PSYC30013

Research Methods for Human Inquiry

Lecture 1: Research Questions, Research Design,
and General Underlying Principles

Paul Dudgeon
Psychological Sciences
University of Melbourne
Redmond Barry Room 1202
(immobile) 8344-4456
(email) dudgeon@unimelb.edu.au

Week 1: 26 February 2018

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1 Research Methods and Psychology
The Structure of Any Research

2 General Underlying Principles

Principle 1: Research Questions
Principle 2: Populations and Samples
Principle 3: Constructs, Measurements, and Scores
Principle 4: Types of Construct Scores
Principle 5: Parameters and Statistics
Principle 6: Distributions of Individual Scores
Principle 7: Summing, Squaring, and Averaging
Principle 8: Distributions of Sample Statistics
Principle 9: Standardising Transformations of Statistics

3 Readings

4 Notation Used in Lecture

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 The Structure of All Psychological Research

1 A clear rationale motivating the particular piece of research.

2 A research question (or research hypothesis) derived from this
rationale.
3 A research design for identifying and collecting data appropriate for
answering the research question.
4 An inferential analysis of the data that is coherent with the
research question.
5 An evaluation and integration of the findings from this analysis for
the research question with the original rationale.

This subject focuses on. . .

research questions
inferential analyses
evaluations and integrations

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 Fourteen Basic Principles of Research

Fourteen basic principles underly research methods in the lectures:

1 Research Questions
2 Populations and Samples
3 Constructs, Measurements, and Scores
4 Types of Construct Scores
5 Parameters and Statistics
6 Distributions of Individual Scores
7 Summing, Squaring, and Averaging
8 Distributions of Sample Statistics
9 Standardising Transformations of Statistics
10 Theoretical Probability Distributions
11 Estimation, Estimators, and Estimates
12 Making Inferences using NHST
13 Types and Meaning of Probability
14 Making Inferences using Confidence Intervals
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 Learning through Repeated Exposure

We will repeatedly see that a small number of concepts is often used

in different ways or in different contexts or by different names.

Learning comes about through repeated exposure to these 14

principles during Weeks 3 to 11.

You are really learning a new “language” in these lectures.

This kind of learning does not come all at once. . . be reasonable in

your expectations about yourself.

Regular work throughout the semester will bring its rewards.

Various kinds of weekly self-assessed feedback material on

LMS. . . choose what suits your own learning style.

Leaving things until half way through, or even later, will make things
much harder.
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 Principle 1: Research Question

The primary driving force of all research is the research question (RQ).

A good research questions ideally:

Contain a "?" at the end (!).
Lists all constructs being investigated.
Indicate relevant population(s).
Specify relationship(s) among constructs.

A well-formulated research question should clearly, coherently, and

logically. . .
Be derived from a rationale for research.
Imply a research design for collecting data.
Indicate kind of analysis.

How does this differ from an hypothesis?

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 Research Hypothesis versus Statistical Hypothesis

Definition: Research Hypothesis

A focused statement about what researchers expect to find about the
hypothesised relationship among psychological construct(s).

E.g., It is hypothesised that stress will be positively correlated with

somatisation.
(cf. Research Aims: a general statement of overall objectives).

Definition: Statistical (Null) Hypothesis

A focused statement about the value of an unknown population
parameter that researchers wish to nullify by applying a null hypothesis
significance test to the value of a sample statistic.

E.g., H0: µ = 100 and M = 105 from n = 5.

where, e.g., µ is statistical notation for a population mean and n is our
sample size.

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 General Kinds of Research Questions

Many (but not all) research questions involve investigations into three
kinds of relationships among constructs.

1 . . . Association
Implies statistical analysis by correlation or contingency table.

2 . . . Prediction
Implies statistical analysis by regression.

3 . . . Group Difference
Implies statistical analysis by t-test, ANOVA, or linear contrast.

These terms are the critical driving force in a research question

Immediately indicates the particular form of relationship among
constructs to be investigated.
Each implies a particular kind of research design and analysis.

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 Real Examples of Research Questions

Are there differences in rates of maturation between adolescent boys

and girls with a high risk of onset of a personality disorder?

Why is it good?

To improve the understanding of factors that might influence

whether or not women with established diabetes seek pre-pregnancy
care, by examining the utility of the Health Belief Model, Social
Cognitive Theory and Self-Regulation Theory in predicting whether
or not women with diabetes seek pre-pregnancy care.

Why is it "not that good"?1

1A polite way of meaning terrible

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 Real Examples of Research Questions

Are there differences in rates of maturation between adolescent boys

and girls with a high risk of onset of a personality disorder?

Why is it good?

To improve the understanding of factors that might influence

whether or not women with established diabetes seek pre-pregnancy
care, by examining the utility of the Health Belief Model, Social
Cognitive Theory and Self-Regulation Theory in predicting whether
or not women with diabetes seek pre-pregnancy care.

Why is it "not so good"?

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 Principle 2: Populations and Samples

Psychological theories are framed in terms of a particular population.

Research questions are directed at a population also.

Definition: Population
The set of all individuals of size N either or both (i) relevant to the
construct(s) in a research question, or (ii) to whom a psychological
theory applies (where N may be either finite or (seemingly) infinite).
NB: Populations can be defined by constructs themselves.

Research (usually) undertaken in a single sample of individuals.

Definition: Sample
A set of individuals of size n who are (i) selected by some sampling
scheme from the population, and (ii) assumed to be representative of
that population by use of that sampling scheme.
Random sampling schemes.
Convenience sampling (non-random). . . most psychological research .
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 Principle 3: Constructs, Measurements, and Scores

Psychological constructs are embedded within theories and models of

behaviour, cognition, and affect.
Definition: Construct
An unobservable attribute of people that we use in both theories and
research to explain human behaviour, cognition, and affect.

For instance. . . depression, attention, laterality, attitudes, etc.

If psychological constructs are unobservable, how can they be measured?

Definition: Construct Measure
A method for measuring people on a construct that is used to obtain a
construct score, for which there is evidence of its validity and reliability.a
a Psychological Assessment lectures by Amy Perfors

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 Measuring Constructs

Definition: Construct Score

A score on a construct measure is a numerical value assigned to an
individual by the method of measurement (i.e., the construct measure).
E.g.,
Number of milliseconds for reaction time.
Summed (total) score on a neuroticism questionnaire.
Frequency count of the number of errors.

Measurements are made using a variety of methods, such as. . .

Reaction time in an attention task.
Questionnaires, inventories, tests, and scales.
Coding of interviews for clinical symptoms or disorders.
Psychophysiological observations (e.g., MRI scans; GSR).
Direct observation counts of some behaviour.

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 Measuring Constructs (cont.)

The measurement method (or measure) provides a construct score (i.e.,

numerical value).
Scaling units of many construct measures in psychology are
arbitrary.

Arbitrary scales does not contain a true zero, and is not strictly interval.
A score of 0 on a neuroticism scale does not mean a complete
absence of neuroticism.
The difference between a score of 20 and 10 on a neuroticism scale
may not correspond in psychological strength to a difference
between 15 and 5.

Cf. Bathroom or kitchen scales, or measuring tapes used by carpenters.

Psychological measurement does not involve operationalizing.

Outmoded, ambiguous idea that is best left behind.

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 Principle 4: Different Types of Construct Scores

Scores from a sample of participants are used in some form of statistical

analysis to answer the research question.

Typically indicate a person’s raw score as (capital) Xi (or sometimes

Yi ), where the i subscript just refers to the i-th person in the sample.
IQ scores for n = 5 participants.
X = { 89, 94, 105, 117, 120 }.
i = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }.
If i =2, then X2 = 94.

X is a random variable because each person’s construct score has a

particular likelihood of being observed.2
We assume the distribution3 of scores for everyone in our population
corresponds to a probability distribution (e.g., normal distribution).

2 Note that the term random does not mean haphazard or unpredictable.
3 We consider distributions in Principle 6 and 8.
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 Raw Scores

Definition: Raw Score

The numerical value on a variable that is obtained directly from the
original method of measurement used in research.
An equivalent term for a raw score is an observed score.

E.g., A persons’ IQ might estimated to be 121.

Equivalently, the person’s observed score is 121.

Some raw scores in psychological research have a naturally defined unit of

measurement. For instance. . .
reaction time (measured in milliseconds);
age (measured in years);
fear by galvanic skin response (measured in ohms)

Such instances are the exception rather than the rule.

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 Transforming Raw Scores

Researchers may decide to change raw scores on a variable into a new set
of values by applying some mathematical transformation.
Rationale being that the new values might be better in some
principled way.

Definition: Transformed Score

The numerical values on a variable for each person in a sample that is
obtained by applying any kind of mathematical formula (or
transformation) to each participant’s raw score.

One common transformed score is the deviation score.

Definition: (Mean) Deviation Score

The numerical value on a variable obtained by subtracting the mean
value of all scores from each person’s raw score.
It is often signified by lowercase xi (or sometimes yi ).

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 Deviation Scores
Deviation Scores
A deviation score (signified by xi ) is calculated by subtracting the mean
value (signified by M or sometimes MX ) on a random variable X from
the value of the original raw score (signified by Xi ) for person i. That is,

xi = Xi − M

For instance, M = 105 for the 5 IQ scores. Therefore. . .

If X1 = 89, then xi = −16.
If X2 = 94, then xi = −11.
If X3 = 105, then xi = 0.
If X4 = 105, then xi = 12.
If X5 = 105, then xi = 15.
Deviation scores have three useful properties:
1 Their mean always equals zero.
2 Any negative deviation score = a raw score below the mean.
3 Any positive deviation score = a raw score above the mean.
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 Standardised Scores and Z Scores

When a construct measure has an arbitrary scaling, its metric is often

determined by standardizing the original raw scores.
Definition: Standardised Scores
The numerical value on a variable obtained by transforming a raw score
into a new value that has (i) a predefined mean value, (ii) a predefined
scale (or metric) based on the number of units equated to each standard
deviation (SD).

E.g., Raw scores on IQ tests are typically standardized such that the
population mean IQ = 100 units and SD = 15 units.

One common kind of standardized transformed score is a Z score.

Definition: Z Scores
Zi scores are a special kind of standardised score. Their mean equals 0,
and each numerical unit of Z score equals 1 standard deviation of raw
scores.
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 Progressive Transformations

Transformations
Note the progression that can occur in transformations:
1 To go from raw scores (Xi ) to deviation scores (xi ), we subtract the mean
(M) from each raw score.
xi = Xi − M.
2 To go from deviation scores to Z scores, we divide a deviation score by
the sample standard deviation (signified by SD. . . or sometimes s).

(Xi − M) xi
Zi = =
SD SD
3 To go from Zi scores to another standardized score, we re-scale the Zi
score by the desired mean and SD value for the standardised score. E.g.,

IQi = 100 + (Zi × 15),

converts a Zi score into a standardised IQ scores with µ = 100 and

σ = 15.a
a The notation σ denotes the population standard deviation.

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 Principle 5: Parameters and Statistics

We (almost) always use a set of construct scores from a single sample in

research rather. . . we (almost always) never have the complete set of
population scores.

Our objective in research is typically not to explain each (or any

one) person’s construct score.
Instead, we focus on a summary feature calculated over all the
construct scores in a sample that relates to our research question.
Make an statistical inference from the chosen summary feature in
our single sample to the corresponding summary feature in the
population.

Some examples of a summary feature:

Mean
Correlation.
Difference between means of two groups.
Regression coefficient.

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 Parameters and Populations

When any summary feature applies to the whole population of scores,

then it is called a population parameter.4

Definition: (Population) Parameter

A single numerical value that specifies a particular summary feature of a
population that is (almost) always unknown.

Some examples of a population parameter:

Population mean
Population correlation.
Difference between population means of two groups.
Population regression coefficient.

4 There are a few exceptions to the general rule stated below that a population

parameter value is unknown. . . e.g., IQ is defined have a population mean of 100 and
population standard deviation of 15
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 Samples and Statistics

When a summary feature applies to a single sample of scores, then it is

referred to as a sample statistic.

Definition: (Sample) Statistic

A single numerical value for a particular summary feature that is
calculated on scores from one sample. It is typically used as an estimate
of the unknown value of the corresponding population parameter.

Some examples of a sample statistic:

Sample mean
Sample correlation.
Difference between sample means of two groups.
Sample regression coefficient.

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 Samples and Statistics (cont.)

We assume that there is only one fixed value for a parameter (we are
using a frequentist statistical framework).5
This is the population parameter value.

There are multiple possible values of a sample statistic (this is a fact

rather than an assumption).
Each sample statistic value may be obtained from a separate and
different sample drawn from the same population.
Any sample statistic is therefore a random variable.

But remember that. . . in practice we almost always have only one sample
of scores available to us for undertaking our research.

We use this one sample to make statistical inferences about the

population.
5 Other statistical frameworks, e.g., bayesian, make different assumptions.
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 Inferring the Parameter Value from a Sample Statistic

Our aim in research:

To make an inference about the value of an unknown population

parameter from the known value of a sample statistic.

This inference is aided by using statistical analysis. . . but it is never

determined or made certain by that analysis.

But it concerns making plausible scientific assertions at a population level

from sample evidence about construct relationships, given the relevant
psychological theory or model being investigated.

The form of these construct relationships might be in terms of. . .

Associations, or
Predictions, or
Differences,
This link returns us to the central importance of the research question.
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 Principle 6: Distributions of Individual Scores

Definition: A Distribution
We can think of a distribution in general terms as being a set of different
numerical values on a random variable that has particular observable
characteristics (e.g, shape, height, spread, frequency of occurrence, etc).

Psychological research uses the concept of a distribution in four different,

but related, ways. . .
1 Observed sample distribution of construct scores;

2 Unobserved population distribution of scores;

3 Sampling distribution of sample statistics; and
4 Theoretical probability distribution.

NB: The first two types of distributions are examined in this Principle. The remaining
two are in Principles 8 and 10.

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 Sample Distributions vs. A Population Distribution

If we obtain construct scores from a sample of participants, then these

scores form a distribution of sample scores.
E.g., X = { 89, 94, 105, 117, 120 } is a sample distribution of IQ
scores.

Definition: Sample Distribution

The set of n observed scores from measuring a construct in one particular
sample. The main characteristics of a sample distribution of scores are
summarised by sample statistics.

Often displayed graphically (e.g., histogram, or boxplot, or P-P plot,

or Q-Q Plot)
One sample will not contain all possible people who are relevant to a
research question.
Scores from different samples will have different sample distributions.

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25 Sample Distributions of IQ Scores: Histograms (N = 20)

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25 Sample Distributions of IQ Scores: Histograms (N = 100)

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25 Sample Distributions of IQ Scores: Boxplots (N = 20)

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25 Sample Distributions of IQ Scores: Boxplots (N = 100)

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 Population Distribution of Individual Scores

What would be the set of construct scores if we could measure every

possible individual who is relevant to the research question?

This would be called the population distribution of scores.

Definition: Population Distribution

The complete set of N values on a construct measure for the entire
population. The main characteristics of a population distribution are
summarised by population parameter values. We often assume that
population scores follow a probability distribution.

Typically in psychology, we assume that individual variability in a construct is

continuous (i.e., quantitative), and therefore people differ in degree (e.g., how
much intelligence does this child have?).

The alternative is that individual variability in a construct is categorical, (i.e.,

qualitative) and therefore people differ in kind or in type (e.g., does this child
have a diagnosis of ADHD?).
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Population Distribution for Earlier Sample Distributions

Normal Distribution with µ = 100 and σ = 15

The 25 sample distributions in the earlier slides were drawn from the
above population distribution. 33 / 53
 Principle 7: Summing, Squaring, and Averaging

Because we have a set of n construct scores in one sample, we require a

way to derive the appropriate summary feature (i.e., sample statistic).
Need and use a formula to calculate a sample statistic.

In this course, formulas provide one way of understanding more

fundamental concepts used in research.
Their usage in the Weekly Problem Sets is designed to provide this kind of
insight.
Used to improve your reasoning ability and integration of concepts—not
your mathematical skills.

NB:
Formulas are sometime an unnecessary source of confusion and/or anxiety.
Not something to learn off by heart just for its own sake.
Look for common patterns and operations, not individual calculations.

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 Comparing Formulas for Means and Variances

Statistical formulas are often variations on the same underlying idea

and/or mathematical calculation.

Sample Mean Sample Variance

Pn Pn 2
Pn
Xi i=1 (Xi − M) x2
M = i=1 2
s = = i=1 i
n n−1 n−1

The same fundamental kind of procedure is being undertaken in both

formulas. . .
summing individual
Pvalues in the numerator to get some type of
n
“total” (shown by i=1 ), and
averaging this sum total value using sample size in the denominator
(i.e., dividing by n or by n − 1).

These two basic kinds of operations will be repeatedly used to obtain

various sample statistics throughout the course.
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 Principle 8: Distributions of Sample Statistics

We now consider the 3rd type of distribution introduced in Principle 6:

1 Observed sample distributions of construct scores.
2 Unobserved, but hypothesised, population distribution of scores.
3 Sampling distributions of sample statistics.
4 Mathematical probability distributions defined by population
parameters.

First two related to distributions of individual scores.

These latter two relate to distributions of sample statistics.

Why might we be able to have distributions of sample statistics?

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Individual Scores, Sample Statistics, and Random Variables

Recall from that. . .

X was called a random variable because it could have different
values for a sample of individuals.
We calculate a sample statistic (e.g., M) from a set of sample scores
(i.e., a distribution of sample scores).

But imagine if we had sets of scores from more than one sample?

The same sample statistic (e.g., M) calculated on each sample will

typically have a different value for each sample. For instance. . .
X§1 = { 89, 94, 105, 117, 120 } ⇒ M§1 = 105
X§2 = { 95, 98, 101, 121, 135 } ⇒ M§2 = 110
etc.
(where the subscript “§] ” signifies one particular sample of scores).

Any sample statistic can therefore equally be considered a random variable

because different samples from the same population will produce different
values for that statistic.
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Different Samples Produce Different Sample Statistic Values

Recall histograms of 25 samples of IQ scores, each for n = 20. . .

 
92.08 93.79 95.65 96.60 97.06

 97.16 97.56 98.57 98.60 99.19 


 99.72 100.22 100.48 100.54 100.56 

 101.63 102.77 102.84 103.92 103.97 
104.23 104.25 104.28 104.72 105.72

On the right are the 25 sample mean values from these 25 samples.
What would we typically do with such a set of values?

1 Calculate their mean and standard deviation?

M = 100.24 and SD = 3.63 (why is the SD much smaller than 15?)
2 Construct some kind of distribution plot to summarise them?

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 A Sampling Distribution of Sample Statistics

Although research typically uses scores from only one sample, we can still
conceive of the following occurring as a thought experiment:

Image if we had a very large number of independent samples drawn from

the same population and we calculated the value of the same sample
statistic in each one of these sample?

They could form a sampling distribution of a sample statistic.

Definition: Sampling Distribution

The set of values for a sample statistic (e.g., M) obtained by drawing
independent random samples of size n from a population and calculating
the sample statistic value in each sample. This sampling distribution can
then be displayed as, e.g., a histogram of sample means.

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 Sampling Distribution versus Sample Distribution

The concept of a sampling distribution is incredibly powerful for

quantitative analysis.
We typically have one sample ⇒ one sample statistic.
But. . . research focuses on the population.

That is. . . in research we wish to infer about. . .

the unknown value of a population parameter from. . .
the known value of the corresponding sample statistic.

How can we do this in a meaningful statistical sense?

1 By making use of the concept and properties of a sample
distribution.
2 By then linking a sampling distribution to a mathematical
probability distribution.

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 What Happens As the Number of Samples Increases?

Computer simulation can explain this “thought experiment” visually.

As the number of independent samples increases, the histogram of the sample means
begins to look increasingly like a normal distribution.
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 What Happens As the Number of Samples Increases?

Computer simulation can explain this “thought experiment” visually.

As the number of independent samples increases, the histogram of the sample means
begins to look increasingly like a normal distribution.
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 What Happens if a Bigger N were Used?

What would happen if the size of each sample was larger? (e.g., n = 100)

If size of each sample is larger, then the variance of the sampling distribution is more
narrow.
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 Properties of a Sampling Distribution

The sampling distribution of many statistic (e.g., mean, variance,

correlation, etc) has the following properties:
1 The shape of a sampling distribution depends on
The particular statistic used to construct it;
The size of the sample being used.
The underlying distribution of the population.
6
2 The mean of the sampling distribution of an unbiased statistic equals
the corresponding population parameter value.
3 The standard deviation of a sampling distribution is called the standard
error of the statistic forming that sampling distribution.
4 The sampling distribution of many (but not all) sample statistics will
increasingly approximate a mathematical probability distribution as
replications gets increasingly large.

Informative demonstrations of sampling distributions are available at

http://onlinestatbook.com/stat_sim/sampling_dist/index.html

6 The notion of bias will be explained next week.

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 Features to Examine in Sampling Distribution

We will briefly examine the following aspects:

1 The kind of parent distribution from which raw individual scores are
repeatedly sampled.
normal, uniform, skewed, or "custom"?

2 The sample size used in each repeated sample.

n = 5, 10, or 25?

3 The shape of the resultant sampling distribution.

Same as, or different to, the parent distribution?

4 The mean of the resultant sampling distribution.

Same as, or different to, the population mean of the parent distribution?

5 The variance (or SD )of the result sampling distribution.

How is it related to the variance (or SD) of the parent distribution?

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 Sampling Distribution and Standard Error

The variability of a sampling distribution (i.e., the amount of spread in

the values) gets smaller as the sample size gets larger.

Definition: Standard Error

A measure of the average variation in a sampling distribution. It equals
the standard deviation of the sampling distribution. It is usually signified
generically as σSE or sSE .

If the population standard deviation is known (e.g., σ = 15 for IQ),

then r
σ σ2
σSE = √ =
n n
If, however, only the sample standard deviation is known, then
r
SD s s2
sSE = √ = √ =
n n n

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Principle 9: Standardising Transformations for Statistics

In Principle 4, we transformed a person’s raw score into a Z score.

(Xi − M) xi
Zi = =
s s

Extend this idea further into the concept of a standardising

transformation.

Definition: Standardising Transformation

A standardizing transformation is a mathematical function that changes
the current value of (i) an individual score or (ii) a sample statistic into a
new value that has a known scaling (i.e., metric) expressed in
standardised units (e.g., number of standard deviations).

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 Observed Test Statistic

An important kind of standardising transformation is the one that

calculates an observed test statistic from a sample statistic.
Used to make inferences about unknown population parameters.

Observed Test Statistic Value

The general form (in words) of an observed test statistic is:
(Sample Statistic - Assumed Population Parameter)
Observed Test Statistic =
Standard Error

That is, an observed test statistic (signified in general by Tobs ) is given

by subtracting values of an assumed population parameter (signified in
general by θH0 ) from a sample statistic (signified in general by θobs ). The
resultant difference is then divided by the standard error (signified in
general by σSE )
This can be expressed in general notation form by the generic formula:

(θobs − θH0 )
Tobs =
σSE
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 Observed Test Statistics and Z Scores

The general form of this equation should be already familiar.

(θobs − θH0 ) (Xi − µ) Xi − M

Tobs = ⇔ Zi = ⇔ Zi =
σSE σ s
E.g.,. . .
We observe a sample mean M = 107.50 (equals θobs in above
equation), with n = 25.
We assume the population mean
√ µ = 100 (equals θH0 );
The standard error σSE = 15/ 25 = 3.0 (equals σSE ).

(θobs − θH0 )
Tobs =
σSE
(107.50 − 100)
=
3.0
= 2.5
Indicates that sample mean M = 107.5 is 2.5 standard deviations (i.e., standard error
units) from the assumed population parameter value.
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 Principle 9: Standardising Transformations (cont.)

This observed test statistic value Tobs is just a standardised sample

statistic obtained from assuming a particular population parameter value.

Definition: Observed Test Statistic (Tobs )

Tobs is a sample statistic transformed by using the standard error into the
standardised metric that corresponds to a mathematical probability
distribution. It is calculated from our sample data, and it indicates the
degree of deviation of a sample statistic from an assumed population
value. It is used in null hypothesis significance testing and in constructing
confidence intervals.

Why do we want to transform a sample statistic into a "standardised"

value found in a mathematical probability distribution?

We answer this big question next week.

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 Readings

In Gravetter & Wallnau (all eds.). The following are recommended for
revision.
Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions
Chapter 3: Central Tendency.
Chapter 4: Variability
Chapter 5: z-Scores: Location of Scores and Standardized
Distributions.
NB: Ignore anything in these chapters that is not covered in this lecture or in this
week’s lab class)

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 Summary of Notation Used In Lecture

Notation Meaning
ρ Population correlation coefficient
N Size of the population (finite number or ∞)
n Number of people in a single sample (sample size)
X or Y Generic random variables containing raw scores
Xi or Yi Raw score of i-th person
M (or MX ) Sample mean of X
x or y Generic random variables containing deviation scores
xi or xi Deviation score of i-th person
Z Random variable containing standardised Z scores
Zi Z score of i-th person
µ Population mean
σ2 Population variance
σ Population standard deviation
s2 Sample variance
SD or s Sample standard deviation

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 Summary of Notation Used In Lecture (cont.)

Notation Meaning
Pn
i=1
Notion for summation of n values
X§] Set of observed scores from sample §]
M§] Sample mean calculated on sample §]
H0 Null hypothesis (one to be nullified)
Tobs Observed test statistic value from data
θobs Generic notation for single observed sample statistic
θH0 Generic notation for population parameter
σSE Generic notation for standard error of any sample statistic

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