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Comprehension of Mathematical Relationships Expressed in Graphs

Author(s): Frances R. Curcio


Source: Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, Vol. 18, No. 5 (Nov., 1987), pp.
382-393
Published by: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/749086
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Journal for Research in Mathematics Education
1987, Vol. 18, No. 5, 382-393

COMPREHENSION OF MATHEMATICAL
RELATIONSHIPS EXPRESSED IN GRAPHS

FRANCES R. CURCIO,
Queens College of the City University of New York

In this study, the schema-theoretic perspective of understanding general discourse was


extended to include graph comprehension. Fourth graders (n = 204) and seventh
graders (n = 185) were given a prior-knowledge inventory, a graph test, and the SRA
Reading and Mathematics Achievement Tests during four testing sessions. The unique
predictors of graph comprehension for Grade 4 included reading achievement, mathe-
matics achievement, and prior knowledge of the topic, mathematical content, and form
of the graph. The unique predictors for Grade 7 were the same except that prior
knowledge of topic and graphical form were not included. The results suggest that
children should be involved in graphing activities to build and expand relevant schemata
needed for comprehension.

Processing information in our highly technological society is becoming


more and more dependent upon a reader's ability to comprehend graphs.
Although a literal reading of data presented in graphical form is an impor-
tant component of graph-reading ability, the maximum potential of the
graph is actualized when the reader is capable of interpreting and general-
izing from the data presented (Kirk, Eggen, & Kauchak, 1980). The results
of the Third National Assessment of Educational Progress indicated that 9-
and 13-year-olds have difficulty with high-level thinking skills such as in-
terpreting graphs and drawing conclusions (Lindquist, Carpenter, Silver, &
Matthews, 1983).
The advent of a new cognitive perspective for explaining reading com-
prehension-schema theory (Adams & Collins, 1977; Smith-Burke,
1979)-may reveal some of the reasons students experience difficulty with
reading graphs. Although an extensive amount of research analyzing com-
prehension of story-structured material has been done, how other types of
text are processed has not received much attention and should be examined
(Kintsch, 1977; Sticht, 1977). An exploration of how schema theory is
related to reading mathematics (Silver, 1979) and mathematical understand-
ing (Greeno, 1978) is warranted.

This study was supported by grants from the National Institute of Education (Grant
No. NIE-G-80-0093) and St. Francis College. It is based on the author's doctoral
dissertation, completed at New York University in 1981 under the direction of Ed-
ward M. Carroll. Thanks are due to M. Trika Smith-Burke and Robert G. Malgady,
New York University, and Stephen M. Kosslyn, Harvard University, for their com-
ments on an earlier version. Also, thanks to the anonymous reviewers for their
suggestions.

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383

SCHEMA-THEORETIC FRAMEWORK

A knowledge of the topic, content, and form of general discourse depen


upon the amount of previous meaningful exposure to the topic, cont
and form of the discourse the reader has had. This exposure contribut
the development, revision, modification, and editing of related schema
The topic of general discourse is usually identified by its title and as
the reader in retrieving from memory relevant familiar information per
ing to the passage to aid in comprehension (Bransford & Johnson, 1
Sjogren & Timpson, 1979). The topic of a graph, which is identified by
title, labels on axes, and key vocabulary words used in the title and la
may be one of the factors that requires prior knowledge for comprehend
the mathematical relationships expressed in the graph (Culbertson & P
ers, 1959; Harper & Otto, 1934; Washburne, 1927).
The content of text material is the relationship between words and idea
the familiarity of which allows the reader to recognize, for example, a ca
effect relationship (Pearson & Johnson, 1978). The mathematical cont
of a graph, which is the number concepts, relationships, and fundam
operations contained in it, is a second factor about which prior know
seems to be necessary for comprehension (Goetsch, 1936; Thomas, 1
Vernon, 1952).
The form of a reading passage is its structure or framework, which
ploys certain conventions. Knowledge about these conventions allows
reader to make predictions and impose certain expectations about the
(Royer & Cunningham, 1978). The form or type of graph, such as a
graph, bar graph, pictograph, or circle graph, appears to be a third f
about which prior knowledge is necessary (Janvier, 1978; MacDonald-R
1977). (For an extensive discussion of topic, content, and form, see Cu
1981a, 1981b.)
The purpose of this study was to extend the schema-theoretic perspecti
of understanding general discourse to graph comprehension by exami
the effect of prior knowledge on the ability to comprehend the mathema
relationships expressed in graphs. Because reading achievement and m
ematics achievement are general predictors of success in school-rela
tasks, these were also examined to determine whether prior knowle
contributes significantly to the ability to comprehend graphs over and ab
the contribution of reading and mathematics achievement.
The study focused attention on the performance of fourth and sev
graders. By the fourth grade, most of the elementary work with gr
should have been accomplished, and children should have achieved a su
cient command of reading and arithmetic skills, the tools of learning
essary for reading graphs (Strickland, 1938/1972). By the seventh gra
expected that growth and achievement in graph-reading ability would
occurred (Bamberger, 1942), and any sex-related differences would be
ifested (Armstrong, 1975; Callahan & Glennon, 1975; Fennema, 1

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384 Graph Comprehension

1977; Maccoby, 1966; Suydam &


were also examined to determine
when confronting graphical mater
The research questions were as
1. Is prior knowledge of topic, m
related to comprehending the m
graphs independent of mathemat
2. What is the optimal linear c
matics achievement, and prior kno
and of graphical form in predic
relationships expressed in graphs
3. Is sex related to comprehendi
in graphs?

METHOD

Subjects
The sample, restricted to native speakers of English, consisted of 204
fourth graders (101 boys and 103 girls) and 185 seventh graders (102 boys
and 83 girls) from four elementary schools, two junior high schools, and
one K-8 school located in a stable, middle-class community in 1 of the 32
New York City School Districts. Native English-speaking children were
selected so that inability with language would not be a confounding factor.
The superintendent and principals expressed interest and granted permis-
sion for the study to be conducted in their schools. As required by the public
schools, parents gave written consent for their children to participate in the
study.

Variables

Graph comprehension was measured by a researcher-designed Graph Test


composed of twelve graphs: three bar graphs, three circle graphs, three line
graphs, and three pictographs. Six multiple-choice items were constructed
for each graph. The six items reflected three tasks of comprehension: two
questions were literal items (requiring a literal reading of the data, title, or
axis label); two questions were comparison items (requiring comparisons
and the use of mathematical concepts and skills to "read between the data");
and two questions were extension items (requiring an extension, prediction,
or inference to "read beyond the data"). One of the graphs with its six
comprehension questions is presented in Figure 1. (For a detailed description
of test construction and the instruments used in the study, see Curcio,
1981a, 1981b.)
Prior to the study, the reliability of the Graph Test was estimated. Seventy-
five fourth graders and 67 seventh graders from a K-8 school in the school
district of the main study were given the test in the spring of 1980. All the

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386 Graph Comprehension

children were native speakers of


were obtained.

Prior knowledge was measured by a researcher-designed Prior Knowledge


Inventory, consisting of three subtests (Topic, Mathematical Content, and
Graphical Form). The inventory was designed to match the topic, mathe-
matical content, and graphical form of each of the twelve graphs. Items that
match the graph in Figure 1 can be found in Table 1.
Prior to the study, the reliability of the Prior Knowledge Inventory was
estimated. Sixty-seven fourth graders from the K-8 school in the district
were given the inventory during the spring of 1980. A KR-20 reliability
coefficient of .97 was obtained. The subtests (Topic, Mathematical Content,
and Graphical Form) had reliabilities of .93, .97, and .93. Seventy-three
seventh graders were given the same test and a KR-20 reliability coefficient
of .96 was obtained. The subtests had KR-20 reliabilities of .90, .95, and
.86.

Reading and mathematics achievement were measured by Level D and


Level F (for fourth and seventh grades, respectively) of the Reading and
Mathematics tests of the SRA Achievement Series (Naslund, Thorpe, &
Lefever, 1978).
Sex was measured by a dichotomous variable (0 for boys; 1 for girls).

Procedure

Nineteen seniors in a college teacher-training program were recruited and


trained as test proctors. Each had completed a course in tests and measure-
ments and attended one orientation session to insure that uniform testing
conditions and procedures were followed.
During the fall of 1980, each of the four tests was administered by the
proctors during one of four testing sessions. Data on sex and native-English-
speaking status were collected on the cover sheet of the Prior Knowledge
Inventory, the first test given.

Data Analysis
Correlational and multiple regression analyses were computed by grade.
To avoid having the results confounded with other cognitive components
(S. M. Kosslyn, personal communication, 21 January 1981), second-order
partial correlations were computed to determine the unique contribution of
prior knowledge of topic, of mathematical content, and of graphical form
to graph comprehension, partialing out reading and mathematics achieve-
ment. First-order partial correlations of graph comprehension with reading
and mathematics achievement, controlling for mathematics and reading
achievement, respectively, were also computed. These coefficients can be
found in Curcio (1981a, 1981b).

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Frances R. Curcio 387

Table 1
Sample Items From the Prior Knowledge Inventory

Prior Knowledge of Topic


1. What does "height" mean in the following sentence?
In school today, the teacher measured Tommy's height.
a. How much Tommy weighs
b. How old Tommy is
c. How smart Tommy is
d. How tall Tommy is
2. How can we determine who is the tallest in the class?
a. By eating a lot of food
b. By sleeping the most
c. By standing next to one another
d. By dressing properly
Prior Knowledge of Mathematical Content
3. Which of the following is a correct statement?
a. 1 centimeter is greater than 1 inch
b. 1 inch is less than 1 centimeter
c. 1 inch equals 1 centimeter
d. 1 centimeter is less than 1 inch
4. 105 - 85=
a. 20
b. 25
c. 80
d. 190

Prior Knowledge of Graphical Form


Use the following picture to answer questions 5 and 6:

100-

25-T

A B C D

5. Which repre
a. A
b. B
c. C
d. D

6. What amount does C represent?


a. 0
b. 75
c. 100
d. 125

Sex, reading achievement, and mathematics achievement were controlled


in the regression analysis to determine whether prior knowledge contributed
to the prediction of graph comprehension independently of any of the pre-
viously entered measures. After sex had been entered, reading and mathe-

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3 8 8 Graph Comprehension

matics achievement were entered se


bution of each. Then, because the
support entering one of the varia
together. Before the three compone
as a set, each component was ente
contribution.

RESULTS

The means and standard deviations for raw-score data of the variables
by grade are reported in Table 2. As expected, the seventh graders, being
older and, in general, having had more experiences to build and expand a
knowledge base, outperformed the fourth graders on the researcher-de-
signed tests. Because different levels of the SRA Achievement Series (i.e.,
Levels D and F) were administered and raw scores used in the analysis, no
comments can be made to compare reading and mathematics achievement
across the grades.
Table 2
Means and Standard Deviations for All Variables by Grade
Grade 4 Grade 7
(n = 204) (n = 185)
Variable M SD M SD

Topic 27.80 10.33 39.41 5.54


Content 34.68 14.00 51.42 6.31
Form 16.14 5.97 21.91 3.48
Reading achievement 40.61 9.45 53.58 14.66
Mathematics achievement 47.35 13.18 34.09 11.74
Graph comprehension 30.73 11.07 41.38 11.28

Relation of Prior Knowledge to Comprehension


The second-order partial correlations controlling for read
ematics achievement are given in Table 3. For Grade 4, even
and mathematics achievement were partialed out, the corre
the remaining independent variables and graph comprehension
icant (p < .01). For Grade 7, the correlations were significa
topic and content but not form.
Table 3
Second-Order Partial Correlations for Grade 4 (n = 204) and Grade 7 (n = 185)
Controlling for Reading and Mathematics Achievement

Graph
Variables Topic Content Form comprehension

Topic - .03 .15* .23**


Content .31** - .21** .38**
Form .18* .14 -.24**
Graph comprehension .15* .34** .11
Note. Entries above the diagonal are for Grade 4.
*p < .05.
**p < .01.

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Frances R. Curcio 389

Prediction of Compreh
The results of the reg
4 and Table 5 for Gr
mathematics achievemen
tasks, account for the g
sion. As Equations 2 and
accounted for by read
mathematics achievement.

Table 4
Regression Analysis With Graph Comprehension as the Dependent Variable,
Grade 4

Variables
Equation in equation R2 AR 2 df F

1 1 .000 (1,202) 0.098


2 1,2 .491 .491 (2,201) 96.856*
3 1,3 .454 .454 (2,201) 83.472*
4 1,2,3 .598 .598 (3,200) 99.153*
5 1,2,3,4 .618 .020 (4,199) 80.569*
6 1,2,3,5 .656 .058 (4,199) 95.039*
7 1,2,3,6 .620 .022 (4,199) 81.172*
8 1,2,3,4,5,6 .681 .083 (6,197) 70.129*
Note. Code for variables: 1 = sex; 2 = reading achievement; 3 = m
4 = topic; 5 = content; 6 = form.
*p < .01.

Table 5
Regression Analysis With Graph Comprehension as the Dependent Variable,
Grade 7

Variables
Equation in equation R2 AR 2 df F
1 1 .022 (1,183) 4.173*
2 1,2 .474 .452 (2,182) 81.951**
3 1,3 .478 .456 (2,182) 83.198**
4 1,2,3 .600 .578 (3,181) 90.311**
5 1,2,3,4 .608 .008 (4,180) 69.905**
6 1,2,3,5 .644 .044 (4,180) 81.564**
7 1,2,3,6 .604 .004 (4,180) 68.758**
8 1,2,3,4,5,6 .647 .047 (6,178) 54.359**
Note. Code for variables: 1 = sex; 2 = reading achievement; 3 = math
4 = topic; 5 = content; 6 = form.
* p < .05.
**p < .01.

When each of the three aspects of prior knowledge (topic, content, and
form) was entered (see Equations 5, 6, and 7 in Tables 4 and 5), although
the contribution to the variance was small, it was significant (p < .01) in
each case.
To determine the optimal linear combination of sex, reading and math-
ematics achievement, and prior knowledge of topic, of mathematical con-
tent, and of graphical form in predicting graph comprehension, the beta
weights for each grade were calculated (see Table 6). Predictors of graph

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390 Graph Comprehension

comprehension for Grade 4 inclu


graph comprehension for Gra
achievement and prior knowledg

Table 6
Variables in the Graph Comprehension Regression Equations at
Grades 4 and 7

Grade 4 Grade 7

Variable Beta F(1,197) Beta F(1,178)


Sexa -0.05 1.49 0.01 0.03
Mathematics
achievement 0.21 14.13** 0.30 21.67**
Reading
achievement 0.29 23.76** 0.33 23.32**
Topic 0.17 9.25** 0.04 0.30
Content 0.26 28.53** 0.26 17.95**
Form 0.11 3.98** 0.05 0.78

aBoys = 0; girls = 1.
*p < .05.
**p < .01.

Relation between Sex and Comprehension


Table 7 contains the zero-order partial correlations for both grades. Fo
Grade 4, correlations between sex and the other variables were low and n
significant. Although the correlations between sex and the achievement and
comprehension variables for Grade 7 were significant (p < .05), they wer
very low.

Table 7
Zero-Order Partial Correlations for Grade 4 (n = 204) and Grade 7 (n = 185)
Reading Mathematics Graph
Variables Sexa Topic Content Form achievement achievement comprehension
Sexa - .00 .09 .00 .10 .09 .02
Topic .11 - .37** .53** .65** .55** .63**
Content .06 .54** - .48** .43** .52** .61*
Form .01 .45** .39** - .60** .58** .62**
Reading
achievement .16* .70** .50** .47** - .58** .70*
Mathematics
achievement .23* .46** .62** .40** .58** - .67*
Graph
comprehension .15* .57** .65** .44** .69** .69** -
Note. Entries above the diagonal are for Grade 4.
aBoys = 0; girls = 1.
*p < .05.
**p < .001.

DISCUSSION

The results of this study support previous research indicating tha


are no significant sex-related differences with respect to graph com

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Frances R. Curcio 391

sion (Peterson & Schram


the lack of sex-related d
to the construction of th
types. The possibility th
school-related tasks that
gested by some research
The salience of the three
comprehension seems to
pected, seventh graders ap
topics and graph forms
failure of topic and form
hension at Grade 7. It is
had a greater need for
aspects of a graph, whic
knowledge of mathemat
stract and embedded wi
three aspects of prior kn
Elementary school child
world" data to construct
aged to verbalize the re
lected data (e.g., larger t
this way, the application
students' concept develo
matics schemata they ne
tionships expressed in g
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Frances R. Curcio 393

Suydam, M. N., & Riedesel


elementary school mathem
(ERIC Document Reprodu
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AUTHOR

FRANCES R. CURCIO, Assistant Professor, School of Education, Queens College of


University of New York, Flushing, NY 11367

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