powder.
WORLD RESOURCES
234
INDIAN OCCURENCE
There is no known occurrence of primary molybdenite, which is presently
being mined in India. The annual requirement of molybdenum is met by
imports.
There is a meagre contribution to India’s requirement of molybdenum from

Uranium Corporation of India (UCIL) which is producing molybdenite
concentrate as a by-product of its uranium mill at Jaduguda, Bihar.
However, incidence of primary molybdenite is known from different parts of

India
Geological Setting and Resources
The geological setting and mode of occurrence of the molybdenum
mineralisations vary widely.
It occurs in granite plutons or their associated aplites, pegmatites or quartz

veins as is known in the Ambalavayal granite in Kerala of Southern
Granulite Terrain, younger granitoids of Bundelkhand and Baster cratons
in parts of Madhya Pradesh and Chattisgarh respectively and in the Myliam
granite in the Meghalaya craton.
Molybdenite is also known from the metasediments of the Delhi

Super Group of Rajasthan and the Sausar Group of Maharashtra.
The molybdenite prospects of Dharmapuri district of Tamil Nadu are

referable to the late phase hydrothermal activity related to the
Alkaline Carbonatite intrusives in the rift valley setting.
The incidence is also known in the amphibolites of Kolar Schist belt

in the Kudithinapalli area and in the adjoining gneiss in Andhra
Pradesh.
In Rajasthan, molybdenite occurs as an associated mineral with

copper in the Khetri Copper Belt while in Jharkhand it occurs in
small quantities along with copper and uranium in the Singhbhum
shear zone. In the Kolar Schist belt, it is associated with gold and
galena. However, it may be generalised that molybdenite always
occurs in association with other sulphides.
235
The controls of mineralisation also show considerable variation.
Shear zone forms the major control for the prospects in northern Tamil Nadu,
Kudithinapalli in Andhra Pradesh and Singhbhum shear zone in Jharkhand.
The occurrence in Rajasthan is controlled by fold hinges.
The Contact of the meta sedimentary of the Sausar Group and the intrusive
constitute the control in Maharashtra.
The occurrence in Meghalaya and Kerala are controlled by fracture systems in

and around the granite plutons.
Molybdenite occurrences of Southern Granulite Terrain viz., Harur-

Uttangarai,Alangayam-Rasimalai, Danishepet, Toppur, Pakkanadu, Kurichi
(all these locations fall within Dharmapuri Suture Rift Zone (DSRZ) of
Northern Tamil Nadu),
Ambalavayal (Northern Kerala, along Bhavali – Moyar Shear Belt),

Karadikuttam - Palayam (Madurai Terrain of South Central Tamil Nadu) and
Putteti (Nagarkoil Terrain of Southern Tamil Nadu)
The fracture filing/stock work type of molybdenite mineralisation occurs in

alkali granite (595 ± 20 Ma) of Ambalavayal area, in the late pink syenite body
east of Elagiri Complex (720 Ma) and in Pakkanadu Syenite Complex (610 Ma).
In Putteti area molybdenite is seen disseminated within the coarse grained

syenite dykes which cut through the layered syenite intrusives (580 Ma).
The quartz vein type molybdenite mineralisation is exposed in different parts

within the DSRZ. These quartz (± barite ± carbonates) veins of DSRZ are
considered the end phase of the alkali – carbonatite magmatism (620 to 800
Ma) of northern Tamil Nadu.
In Karadikuttam area molybdenite mineralisation is seen in association with

the pegmatite and aplite veins. In Palayam, molybdenite is observed at the
contact zone between crystalline limestone and pegmatite.
As per the UNFC (as on 1.4.2000), the total resources of molybdenum ore in
the country are estimated at about 16.29 million tones containing about
10,500 tonnes MoS2.
236
DIAMOND
 The ancient Indians were the first in the world to take notice of the
mineral diamond for its beauty and hardness. Diamond was discovered
by the Indians in the eighth century B.C.
 They used to collect diamonds from its secondary sources i.e., the
quaternary gravel beds and gravelbars in the sediments.
 Despite this ancient tradition, the primary sources of diamonds

(kimberlite, lamproite, and other kimberlite clan rocks) have been found
in India only after its Independence (except the Majhgawan pipe, Panna
Madhya Pradesh ).
 The diamondiferous Majhgawan pipe has operated as India's only

significant primary diamond mine with a grade of about 10 carats per
hundred tonnes.
237
 Diamond occurrences in India are quite widespread. Information

on the ancient diamond mines and geology of the diamond
bearing strata is available from the writings of the medieval
period European travellers traders and Portuguese and British
officials and geologists of the Geological Survey of India (GSI).
 Systematic geological details are obtained from the

investigations carried out for diamonds since, 1950's, mostly by
the GSI, which were at peak in 1980s with implementation of
National Diamond Project, aimed at assessing the diamond
potentials of different known host rocks.
 Subsequent works were oriented towards locating primary host

rock for diamond and many kimberlite bodies in the already
known areas and new kimberlite/lamproite fields in virgin areas
were discovered
 The known areas of occurrences of diamond source rocks are broadly

grouped into three diamond provinces, namely the South Indian
Diamond Province (SIDP), the Central Indian Diamond Province (CIDP)
and the East Indian Diamond Province (EIDP).
 Each of these Provinces extends approximately over an area of 100,000

sq. km and includes both primary (Kimberlites/Lamproites) and
secondary source rocks (conglomerates and gravels) for diamond.
 The SIDP is confined to the Dharwar Craton in the states of Andhra

Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharastra, the CIDP to the Aravalli Craton in
the states of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh and the
EIDP to the Bastar and Singhbhum Cratons in the states of
Maharastra,Chhattishgarh, Orissa, Jharkhand and Madhya Pradesh.
238
Considering the Cratons and presence of diamonds and the source rocks,
areas have been prognosticated for kimberlite search in India.They are:
(1) South Indian Diamond Province (SIDP) including East Dharwar Craton
and adjoining Dharwar Mobile Belt; (2) West Dharwar Province; (3) East
Bastar Craton including parts of Eastern Ghat Mobile Belt (EGMB); (4) West
Bastar Craton; (5) Southern part of Bundelkhand – Aravalli Craton ; (6) North
of Central Indian Suture (CIS); (7) Southern part of Singhbhum Craton
including Singhbhum Mobile Belt; (8) Raigarh Mobile Belt; (9) Structural
Corridor of Son – Narmada rift zone; (10) Structural Corridor of Tapti
Lineament Zone; (11) Mahanadi Gondwana Graben and (12) Godavari
Gondwana Graben.
The SIDP consists of both primary and secondary source rocks of diamond.
The kimberlites localised within the Eastern block of the Dharwar Craton
are grouped into three fields, namely Wajrakarur Kimberlite field, (WKF),
Narayanpet kimberlite Field (NKF) and Raichur Kimberlite Field (RKF).
The major lamproite dykes occurring along the eastern margin of the
Craton i.e. within the Nallamalai Fold Belt (NFB) and close to the north
eastern margin of the Cuddapah basin are included in the Chelima
Lamproite Field (CLF) and Jaggayyapeta Lamproite Field (JLF) respectively.
The CIDP also consists of primary and secondary source rocks. The NE-
SW trending Panna Diamond belt with established ancient mining activity
is located within this province.
This is the only belt where active mining for diamond is presently carried
out in the country. The National Mineral Development Corporation Ltd is
exploiting Majhgawan kimberlite/lamproite, the only diamond producing
mine.A little amount of diamond is being recovered from placer
occurrences.
Diamond has been the most priced among the gems since more than
2000years.The price of diamond depends upon its weight, quality, shape
and flawlessness. Diamond has a high refractive index and strong
dispersion which gives it that exciting brilliance when cut as facetted
stone.
Gem diamonds are transparent and colourless or show faint shades of

different colours. The transparent water clear diamonds are known as " of
first water" or "blue white". When yellowish tinge is present, they are
termed as off-colour stones. Diamonds with green, blue or red shades are
rare but are most valuable gems.
239
PRODUCTION & STOCKS

Production of diamond at 57,406 carats in 2000-2001 registered an
increase of 40% over the previous year. There are two reporting mines
both in public sector located in Panna district of Madhya Pradesh.
Of these, one mine, owned by National Mineral Development Corporation

Ltd (NMDC) contributed as much as 99% to the total output of diamond
and the remaining 1% was by the Department of Geology & Mining, Govt
of Madhya Pradesh.
CHEMISTRY C Carbon
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY Isometric (Cubic)
CRYSTAL GROWTH AND HABITS Most crystals of
Diamond are modified octahedrons but they are also
found as dodecahedral, tetrahedral or cubic
crystals. Diamond crystals are commonly flattened or
elongated and are also found as crude spheres with a
radial structure.
COLOR AND OTHER OPTICAL PROPERTIES
Diamonds are colorless, pale yellow to deep yellow,
brown or bluish. Other colors of diamond are also
known. Diamond is transparent to translucent and even
opaque, depending on the amount of impurities
(commonly graphite).
HARDNESS 10
SPECIFIC GRAVITY 3.5
LUSTER Adamantine to greasy
STREAK White
Elongated, flattened crystal of
BREAKABILITY Diamond has a very good octahedral
cleavage (4 directions) and also has conchoidal fracture Diamond in a matrix of Kimberlite,
and is brittle. from South Africa.
OCCURRENCE Diamonds are formed in high
temperature, high pressure environments as in igneous
kimberlite pipes or dikes. Diamonds are also found as
placer deposits.
ASSOCIATED MINERALS Olivine, Phlogopite, Pyrope,
Diopside, Ilmenite
240
Origin: South Africa

Sample size: each approx. 1
cm on edge (17.4 carats
total weight)
Mineral: Diamond: C
Comme Photomicrographs (PPL) of numerous microdiamonds in Kumdy-
nts: Kol caboniferous dolomite marble (Elements v1, no 2).
Locatio Kokchetav Massif, Kumdy-Kol ultra high pressure facies area,
n: northern Kazakhstan.
241
There are five varieties of kimberlite: 3. Kimberlite breccia with phlogopite.

1. Basaltic kimberlite with phlogopite. 4. Kimberlite breccia without phlogopite and
2. Basaltic kimberlite without phlogopite. 5. Kimberlite breccia with abundant phlogopite
KIMBERLITE PIPE IN
AUSTRALIA
242
Materials used for construction
(Building Stones & Cement)
The term 'construction minerals' is used to describe all minerals and rocks used by the
construction industry, for example in road making, in house construction and as railway ballast.
The largest component of construction minerals and the most voluminous materials extracted in
India are 'aggregates' - a term used to describe granular or particulate material which is suitable
for use, on its own or with a binder such as cement, lime or bitumen, in construction as concrete.
The two principal types of aggregate are crushed rock (limestone, igneous rock and sandstone)
and sand and gravel.
Dimension stone was for centuries the principal load-bearing material of buildings, bridges,
harbour works and so on, a function now largely taken over by concrete and steel. The common
building stones are granites and massive sandstones and limestones, which can be quarried in
sizeable rectangular blocks free from internal fractures, without yielding an undue proportion of
waste fragments. High compressive and shear strengths are required for load-bearing structures.
A wider variety of porphyritic igneous rocks, marbles, tuffs, fossiliferous limestones and
travertine are used as decorative stone for facings, pavings and interior walls. Slate, characterised
by a closely spaced cleavage developed by crustal stresses, which facilitates the separation of
thin layers, is a traditional roofing material. The bulk and weight of dimension stone required for
major building works demand ease of transport from quarry to construction site.
The most durable building stones used both as aggregate and dimension stone are granites and
similar plutonic rocks with massive texture, low porosity and stable minerals. Sandstones,
especially those with calcareous cement, are subject to the effects of permeation by water, and
limestones to solution and reaction on a larger scale. Despite these disadvantages, limestones
have provided some of the most beautiful building materials.
Other minerals used in the construction industry are clay, chalk and limestone for cement
making, brick clay, gypsum, and slate.
Table 1 - Non-metallic construction materials.

Product Sources Desirable properties
dimension stone limestone, sandstone, granite, regular, widely spaced partings

other igneous rocks. (bedding, joints), high compressive
Ornamental stone includes strength, resistance to weathering,
limestone, marble, tufa, granite, especially in industrial regions
syenite etc.
slate strongly cleaved fine-grained regular, closely spaced cleavage,
metamorphic rocks, usually of resistance to weathering
pelitic composition, locally
pyroclastic
roadstone crushed basalt, dolerite, fine resistance to abrasion (massive, fine to
granite, greywacke, quartzite, medium grain Size), low porosity,
e-learning Material – Economic Geology. Dr.J.Saravanavel, Assistant Professor, Centre for Remote
Sensing, Bharathidasan University. Email: drsaraj@gmail.com
243
hornfels, flint etc., industrial binds well with bitumen, non-slip
waste in combination with surface, does not acquire polish
bitumen
aggregate (for sand and gravel (fluvial, glacial, appropriate range of particle sizes, low
concrete and as marine), crushed rock as for contents of impurities, especially
fill for road and roadstone, industrial waste sulphides, organic matter, coal,
building micaceous rocks, opal, chalcedony
foundations,
dams)
bricks, tiles clay, marine, alluvial, glacial or no excess water, low iron, sulphides,
in deep weathering zones: raw sulphates CaCo3>5% minimizes
materials fired at high shrinkage, carbonaceous matter (≥S%)
temperatures assists firing
cement limestone, argillaceous constant composition, correct ratios
limestone, often mixed with CaO, Al203, SiO2, Fe2O3, low S, MgO,
clay: limestone converted to P, alkalies
lime by calcining in kiln,
product ground to powder
glass quartz sand, quartzite absence of impurities, low iron
plaster, gypsum, anhydrite from ---
plasterboard evaporates
insulating fibrous and flaky metamorphic not injurious to health
materials minerals, asbestos, mica,
vermiculite: diatomite
bitumen residue from distillation of oil: Appropriate melting temperature for
natural residues of oil seepages conditions of use e.g. in road making
Availability of Construction Material in India
In India, rocks are quarried largely for use as building stones. Not all rocks are,
however, suitable for this purpose, since several indespensible qualities are required in
a building-stone which are satisfied by but a few of the rocks from among the
geological formations of a country. Rocks that can stand the ravages of time and
weather, those that possess the requisite strength, an attractive colour and appearance,
and those that can receive dressing whether ordinary or ornamental-without much cost
or labour, are the most valuable. Resistance to weather is an important factor.
With this in view the architects of New Delhi, who required a most extensive range of
materials for a variety of purposes, building as well as ornamental, invited the opinion
of the Geological Survey of India in regard to the suitability of the various building
and ornamental stones quarried in the neighbouring areas of Rajasthan and Central
India. A special officer of the Survey was deputed to advise on the matter after an
examination of the various quarries in the vicinity.
244
In northern India, the ready accessibility of brick-making materials in unlimited
quantities has rendered the use of stone in private as well as public buildings
subordinate. Excellent material exists in large quantities in a number of the rock-
systems of the country.
Granites:
Granites and coarsely foliated gneisses form very desirable and durable building-
stones. These rocks, by reason of their massive nature and homogeneous grain, are
suitable for monumental and architectural work as well as for massive
masonries. Their wide range in appearance and colour - white, pink, red, grey, black,
etc. - renders the stones highly ornamental and effective for a variety of decorative
uses. The charnockites of Tamil Nadu, the Arcot gneiss, Bangalore gneiss, the
porphyries of Seringapatam, and many other varieties of granite obtained from the
various districts of the Peninsula are very attractive examples. Its durability is such
that the numerous ancient temples and monuments of South India built of granite
stand today almost intact after centuries of wear, and to all appearance are yet good
for centuries to come. From their wide prevalence, forming nearly three-fourths of
the surface of the Peninsula, the Archaean gneisses form an inexhaustible source of
good material for building and omamental uses.
Limestones:
Limestones occur in many formations, some of which are entirely composed of
them. Not all of them, however, are fit for building purposes, though many of them
are burnt for lime. In the Cuddapah, Bijawar, Khondalite and Aravalli Groups
limestones attain considerable development; some of them are of great beauty and
strength. They have been largely drawn upon in the construction of many of the noted
monuments of the past in all parts of India. Vindhyan limestones are extensively
quarried, as already referred to, in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and elsewhere, and
form a valued source for lime and cement, as well as for building stone. The
Gondwanas are barren of calcareous rocks, but the small exposures of the Bagh and
Trichinopoly Cretaceous include excellent limestones. The Nummulitic limestones of
the extra-Peninsular districts, viz. Sind, Hazara, the Salt-Range, Punjab and Assam,
are an enormous repository of pure limestone, and when accessible are in very large
demand for burning, building, as well as road-making purposes.
Limestones suitable for the manufacture of both lime and cement occur in enormous
quantities in the Vindhyan and older Formations. Cement grade limestone is quarried
from Shahbad and Singhbhum districts of Bihar, Jabalpur (Katni and Jukheri areas)
and Satna districts of Madhya Pradesh, Sundergarh district of Orissa, Narji limestone
from the Guntur and Kurnool districts of Andhra Pradesh, Ambala and Mahendragarh
districts of Punjab, Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh, and the Carboniferous
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limestone from the Raisi tahsil of J & K. The Vindhyan limestone in the Son Valley
of Uttar Pradesh is also used for the manufacture of cement.
In the plains of India, the only available source of line is ‘kankar’, which occurs
plentifully as irregular concretionary disseminations in clays. The clay admixture in
kankar is often in sufficient proportion to produce a hydraulic lime on burning.
Marbles:
Coarse-grained marbles are more suitable for architectural and monumental uses; it is
the coarseness of the grain, which is the cause of the great durability of marble against
meteoric weathering. The fine-grained, purest white marbles are reserved for statuary
use, for which no other varieties can be of service.
The marble deposits of India are fairly widespread and of large extent. The principal
source of the marbles of India is the crystalline formation of Rajasthan -- the Aravalli
series. Marble quarries are worked at Mekrana (Jodhpur), Kharwa (Ajmer), Maundla
and Bhainslana (Jaipur), Dadikar (Alwar), and some other places, from which marbles
of many varieties of colour and grain, including the beautiful white variety of which
the Taj Mahal is built, are obtained. It was the accessibility of this store of material of
unsurpassed beauty which, no doubt, gave such a stimulus to the Mogul taste for
architecture in the seventeenth century.
Good quality marble also occurs in a large outcrop near Jabalpur, Jaisalmer in
Rajasthan, Motipura in Baroda, Narsingpur in Madhya Pradesh, Kharwa in
Ajmer. Some quarries in and around Jaipur furnish a dense black marble, capable of
taking an exquisite polish, largely employed in the ancient buildings of Delhi, Agra
and Kashmir.
Serpentine:
Serpentine forms large outcrops in the Arakan range of Burma and also in
Baluchistan. It occurs as an alteration-product of the basic and ultra-basic intrusions
of Cretaceous and Miocene ages. From its softness and liability to weather on
exposure it is of no use for outdoor architectural purposes, but serpentines of attractive
colour are employed in internal decorations of buildings and the manufacture of vases,
statuary, etc. Serpentinous marble (Verde antique) is rare in India.
Sandstones:
Vindhyan sandstones - The Vindhyan and, to a lesser extent, the Gondwana formations
afford sandstones admirably suited for building works. The most preeminent among
them are the white, cream, buff and pink Upper Vindhyan sandstones, which have
been put to a variety of uses. It is the most widely quarried stone in India, and being
both a freestone as well as a flagstone it can yield, according to the portion selected,
246
both gigantic blocks for pillars from one part and thin, slate-like slabs for paving and
roofing from another part. The superb edifices, modern and medieval, of Delhi,
Rajasthan and Agra are built of red and white Vindhyan sandstone quarried from a
number of sites in the vicinity.
Some of the Vindhyan sandstones are so homogeneous and soft that they are capable
of receiving a most elaborate carving and filigree work. Centuries of exposure to the
weather have tested their durability.
Upper Gondwana sandstones - Another formation possessing resources in building-

stones of good quality is the Upper Gondwana, which has contributed a great store of
building-stone to Orissa and Chanda. The famous temples of Puri and the other richly
ornamented buildings of these districts are constructed of Upper Gondwana
sandstones.
The Mesozoic (Umia) sandstone of Dhrangadhra and the Cretaceous sandstone

underlying the Bagh beds of Gujarat (Songir sandstones) furnish Gujarat with a very
beautiful and durable stone for its important public and private buildings.
Among the Tertiary sandstones, a few possess the qualities requisite in a building-
stone, e.g. the Murree and Kamlial (Tarki) sandstones; but the younger Siwalik
sandstones are too unconsolidated and incoherent to be fit for employment in building
work.
Quartzites:
Quartzites are too hard to work and have a fracture and grain unsuitable for dressing
into blocks.
Laterite:
Laterites of South India are put to use in building works, due to the ease with which
they are cut into bricks or blocks when freshly quarried and their property of
hardening with exposure to air. Its wide distribution from Assam to Comorin makes
laterite a widely used material for road-metal. This stone is not capable of receiving
dressing for any architectural or ornamental use.
Slates:
Slates for paving and roofing are not of common occurrence in India, except in some
mountainous areas, e.g. at Kangra and Pir Panjal in the Himalayas and Rewari in the
Aravallis. When the cleavage is finely developed and regular, thus enabling them to
247
be split into thin even plates, the slates are used for roofing; when the cleavage is not
so fine, the slates are used for paving. True cleavage-slates are rare in India; what
generally are called slates are either phyllites or compacted shales in which the planes
of splitting are not cleavage-planes.
The chief slate-quarries of India are those of Kangra, in the Kangra district; Rewari, in
the Gurgaon district; and Kharakpur hills in the Monghyr district.
Traps:
Besides the foregoing examples of the building-stones of India, a few other varieties
are also employed as such when readily available and where a sufficient quantity
exists. Of these the most important are the basalts of the Deccan, which, from their
prevalence over a wide region of Western India, are used by the Railways and Public
Works Department for their buildings, bridges, the permanent way, etc. The traps
furnish an easily workable and durable stone of great strength, but its dull and
subdued colour does not recommend it to popular favour. Recently, some trachytic
and other acidic lavas of light buff and cream colours have found use in buildings.
Gypsum:
Gypsum forms large bedded masses or aggregates occurring in association with rocks
of a number of different geological formations. Large deposits of pure gypsum occur
in the Tertiary clays and shales of Rajasthan, Gujarat (Kutch) and Tamil Nadu
(Madras), though in less pure state. In Jodhpur, Nagour and Bikaner, beds of gypsum
are found among the silts of old lacustrine deposits and are of considerable economic
interest. Millions of tons of gypsum, the alteration-product of pyritous limestone of
Salkhala age, are laid bare in the mountains of the Uri and Baramula area of Kashmir
in a stretch of about 40 km along the strike. In Spiti, Sirmur, Kumaon and other
Himalayan areas, the gypsum occurs in large masses replacing Carboniferous or other
limestones. In some cases gypsum occurs as transparent crystals (selenite) associated
with clays.
Clays:
Ordinary alluvial clay, mixed with sand and containing a little proportion of iron is
used for brick-making. Fine grained clay, nixed with fine sand, is used in tile
making. Clays suitable for brick-making should have a fusion point around 950 to
1000oC so as to render strength to the fired brick. Such clays occur in considerable
quantities in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal.
248
Minerals for the Ceramic Industry
The Principal mineral raw materials for the manufacture of ceramic products are the
silica in different forms and the alumino-silicates. These minerals, in appropriate
combinations, are fused at high temperatures to obtain the required product. While
silica minerals include quartz and other forms like silica sand, the alumino-silicates
comprise of the feldspars (orthoclase, microcline and albite) and clays. In addition,
limestone and also minor amounts of a large number of other minerals find use to
certain extent in ceramics. Feldspar and pegmatite, suitable for ceramic industry,
should contain less than 9.5 per cent of Fe203; no less than 11 and 8 per cent of K2O +
Na20 (in feldspar and pegmatite respecdvely); less than 1-2 per cent of CaO; and less
than 10 and 30 percent of SiO2 in feldspar and pegmetite respectively.
Silica:
For ceramic products, the quartz should be of good quality. Iron staining and iron
oxide minerals are considered as objectionable. The important geological sources for
silica suitable for the ceramic industry are the pegmatites (with well developed
crystals of quartz), vein quartz, sandstones of high siliceous nature, high silica sands
and orthoquartzites.
In India, the major producing centres of silica are in the Sankargarh, Lohargarh and
Bargarh regions (Uttar Pradesh), Bundi and Dausa in Jaipur and Adalpur in Sawai
Madhopur (Rajasthan), Shimoga district (Karnataka), Burdwan district (West Bengal),
Singbhum and Dhanbad districts (Bihar) and Guntur district (Andhra
Pradesh). Extensive deposits of quartzite suitable for glass manufacture occur in
Mayurbhunj district of Orissa. Some of the sandstones from Himmatnagar,
Padharanali and Sankhera in Gujarat are suitable for the ceramic industry.
Beneficiation: The common impurities are clay, slime, iron stains and iron silicate
minerals such as garnets. Feldspar and mica are objectionable. The raw material is
ground in conventional manner and deslimed to remove the clayey fraction. If iron is
present as surface coating, this can be removed either by scrubbing or by chemical
treatment (like heating in a dilute solution of titanous sulphate with some hydrofluoric
acid). Tabling can be adopted for the removal of clayey minerals and the heavy
minerals like ilmenite and rutile.
The associated impurities such as mica and iron minerals can be removed by adopting
flotation techniques. The process is carried out in acid circuits (with pH between 2
249
and 3). Mica is floated by using a combination of fuel of oil and some amine
acetate. Then the pulp is treated with one of the petroleum sulphonates and iron is
removed in the subsequent stage of operation. In the final stage, feldspar is floated by
using hydrofluoric acid and amine acetate.
Feldspars:
Feldspars are used as fluxing material in the preparation of ceramic bodies, enamels
and glazes. Commonly potash feldspars (orthoclase and microcline) are used for this
purpose and soda feldspar is chiefly used for glazing purposes. Feldspars for use in
ceramic industry should contain a minimum of 65-72% SiO2 and not less than 4%
Na2O.
Feldspar is one of the dominant ingredients in acid igneous rocks, particularly of

granitic and pegmatitic nature. Pegmatites are often zoned into distinct bands of
quartz and feldspar. In India, the pegmatites of the famous mica belts in Rajasthan,
Bihar and Andhra Pradesh are the major sources ceramic grade feldspars. The other
producing areas are in Salem and Tiruchirapalli districts of Tamil Nadu, Burdwan and
Purulia districts of West Bengal and Hassan district of Karnataka. Indian feldspars
are exported to the U.K., France, W. Germany, Italy and Japan.
Beneficiation: The common impurities to be eliminated are the iron-bearing minerals

such as garnet and mica. The quarried material is broken and feldspar is removed
easily by handpicking. The picked feldspar is reduced in size by crushing in
conventional crushers and by subsequent grinding in pulverizers. For glazing
purposes and for the manufacture of ceramic ware, iron contamination during size
reduction is avoided by carrying out the grinding in pebble mills using flint pebbles as
the grinding media. The flotation techniques, similar to silica beneficiation, are also
adopted for feldspar concentration.
Clays:
Clays have been classified on the basis of their physical properties and the industrial
usage. Of the various clays, ball and china clay are extensively used in ceramic
industry. China clay and ball clay belong to the kaolin group. Although the primary
constituent is kaolinite in both these clays, ball clay has greater plasticity and lesser
refractoriness owing to the presence of montmorillonite in considerable amounts. It is
normally added to china clay to achieve greater strength and the required
plasticity. These clays are a product of weathering processes of feldspathic
rocks. During weathering, the silica and iron oxides are partially leached with the
residue (essentially of an aluminium silicate in composition) forming the in-situ
deposits. Depending upon the efficiency of the weathering process, impurities like
250
grit (siliceous particles) and iron oxide minerals exist in different percentages
in various clay deposits.
Ball Clay: Ball Clays with high plasticity ranges have been reported from Khajwana,
Indawar, jodhpur and Sheo areas in Rajasthan, Rampurda, Vagedia, Bagagela and
Thoangadh areas in Gujarat, Kundra in Kerala, parts of Chingleput district in Tamil
Nadu and Dwarka-Tirumala in Andhra Pradesh.
China clay: Usage of china clay for ceramic industry depends on factors such as
plasticity, shrinkage (after drying and on firing), colour on firing and refractori-
ness. The grit content should normally be less than 1% and should never exceed 2%.
India has extensive deposits of china clays distributed in almost all the
states. However, good deposits are in Bhagalpur, Ranchi, Singbhum and Monghyr
districts in Bihar; Mayurbhunj district in Orissa; Bankura and Birbhum districts in
West Bengal; Banda district in Uttar Pradesh; Barmer, Pali, Bikaner and Ajmer
districts in Rajasthan; Chingleput, North and South Arcot and Salem districts in Tamil
Nadu; Adilabad, Anantapur, Nellore and Guntur districts of Andhra Pradesh; Chanda
and Ratnagiri districts in Maharashtra; Shimoga and Hassan districts in Karnataka;
Sabarkantha district in Gujarat and Udhampur in Jammu and Kashmir.
Beneficiation: Major impurities in china clay are quartz, mica, felaspar and iron
oxide minerals. Methods such as sieving, washing, elutriation and levigation may be
employed. Normally the washing is done by 'levigation' process, which involves
passing the clay slurry through a series of troughs or channels with different
slopes. This process aids in the settling of grit and other heavy mineral and floating of
light fractions like mica. Settling of finest quality clay takes place in the final
tank. Decolourising of the clay is also attempted for certain clays, which are coloured
due to the presence of iron and titanium oxides. However, no elaborate beneficiation
techniques are employed in India and even the raw material that is marketed is not
properly graded and specified. This has been creating special problems to industries,
particularly to those of smaller sizes.
251
Minerals used in Refractories and Fillers
Materials that retain their shape and chemical identity without marked expansion at
high temperatures are required for lining kilns and furnaces and for many purposes in
the electrical and chemical industries. These are classed as refractories and technical
ceramics which require a range of specialized properties and are derived from both
natural and synthetic sources. The more important natural sources are listed in the
table below.
Raw Material Source Product and Use
Fireclay Fireclays are of sedimentary origin Refractory bricks for
and occur as horizons below the domestic fireplaces,
coal seams furnaces
Quartz sandstone, Pegmatites, sands and quartzites Silica bricks for furnaces
quartzite
Dolomite rock Basic refractories stable
Magnesite in the presence of slags,
Serpentine, olivine for iron and steel
rock & Chromite furnaces.
Mullite Sparking plugs, other
electrical equipment
Alumina Kyanite and Sillimanite Technical ceramics
Talc, steatite Insulators in radio industry
Graphite Crucibles used for steel
manufacture
Fillers are used to add bulk or weight to paper, rubber, paints and other synthetic
products. They are derived mainly from inert clay minerals and from barite
(BaSO4). They are also used as a component of oilfield drilling muds. Barite is a
common gangue mineral in hydrothermal and exhalative sulfide deposits and it
occasionally forms larger concentrations.
Fire-clay:
Fireclays are of sedimentary origin and occur as horizons below the coal seams. In
India fire clays from Raniganj and Jharia coalfields are very important. The fireclays
252
from Raniganj are excellent in quality. The super-refractories are manufactured by
blending them with certain proportions of bauxite from Lohardaga. In general, the
fireclays from both these coal fields occur within Barakars. Important deposits are
around Kumardhubi, Mugma, Garphalbari-Dahibari region, Damagpria,
Radhabhallabhpur, Pohargora Garb Dhamo, Churulia and Pathardi. The Rajhara and
Daltonganj coalfields are also important suppliers of plastic fireclay. In Orissa,
workable deposits of fireclay occur in Sambalpur, Cuttack, Sunde garh, Puri and
Dhenkanal districts. Fireclays from Belpahar are extensively used in steel plants.
In Madhya Pradesh, highly plastic and refractory clays are reported injabalpur, Betul,
Bilaspur, Drug, Hoshangabad and Satna districts. In Karnataka, good occurrences are
reported in Shimoga, Bangalore and Kolar districts. Good refractory fireclays also
occur in Nizamabad, Asifabad, East Godavari and Cuddapah districts (Andhra
Pradesh) and North and South Arcot districts (Tamil Nadu). In Rajasthan, the
fireclays are distributed in jaisalmer, Sawai Madhopur and Bikaner areas.
Quartz, Sandstone & Quartzite:

The main sources of silica are the sands and quartzites. Important occurrences in
India are as follows:
Bihar: Between Rakha Mines and Kendadih (Singbhum district), Rajagoan Hills (Gaya
district), Ratanpur (Monghyr district) and Bihar Shariff (Patna district).
Orissa: Khajuria-Pravasoni (Bamra district), jhargati and Garpati (Sambalpur district).
Karnataka: Dodguni area (Tumkur district).
Sands from Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh) are also often used as refractory lining for the
furnaces.
In recent years good sands have been obtained from the crushing of pure quartzose
Vindhyan sandstones at several localities in Uttar Pradesh, from Gondwana (Damuda)
sandstone of the Raj Mahal hills, and from Cretaceous sandstones and Archaean and
other pure quartzites of some parts of Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra. For silica brick
manufacture, the raw material should contain at least 96 to 98% SiO2. While
magnesia and alkalies are objectionable, iron oxide in limited quantities helps in
acting as a binder. Firing is done around 1,480oC in periodic kilns with 2% lime as
binding material. The silica bricks have spalling with temperature fluctuations but
strength is retained below the temperature of their fusion because of high thermal
conductivity.
Dolomite:
For refractory usage, dolomite should have an equimolecular proportion of CaCO 3,
and MgCO3. It must be low in SiO2, Fe2O3 and Al2O3 (together less than 3%). For
calcined dolomite, the specifications are very rigid and SiO2 and Al2O3 should not
253
exceed 1% each. Calcined dolomite is distinctly preferred over the raw dolomite for
maintaining the open-hearth steel furnaces. Dolomite and dolomitic limestone are
used extensively for the steel furnaces owing to the low cost and easy availability in
contrast to magnesite.
Workable deposits of dolomite used in refractories are reported in Orissa around
Birmitrapur and Purnapani areas of Sundergarh district. These are generally high in
silica and are used in furnace operations at TISCO, Rourkela and Durgapur. The
dolomite occurs in a band of 300 metres width over a length of 7,000 metres and
depth up to 50 metres. The estimated reserves are 252 million tonnes.
In Madhya Pradesh, the marbles of Narmadaghat (Jabalpur district) are
dolomitic. Dolomite from Bilaspur and Satna districts is used in open-hearth furnaces
of Rourkela and Bhilai steel plants. In Karnataka, refractory grade dolomite is
worked around Sankargudda in Shimoga district and is the principal source of
refractories for use in the steel plant at Bhadravati.
The total reserves of blast furnace and steel melting shop grades of dolomite in India
are estimated at 720 and 428 million tonnes respectively.
The dolomite bricks are made on conversion to di-calcium or tri-calcium silicates. In
the case of di-calcium silicate, the dusting encountered during cooling can be avoided
by adding minor amounts of Fe2O3 within limits. The tri-calcium silicate is obtained
by adding 15% serpentine to powdered dolomite and calcining the mixture at 1,600 oC
in a rotary kiln.
Magnesite:
Large deposits of magnesite (MgCO3) occur in the district of Salem as veins
associated with other magnesian rocks such as dolomite, serpentines, etc. The
magnesite is believed to be an alteration-product of the dunites (peridotite) and other
basic magnesian rocks of Salem. When freshly broken it is of a dazzling white colour
and hence the magnesite-veins traversing the country have been named the Chalk hills
of Salem. The magnesite of Salem is of a high degree of purity (MgO 46.4 %), is
easily obtained and, when calcined at a high temperature, yields a material of great
refractoriness. Other places in India also contain magnesite-veins traversing basic
rocks, viz. Coorg, Coimbatore, Mysore, Almora and parts of Eastern Himalayas.
Serpentine, Olivine Rock and Chromite:

Dunites (rocks rich in olivine) occur as a product of magmatic differentiation in the
form of layered masses and veins associated with ultra-basic, intrusive rocks, like
chromites, peridotites, serpentines, etc. Serpentinites (rocks rich in serpentine) occur
as products of weathering and alteration of olivine rich rocks. These occur in
Karnataka, in several districts of Orissa (chiefly Keonjbar), and in Singhbhum. The
254
Orissa reserves are the largest computed at over 3.5 million tons. Less important
deposits have been found in parts of Tamil Nadu and in Ratnagiri in
Maharashtra. Some chromite occurs in the " Chalk hills " (magnesite-veins) near
Salem, but it is not worked. Large deposits of chromite occurring in dunite intrusions
forming mountain-masses have been discovered in the Cretaceous volcanics of Burzil
and Dras valley of Ladakh, Kashmir.
Kyanite and Sillimanite:

Kyanite and sillimanite are similar in chemical composition (Al2O3) . However, they
differ in their crystal structure and
physical behaviour. They occur in metamorphic altiminous rocks. India has the
richest deposits of kyanite and sillimanite in the world.
Kyanite
In India, the chief occurrence of kyanite is the Lapsa Buru deposit (in Kharswan,
Bihar). This is the largest deposit of kyanite in the world. Kyanite, in massive
acicular, coarse and fine-grained forms, occurs in association with quartz rocks within
a zone of 100 kms. length and the reserves are estimated to be around 0.7 million
tonnes.
Large deposits of kyanite are also mined in Bhandara district of Maharashtra. The
total reserves are estimated at 143 min. tonnes from all sources.
Sillimanite
The most important occurrence of sillimanite is in the Khasi Hills (Assam) in
Nongstoin area (around the villages of Sonapahar, Nongpur and Nangbain) in
Meghalaya. The host rocks are cordierite-biotite-quartz-muscovite-gueiss or a
sillimanite-quartz-schist with intrusions of granite. Sillimanite occurs as massive
sillimanite boulders. Reserves are estimated around 255,000 tonnes of sillimanite up
to 7 metres depth.
Besides the Assam sillimanite, the only other important occurrence is around Pipra
(Madhya Pradesh) popularly known as Rewa sillimanite.
The reserves are estimated around 110,000 tonnes up to 10 metres depth. The only
disadvantage of Rewa sillimanite is that it is slightly sensitive to thermal
shocks. Indian sillimanite can be used as a refractory without calcination since it
exhibits very little expansion. Sillimanite bricks, in general, have a low running cost,
smaller load on furnace-supporting structure and a longer life.
Talc and Steatite:
255
Talc and steatite occur widely in India, forming large masses in the Archaean and
Dharwar rocks of the Peninsula. Workable deposits occur in Bihar, Jabalpur, Salem,
Idar and Jaipur. The Rajasthan, the deposits occur as thick lenticular beds of wide
extent in the schists. Some of these beds persist for miles. At most of these places
steatite is quarried in considerable quantities for commercial purposes. In its
geological relations, steatite is often associated with dolomite (as in Jabalpur) and
other magnesian rocks, and it is probable that it is derived from these rocks by
metamorphic processes resulting in the conversion of the magnesium carbonate into
the hydrated silicate. In other cases it is the final product of the alteration of ultra-
basic and basic eruptive rocks.
Graphite:
Graphite deposits in India are associated with metamorphic rocks. in Orissa, the
deposits are in Sambaipur district (in Nawapara, Sargipalli and Bargarh
regions). Bolangir district (in Titlagarh, Bolangirpatna and Laha regions), Dhenkanal
district (Dandatapa, ]3amur and Athmallik regions), Koraput district (Marijkelam,
Arugali and Karriguda areas), Phulbani district (Tumdibandh region) and also in
Kalahandi district. These deposits occur in the form of veins, lenses and pockets in
the khondalite series of rocks. The khondalites are paraschists which include
garnetiferous-quartz-sillimanite rocks, garnetiferous qartzites, calciphyres and
graphite schists. These are typically developed in Eastern Ghats and often contain
local concentrations of graphite veins of varying thickness and extent. Two varieties
(the flaky and amorphous) of graphite are reported. The graphite from Orissa has a
fixed carbon content between 55 and 60%. In Andhra Pradesh, the well known
deposits are, around Peddanakonda in Bhadrachalam taluk, occurring in khondalite
series. The crude material contains 40-65% fixed carbon which is processed to yield
flaky graphite of 92% carbon.
The graphite deposits of Bihar are distributed around Sokra, Khandih and
Rajhara. These occur in schists, gneisses and limestones and the fixed carbon content
is around 50%. In Karnataka, graphite of fine grained amorphous variety is in Kolar
schist belt in Bangarpet taluk and the flaky variety is near Mavinhalli and Tonvalli
(Mysore district) in crystalline schists.
Bond clay, sand and kaolin, besides grog, are used with graphite for
crucibles. Graphite crucibles used for steel are approximately of 50% graphite, 30%
bond clay, 10% sand and 10% kaolin while those used for brass have 45% graphite,
35% bond clay, 10% grog and 10% kaolin. The graphite for crucibles should contain
80% fixed carbon. Mica, carbonates and sulphur (in the form of pyrite) are the
undesirable impurities. While mica fuses causing holes in the crucibles, carbonates
and pryite dissociate resulting in volume changes. Graphite is also used as a foundry
facing material.
256
Barite:
Barytes occurs in sufficient quantities at many places in India in the form of veins and
as beds in shales. The chief localities for barytes are Cuddapah and Kurnool districts;
Alwar; Salem; and Sleemanabad (in the Jabalpur district). Barytes is used as a pig-
ment for mixing with white lead, as a flux in the smelting of iron and manganese, in
paper-manufacture, in pottery-glazes, etc. The whiter and better-quality barytes is
used in the local manufacture of paints (lithophone); the coloured variety is used in
making heavy drilling mud by the oil companies.
Minerals used in Refractories and Fillers
Materials that retain their shape and chemical identity without marked expansion at
high temperatures are required for lining kilns and furnaces and for many purposes in
the electrical and chemical industries. These are classed as refractories and technical
ceramics which require a range of specialized properties and are derived from both
natural and synthetic sources. The more important natural sources are listed in the
table below.
Raw Material Source Product and Use
Fireclay Fireclays are of sedimentary origin Refractory bricks for
and occur as horizons below the domestic fireplaces,
coal seams furnaces
Quartz sandstone, Pegmatites, sands and quartzites Silica bricks for furnaces
quartzite
Dolomite rock Basic refractories stable
Magnesite in the presence of slags,
Serpentine, olivine for iron and steel
rock & Chromite furnaces.
Mullite Sparking plugs, other
electrical equipment
Alumina Kyanite and Sillimanite Technical ceramics
Talc, steatite Insulators in radio industry
Graphite Crucibles used for steel
manufacture
Fillers are used to add bulk or weight to paper, rubber, paints and other synthetic
products. They are derived mainly from inert clay minerals and from barite
(BaSO4). They are also used as a component of oilfield drilling muds. Barite is a
257
common gangue mineral in hydrothermal and exhalative sulfide deposits and it
occasionally forms larger concentrations.
Fire-clay:
Fireclays are of sedimentary origin and occur as horizons below the coal seams. In
India fire clays from Raniganj and Jharia coalfields are very important. The fireclays
from Raniganj are excellent in quality. The super-refractories are manufactured by
blending them with certain proportions of bauxite from Lohardaga. In general, the
fireclays from both these coal fields occur within Barakars. Important deposits are
around Kumardhubi, Mugma, Garphalbari-Dahibari region, Damagpria,
Radhabhallabhpur, Pohargora Garb Dhamo, Churulia and Pathardi. The Rajhara and
Daltonganj coalfields are also important suppliers of plastic fireclay. In Orissa,
workable deposits of fireclay occur in Sambalpur, Cuttack, Sunde garh, Puri and
Dhenkanal districts. Fireclays from Belpahar are extensively used in steel plants.
In Madhya Pradesh, highly plastic and refractory clays are reported injabalpur, Betul,
Bilaspur, Drug, Hoshangabad and Satna districts. In Karnataka, good occurrences are
reported in Shimoga, Bangalore and Kolar districts. Good refractory fireclays also
occur in Nizamabad, Asifabad, East Godavari and Cuddapah districts (Andhra
Pradesh) and North and South Arcot districts (Tamil Nadu). In Rajasthan, the
fireclays are distributed in jaisalmer, Sawai Madhopur and Bikaner areas.
Quartz, Sandstone & Quartzite:

The main sources of silica are the sands and quartzites. Important occurrences in
India are as follows:
Bihar: Between Rakha Mines and Kendadih (Singbhum district), Rajagoan Hills (Gaya
district), Ratanpur (Monghyr district) and Bihar Shariff (Patna district).
Orissa: Khajuria-Pravasoni (Bamra district), jhargati and Garpati (Sambalpur district).
Karnataka: Dodguni area (Tumkur district).
Sands from Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh) are also often used as refractory lining for the
furnaces.
In recent years good sands have been obtained from the crushing of pure quartzose
Vindhyan sandstones at several localities in Uttar Pradesh, from Gondwana (Damuda)
sandstone of the Raj Mahal hills, and from Cretaceous sandstones and Archaean and
other pure quartzites of some parts of Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra. For silica brick
manufacture, the raw material should contain at least 96 to 98% SiO2. While
magnesia and alkalies are objectionable, iron oxide in limited quantities helps in
258
acting as a binder. Firing is done around 1,480oC in periodic kilns with 2% lime as
binding material. The silica bricks have spalling with temperature fluctuations but
strength is retained below the temperature of their fusion because of high thermal
conductivity.
Dolomite:
For refractory usage, dolomite should have an equimolecular proportion of CaCO 3,
and MgCO3. It must be low in SiO2, Fe2O3 and Al2O3 (together less than 3%). For
calcined dolomite, the specifications are very rigid and SiO2 and Al2O3 should not
exceed 1% each. Calcined dolomite is distinctly preferred over the raw dolomite for
maintaining the open-hearth steel furnaces. Dolomite and dolomitic limestone are
used extensively for the steel furnaces owing to the low cost and easy availability in
contrast to magnesite.
Workable deposits of dolomite used in refractories are reported in Orissa around
Birmitrapur and Purnapani areas of Sundergarh district. These are generally high in
silica and are used in furnace operations at TISCO, Rourkela and Durgapur. The
dolomite occurs in a band of 300 metres width over a length of 7,000 metres and
depth up to 50 metres. The estimated reserves are 252 million tonnes.
In Madhya Pradesh, the marbles of Narmadaghat (Jabalpur district) are
dolomitic. Dolomite from Bilaspur and Satna districts is used in open-hearth furnaces
of Rourkela and Bhilai steel plants. In Karnataka, refractory grade dolomite is
worked around Sankargudda in Shimoga district and is the principal source of
refractories for use in the steel plant at Bhadravati.
The total reserves of blast furnace and steel melting shop grades of dolomite in India
are estimated at 720 and 428 million tonnes respectively.
The dolomite bricks are made on conversion to di-calcium or tri-calcium silicates. In
the case of di-calcium silicate, the dusting encountered during cooling can be avoided
by adding minor amounts of Fe2O3 within limits. The tri-calcium silicate is obtained
by adding 15% serpentine to powdered dolomite and calcining the mixture at 1,600 oC
in a rotary kiln.
Magnesite:
Large deposits of magnesite (MgCO3) occur in the district of Salem as veins
associated with other magnesian rocks such as dolomite, serpentines, etc. The
magnesite is believed to be an alteration-product of the dunites (peridotite) and other
basic magnesian rocks of Salem. When freshly broken it is of a dazzling white colour
and hence the magnesite-veins traversing the country have been named the Chalk hills
259
of Salem. The magnesite of Salem is of a high degree of purity (MgO 46.4 %), is
easily obtained and, when calcined at a high temperature, yields a material of great
refractoriness. Other places in India also contain magnesite-veins traversing basic
rocks, viz. Coorg, Coimbatore, Mysore, Almora and parts of Eastern Himalayas.
Serpentine, Olivine Rock and Chromite:

Dunites (rocks rich in olivine) occur as a product of magmatic differentiation in the
form of layered masses and veins associated with ultra-basic, intrusive rocks, like
chromites, peridotites, serpentines, etc. Serpentinites (rocks rich in serpentine) occur
as products of weathering and alteration of olivine rich rocks. These occur in
Karnataka, in several districts of Orissa (chiefly Keonjbar), and in Singhbhum. The
Orissa reserves are the largest computed at over 3.5 million tons. Less important
deposits have been found in parts of Tamil Nadu and in Ratnagiri in
Maharashtra. Some chromite occurs in the " Chalk hills " (magnesite-veins) near
Salem, but it is not worked. Large deposits of chromite occurring in dunite intrusions
forming mountain-masses have been discovered in the Cretaceous volcanics of Burzil
and Dras valley of Ladakh, Kashmir.
Kyanite and Sillimanite:

Kyanite and sillimanite are similar in chemical composition (Al2O3) . However, they
differ in their crystal structure and
physical behaviour. They occur in metamorphic altiminous rocks. India has the
richest deposits of kyanite and sillimanite in the world.
Kyanite
In India, the chief occurrence of kyanite is the Lapsa Buru deposit (in Kharswan,
Bihar). This is the largest deposit of kyanite in the world. Kyanite, in massive
acicular, coarse and fine-grained forms, occurs in association with quartz rocks within
a zone of 100 kms. length and the reserves are estimated to be around 0.7 million
tonnes.
Large deposits of kyanite are also mined in Bhandara district of Maharashtra. The
total reserves are estimated at 143 min. tonnes from all sources.
Sillimanite
The most important occurrence of sillimanite is in the Khasi Hills (Assam) in
Nongstoin area (around the villages of Sonapahar, Nongpur and Nangbain) in
260
Meghalaya. The host rocks are cordierite-biotite-quartz-muscovite-gueiss or a
sillimanite-quartz-schist with intrusions of granite. Sillimanite occurs as massive
sillimanite boulders. Reserves are estimated around 255,000 tonnes of sillimanite up
to 7 metres depth.
Besides the Assam sillimanite, the only other important occurrence is around Pipra
(Madhya Pradesh) popularly known as Rewa sillimanite.
The reserves are estimated around 110,000 tonnes up to 10 metres depth. The only
disadvantage of Rewa sillimanite is that it is slightly sensitive to thermal
shocks. Indian sillimanite can be used as a refractory without calcination since it
exhibits very little expansion. Sillimanite bricks, in general, have a low running cost,
smaller load on furnace-supporting structure and a longer life.
Talc and Steatite:

Talc and steatite occur widely in India, forming large masses in the Archaean and
Dharwar rocks of the Peninsula. Workable deposits occur in Bihar, Jabalpur, Salem,
Idar and Jaipur. The Rajasthan, the deposits occur as thick lenticular beds of wide
extent in the schists. Some of these beds persist for miles. At most of these places
steatite is quarried in considerable quantities for commercial purposes. In its
geological relations, steatite is often associated with dolomite (as in Jabalpur) and
other magnesian rocks, and it is probable that it is derived from these rocks by
metamorphic processes resulting in the conversion of the magnesium carbonate into
the hydrated silicate. In other cases it is the final product of the alteration of ultra-
basic and basic eruptive rocks.
Graphite:
Graphite deposits in India are associated with metamorphic rocks. in Orissa, the
deposits are in Sambaipur district (in Nawapara, Sargipalli and Bargarh
regions). Bolangir district (in Titlagarh, Bolangirpatna and Laha regions), Dhenkanal
district (Dandatapa, ]3amur and Athmallik regions), Koraput district (Marijkelam,
Arugali and Karriguda areas), Phulbani district (Tumdibandh region) and also in
Kalahandi district. These deposits occur in the form of veins, lenses and pockets in
the khondalite series of rocks. The khondalites are paraschists which include
garnetiferous-quartz-sillimanite rocks, garnetiferous qartzites, calciphyres and
graphite schists. These are typically developed in Eastern Ghats and often contain
local concentrations of graphite veins of varying thickness and extent. Two varieties
(the flaky and amorphous) of graphite are reported. The graphite from Orissa has a
fixed carbon content between 55 and 60%. In Andhra Pradesh, the well known
deposits are, around Peddanakonda in Bhadrachalam taluk, occurring in khondalite
series. The crude material contains 40-65% fixed carbon which is processed to yield
flaky graphite of 92% carbon.
261
The graphite deposits of Bihar are distributed around Sokra, Khandih and
Rajhara. These occur in schists, gneisses and limestones and the fixed carbon content
is around 50%. In Karnataka, graphite of fine grained amorphous variety is in Kolar
schist belt in Bangarpet taluk and the flaky variety is near Mavinhalli and Tonvalli
(Mysore district) in crystalline schists.
Bond clay, sand and kaolin, besides grog, are used with graphite for
crucibles. Graphite crucibles used for steel are approximately of 50% graphite, 30%
bond clay, 10% sand and 10% kaolin while those used for brass have 45% graphite,
35% bond clay, 10% grog and 10% kaolin. The graphite for crucibles should contain
80% fixed carbon. Mica, carbonates and sulphur (in the form of pyrite) are the
undesirable impurities. While mica fuses causing holes in the crucibles, carbonates
and pryite dissociate resulting in volume changes. Graphite is also used as a foundry
facing material.
Barite:
Barytes occurs in sufficient quantities at many places in India in the form of veins and
as beds in shales. The chief localities for barytes are Cuddapah and Kurnool districts;
Alwar; Salem; and Sleemanabad (in the Jabalpur district). Barytes is used as a pig-
ment for mixing with white lead, as a flux in the smelting of iron and manganese, in
paper-manufacture, in pottery-glazes, etc. The whiter and better-quality barytes is
used in the local manufacture of paints (lithophone); the coloured variety is used in
making heavy drilling mud by the oil companies.
Minerals used in Organic chemicals and Synthetics

Until little more than fifty years ago, all but a minute proportion of the oil, gas and
coal extracted from the Earth was used as a fuel. Today, a substantial fraction of
world production (mostly of hydrocarbons) goes to provide feedstock for the
production of organic synthetics (see list below). The petrochemical industry
produces relatively cheap alternatives to many natural organic and inorganic
materials. The technology involved in the manufacture of these substances is
complex and only the principal processes employed are mentioned here. The lower
unsaturated olefins such as ethylene, C2H4, provide the starting points from which
many synthetic molecules are made. These olefins are obtained largely from the
paraffins in crude oil by high-temperature cracking procedures which rupture long
carbon chains and remove excess hydrogen; they can be subsequently combined
262
with molecules containing oxygen or chlorine in addition to carbon and
hydrogen. Once formed, these varied compounds provide building blocks for the
synthesis of high polymers in which thousands or tens of thousands of atoms are
linked. Polymerisation gives analogues of molecules in wood, silk, cotton, rubber
and other natural substances for which the synthetic materials can substitute. A
selective list of products is given in the table below:
Derivatives of hydrocarbons and coal (other than fuels).
Refinery products
Extracted from crude oils and their derivatives:
 lubricating oils
 bitumens
 waxes (used mainly for waterproofing)
 detergents (refinery products mixed with other chemicals)
Breakdown products
 ammonia and ammonium salts made from hydrogen in combination with
atmospheric nitrogen, starting point for synthesis of nitrogenous fertilisers
 carbon made by high-temperature dissociation, used to strengthen synthetic
rubberand forcarbon fibre
Polymers of hydrocarbon derivatives

 plastics, e.g. polyethylene, PVC, polystyrene
 silicones
 synthetic fibres, e.g. nylon, terylene, acrylic fibre
 dyes and paints
 pharmaceuticals
 insecticides
 aerosol propellants
 explosives
263
Minerals used in the Fertilizer Industry
During the last four decades, with the emphasis on agricultural production in India,
increased attention was given to the manufacture of chemical fertilizers. The fertilizer
plants use the raw materials both from natural sources and from the chemical
materials. Gypsum, pyrite and rock phosphates form the principal mineral
sources. While the first two find extensive use in the manufacture of sulfate
fertilizers, the rock phosphates are mainly utilized in the production of phosphate
fertilizer.
Source of various constituents in Fertilizers

Principal nutrient Source
organic fertilizers including animal manure, plant waste, seaweed,
fishmeal, dried blood etc, give exchangable nitrogen
nitrogen fixing bacteria in soil or in symbiotic relationship with
Nitrogen (N)
legumes
nitrates, non-marine evaporates of Chile
ammonia and its derivatives from petrochemical plants
organic fertilisers, especially manure
Potash (K)
bittern salts of marine evaporites
shells and bone
Lime (Ca)
carbonate rocks including limestone, tufa, calcrete
bone meal, manure
guano (consolidated droppings of sea birds, from oceanic islands,
Phosphates (P) now largely worked out)
superphosphate derived from phosphorite
basic slag byproduct of steel production
salt domes (reduction of gypsum)
Sulfur (S)
iron sulphides
GYPSUM DEPOSITS
Gypsum is a hydrated calcium sulfate (CaSO4.2H20 ) and its anhydrous form

(CaSO4) is known as anhydrite. Deposits of gypsum are either of sedimentary origin
(bedded type) or of marine evaporate nature. Gypsum finds extensive use in the
cement, paper, textile and paint industries. The mineral, calcined around 200oC
264
loses 75% of its water and the product, known by its trade name as 'plaster of paris',
is widely used in building industry as a good finishing material. It can be moulded
into any shape with the addition of water and sets to a hard mass.
In India, gypsum is produced in Rajasthan. Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat and
Maharashtra. Of these, the first three are the important producers with Rajasthan
possessing around 95% of the total Indian reserves (estimated to be around 1,000 m
tonnes). The deposits in Rajasthan are situated mainly in Bikaner, jodhpur, Nagaur
and jaisalmer districts. The Rajasthan occurrences are associated with the Vindhyan
limestones.
In Tamil Nadu the deposits are situated in Tiruchirapalli, Coimbatore and

Ramanathapuram districts and are associated with the shales in Cretaceous
sequence. The gypsum from these sources is chiefly utilized in the cement and
pottery industry. In Uttar Pradesh, deposits are reported in Dehradun, Garhwal and
Nanital districts. The Majhara deposit in Dehradun district and Lakshmanjhula in
Garhwal district are exploited at present.
For use in fertilizer industry, gypsum with a minimum of 87% CaSO4.2H2O is

preferred. The Sindri fertilizer plant gets its main supply from the Bikaner deposits.
PYRITE DEPOSITS
Sulfur and pyrite (FeS2) are the principal raw materials in the manufacture of sulfuric
acid which forms the back-bone of many modern industries such as fertilizers,
chemicals, paints and textiles. Pyrite is either mined as a principal mineral or is
recovered from the sulfide assemblages of copper, lead-zinc, gold and other metallic
ore deposits.
In India, pyrite deposits occur in Bihar, Karnataka, Rajasthan and Tamil

Nadu. However, the largest deposits are from Amjhore region in Shahabad district of
Bihar where pyrite occurs as a uniform bed of about one metre thickness in the
Bijaigarh black shales of Kaimur series (Vindhyan system). The deposit (located at
nine places within the Amjhore region) has a remarkable conformity with the
overlying and underlying Vindhyan formations and is confined to a single
265
stratigraphic horizon. Two types of pyrite occurrences have been reported: the
massive cryptocrystalline variety, which forms the bulk of the deposit and the fine
pyrite grains, disseminated within the black shale. About 390 million tonnes of pyrite
(with 48% S) are estimated to be available within an area of 120 sq. km in Amjhore
region.
In Karnataka, pyrite deposits occur around Ingaldahl in Chitaldrug district. The

mineralization is localized in the ferruginous chert bands interbanded with
Dharwarian greenstones in the eastern flank of an anticlinal structure. It may be
noted that copper mineralization in this region is on the western flank of this
structure. The Ingaldahl pyrite reserves are estimated to be around 2.0 million.
tonnes (of 20-30% S). The deposits in Rajasthan occur at Saladipura and the inferred
reserves are of the order of85 million tonnes (with 22% S). In Tamil Nadu, the
deposits are located around Polur in the Thaniyar reserve forest.
Besides the above occurrences, pyrite is also associated with gold, copper, lead and
zinc deposits as also in Tertiary coals. In the metallic ores, after the recovery of
primary minerals the tailings containing pyrite are discarded in India. Plans are
underway to recover and utilize pyrite from such tailings, Sizeable deposits of
sulphur have been reported from Puga valley in Ladakh.
In India, the requirements of sulphur are of the order of 3,00,000 tonnes per
year. At present the mining activity is at Amjhore by the state-owned Pyrites,
Phophates and Chemicals Ltd. A sulphuric acid plant of 400 tonnes per day capacity
has been set up at Sindri in Bihar.
ROCK PHOSPHATE DEPOSTS
Phosphate deposits of sedimentary origin and of economic importance are known as

phosphorites or rock phosphates. The formation of these is restricted to marine
environments and is a result of deposition under specific pH conditions from the
phosphorus-bearing solutions derived from the weathering of phosphate minerals
like apatite of igneous source. It is thought that redox potential does not play any
role in their formation. In all the phosphate minerals, phosphorus exists in its
highest valent state,
266
In India, with the development of superphosphate fertilizer industry, the exploration
for rock phosphate deposits has been accelerated. Deposits of economic significance
are reported from Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. In Rajasthan, they are located in
Udaipur and jaisalmer districts. The Udaipur deposits occur around Jhamar Kotra
area, Kanpur region (Kanpur, Karbaria Ka Gurha and Maton blocks) and Dakan Kotra
area. The phosphorites are confined to limestone or cherty quartzite and are in the
form of lenticular masses of variable thickness with the P2O5 content between 15
and 25%. However, the published analyses for Maton deposits indicate P2O5 as high
as 36%. The Jaisalmer deposits are mainly located in the Fatehgarh area where the
phosphorite horizon was associated with the Mesozoic sandstones. The
P2O5 content varies from 5 to 15%. Two types of mineral associations are reported
from Rajasthan deposits: pellets of collaphane and black chert in calcareous shaly
sandstones and the banded phosphorites (of alternate collophane with quartz on
calcite bands) with limestone bands. The basic characteristic feature of these
phosphorites is their association with limestones, which distinguishes the same from
those of Uttar Pradesh. Around 80 million tonnes are estimated to be available in
Rajasthan.
In Uttar Pradesh, the deposits occur mainly at Mussoorie and Meldeota, although in
all about 10 deposits are located. The phosphate-bearing zones, thickness varying
from a few centimetres to about 15 metres at places, are mainly restricted to chert
and carbonaceous shale formations of Lower Tals or at the contact of the underlying
argillaceous limestones of Upper Krols. Three varieties of phosphorite -- granular,
pelletal and nodular -- have been reported. The P2O5content of these deposits varies
between 15 and 35%. The deposits from Uttar Pradesh contain the collophane
species of phosphates together with quartz, calcite, chert, muscovite and clay
minerals. The development of the Mussoorie deposits is beset with several
difficulties such as their complex mineralogy, lack of precise estimates as regards the
quantity and quality of ore available, remoteness of the deposits and the need for
underground mining. In India, the major share of the requirements for rock
phosphates is met from the imports of the order of 5,75,000 tonnes per year while
the production is around 6,44,000 tonnes. A beneficiation plant is being set up at
Matas near Udaipur by Hindustan Zinc Limited to upgrade the phosphorite from 25%
267
P2O5 to >32% P2O5 with consequent reduction of silica. It is planned to send these
concentrates to the superphosphate unit at Debari smelting plant.
268

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6 Year Integrated M. Tech.

PAPER CODE: MTIGT0601

e-learning Material – Economic Geology

2. Processes and environment of ore formation: Magmatic Deposits – Contact metasomatic

3. Physical properties, Chemical composition, mode of occurrences and Indian distributions of

4. Metaliferous deposits: Mineralogy, mode of occurrence and distribution of Iron, Manganese,

e-learning Material – Economic Geology

1. Bateman, AM and Jonsen, M.L., Economic mineral Deposits, John Wiley

e-learning Material – Economic Geology

ORE AND GANGUE MINERALS

Economic Geology is an important branch of

A solid naturally-occurring compound

The term Mineral Deposit refers to any accumulation of

Non-Metallic Deposits: The non-metallic deposits

An occurrence of minerals or metals

A high grade lead deposit in Antarctica may not

Most ore minerals are combinations of metals with

Single metals may form many ore minerals or single metal

Gangue: The ore minerals are usually associated with

The tenor of ore is the metal content of the ore. Which is

• Grams/tonne (precious metals)

Economically Important Metal

The location, quantity, grade, geological

• Inferred: That part of a Mineral Resource for

Mineral Resources and Ore Reserves

An 'Ore Reserve' is the economically mineable part of a

Appropriate assessments, which may include feasibility

These assessments demonstrate at the time of reporting

Mineral Resources and Ore Reserves

A Probable Ore Reserve has a lower level of confidence than a

A 'Proved Ore Reserve' is the economically mineable part of a Measured

• Proven: The economically mineable

Mineral Resources and Ore Reserves

SOME OF THE IMPORTANT ORES AND OREMINERALS

Formation of Mineral Deposits

PRIMARY OR HYPOGENE AND SECONDARY OR SUPERGENE

Ore minerals may be divided into primary or

Formation of Mineral Deposits

Endogenous Processes (Primary or Hypogene)

Endogenous Processes of Ore Formation

Exogenous Processes of Ore Formation

THE FORMATION OF MINERALS AND MINERAL DEPOSITS

To have a better understanding of mineral deposits, it

Crystallization from Magmas

Magma is a molten fluid which form igneous rocks on

Certain substances like sulphur are readily volatilised

Evaporation and Supersaturation

Reaction of gases with other gases

Salt mine from Sal Island

Reaction Between Gases and Solids

b) Relative solubility of solid and solute

c) Reduction and Oxidation

Deposition In Open Spaces

Weathering and Mechanical Concentration Process

Melting glaciers: sand and gravel

CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL DEPOSIT

Classification of mineral deposits has been attempted by

The earlier classification by Beck (1904), Bergsat and

Classifications Based on Geological Processes

Classifications Based on Host Lithology

Lindgren (1911) Classification

Lindgren (1911) classified mineral deposits in

1)Those formed by mechanical concentration and