Professional Documents
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around the world as a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar, stucco, and non-
minerals in a kiln to form clinker, grinding the clinker, and adding small
The most common, called ordinary Portland cement (OPC), is grey in colour,
but white Portland cement is also available. Its name is derived from its
patent for it in 1824. However his son William Aspdin is regarded as the
due to his
developments in the
1840s.
HISTORY OF PORTLAND CEMENT
A long time back, people in the ancient history needed shelters and various
structures for protection. In order to have these things, they need to have
something that would help them to bind crushed stones and bricks so that
their structures would not fall, and at this moment, the people of ancient
Egypt have discovered using cementing materials by using calcined impure
gypsum.
As time passes by, the Greeks and Romans have discovered the use of
calcined impure gypsum and use it to combine it with lime, water, sand and
crushed stone, brick or broken tiles and from then on, the first concrete in
One time, the Romans did a construction under water in Pozuoli. They found
out that the lime mortar does not harden when used under water. So, to be
able to continue their construction, the Romans tried to find an alternative to
lime and fortunately, they found out that when the mix together lime and
volcanic ash (which contains active silica and alumina), they react together,
forming a cementitious material that is known as Pozzolanic cement, getting
its name from where they got the volcanic ash from.
The Middle Ages came and structures are continuously improving but the
quality of cement still stays the same, and the decline in the quality of
cement started to decrease. John Smeaton, who was born in 1756, was asked
to rebuild the Eddystone Lighthouse and he found out that he could improve
the quality of cement by rising the Pozzolana with limestone with some
clayey matter and for this, John Smeaton came into understanding the
chemical properties of a hydraulic lime.
From then on, Portland cement was widely used in the construction industry,
even now, and because of this, Joseph Aspdin was named as the “Father of
Modern Cement”.
IMAGE: [FROM LEFT] John Smeaton, James Parker and Joseph Aspdin
MANUFACTURE OF PORTLAND CEMENT
There are four stages in the manufacture of Portland cement:
(4) grinding the burned product, known as “clinker,” together with some 5
percent of gypsum (to control the time of set of the cement).
The three processes of manufacture are known as the wet, dry, and semidry
processes and are so termed when the raw materials are ground wet and fed
to the kiln as a slurry, ground dry and fed as a dry powder, or ground dry and
then moistened to form nodules that are fed to the kiln.
CRUSHING AND GRINDING
All except soft materials are first crushed, often in two stages, and then
ground, usually in a rotating, cylindrical ball, or tube mills containing a
charge of steel grinding balls. This grinding is done wet or dry, depending on
the process in use, but for dry grinding the raw materials first may need to
be dried in cylindrical, rotary dryers.
Soft materials are broken down by vigorous stirring with water in wash
mills, producing a fine slurry, which is passed through screens to remove
oversize particles.
BLENDING
BURNING
The earliest kilns in which cement was burned in batches were bottle
kilns, followed by chamber kilns and then by continuous shaft kilns. The shaft
kiln in a modernized form is still used in some countries, but the dominant
means of burning is the rotary kiln. These kilns—up to 200 metres (660 feet)
long and six metres in diameter in wet process plants but shorter for the dry
process—consist of a steel, cylindrical shell lined with refractory materials.
They rotate slowly on an axis that is inclined a few degrees to the horizontal.
The raw material feed, introduced at the upper end, moves slowly down the
kiln to the lower, or firing, end. The fuel for firing may be pulverized coal, oil,
or natural gas injected through a pipe.
GRINDING
The clinker and the required amount of gypsum are ground to a fine
powder in horizontal mills similar to those used for grinding the raw
materials. The material may pass straight through the mill (open-circuit
grinding), or coarser material may be separated from the ground product and
returned to the mill for further grinding (closed-circuit grinding). Sometimes
a small amount of a grinding aid is added to the feed material. For air-
entraining cements (discussed in the following section) the addition of an air-
entraining agent is similarly made.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
THE PRINCIPAL
MINERAL
COMPOUNDS IN FORMULA NAME SYMBOL
PORTLAND
CEMENT
Tricalcium
(CaO)3 · SiO2 Alite C3S
Silicate
dicalcium (CaO)3 · SiO2
Belite C2S
Silicate C3S
Tricalcium
(CaO)3 · Al2O3 Celite C3A
Aluminate
Tetracalcium (CaO)4 · Al2O3 ·
Felite C4AF
Aluminoferrite Fe2O3
FINENESS OF CEMENT
The heat of hydration is the heat generated when water and Portland
cement react. Heat of hydration is most influenced by the proportion of C 3S
and C3A in the cement, but is also influenced by water-cement
ratio, fineness and curing temperature. As each one of these factors is
increased, heat of hydration increases. In large mass concrete structures
such as gravity dams, hydration heat is produced significantly faster than it
can be dissipated (especially in the center of large concrete masses), which
can create high temperatures in the center of these large concrete masses
that, in turn, may cause undesirable stresses as the concrete cools to
ambient temperature. Conversely, the heat of hydration can help maintain
favorable curing temperatures during winter (PCA, 1988).
SIGNIFICANCE:
o FINENESS OF CEMENT
SOUNDNESS TEST
The testing of soundness of cement to ensure that the cement does not
show any appreciable subsequent expansion is of prime importance
which could result in a disruption of the hardened cement paste
(namely the cement paste, once it has set, does not undergo a large
change in volume).
1- Le Chatelier Test
Le Chatelier apparatus consists of a small brass cylinder split
along its generatrix. Two indicators with pointed ends are attached to
the cylinder on either side of the split; in this manner, the widening of
the split, caused by the expansion of cement, is greatly magnified and
can easily be measured.
CEMENT STRENGTH
The compressive strength of hardened cement is the most
important of all the properties for structural use. The strength of
mortar or concrete depends on the cohesion of the cement paste, and
its adhesion to the aggregate particles and to a certain extend on the
strength of the aggregate itself. The last factor is not considered at this
stage, and is eliminated in tests on the quality of cement by the use of
standard aggregates.
a- Direct compression
b- Direct tension
c- Flexure
FINENESS OF CEMENT
The heat of hydration is the heat generated when water and Portland
cement react. Heat of hydration is most influenced by the proportion of C 3S
and C3A in the cement, but is also influenced by water-cement
ratio, fineness and curing temperature. As each one of these factors is
increased, heat of hydration increases. In large mass concrete structures
such as gravity dams, hydration heat is produced significantly faster than it
can be dissipated (especially in the center of large concrete masses), which
can create high temperatures in the center of these large concrete masses
that, in turn, may cause undesirable stresses as the concrete cools to
ambient temperature. Conversely, the heat of hydration can help maintain
favorable curing temperatures during winter (PCA, 1988).
SIGNIFICANCE:
Main Compounds C3S and C2S - are the most important compounds -
responsible for strength.
1- Sieve Method
2- By determination of specific surface (total surface area of all the
particles in one gram of cement by air-permeability
apparatus).cm2/gm or m2/kg.
o SOUNDNESS TEST
The testing of soundness of cement to ensure that the cement does not
show any appreciable subsequent expansion is of prime importance
which could result in a disruption of the hardened cement paste
(namely the cement paste, once it has set, does not undergo a large
change in volume).
1- Le Chatelier Test
Le Chatelier apparatus consists of a small brass cylinder split
along its generatrix. Two indicators with pointed ends are attached to
the cylinder on either side of the split; in this manner, the widening of
the split, caused by the expansion of cement, is greatly magnified and
can easily be measured.
o CEMENT STRENGTH
The compressive strength of hardened cement is the most
important of all the properties for structural use. The strength of
mortar or concrete depends on the cohesion of the cement paste, and
its adhesion to the aggregate particles and to a certain extend on the
strength of the aggregate itself. The last factor is not considered at this
stage, and is eliminated in tests on the quality of cement by the use of
standard aggregates.
a- Direct compression
b- Direct tension
c- Flexure
CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS
OF DIFFERENT TYPES
PART 1: CATEGORIZATION OF MATERIALS
Mineral Component
3. CEM III (Blast furnace cement) - Portland cement and higher proportions of
blast furnace slag than in a CEM II cement
Concrete made with BFC sets more slowly than concrete made with
ordinary Portland cement, but also continues to gain strength over a longer
period in production conditions. This results in lower heat of hydration and
lower temperature rises, and makes avoiding cold joints easier.
Metakaolin
Silica fume
Fly ash
Slag
5. Sulfate-resisting cement
It is more resistant than ordinary Portland cement to the action of
mineralized water containing sulfates. It also has lower heat of hydration and
slower hardening. Moderate and High sulfate resistant cements are used in
situations where concrete is exposed to soils high in sulfate content. For
example, slabs on the ground, pipe, and concrete posts.
8. Supersulfated cement
It is highly resistant to sea water and can withstand the highest
concentrations of sulfates normally found in soil or ground water, and is also
resistant to peaty acids and to oils. It has to be stored in a very dry condition
otherwise, it deteriorates rapidly.
9. Pozzolanas
One of the common materials classified as cementitious, It is a natural
or artificial material containing silica without any cementitious value but
when in powdered form it reacts with calcium hydroxide to form compounds
which possess cementitious properties.
Fly ash
Pozzolanic cements
11. Fillers
A filler is a very finely-ground material, of about the same fineness as
Portland cement, which, owing to its physical properties, has a beneficial
effect on some properties of concrete, such as workability, density,
permeability, capillarity, bleeding, or cracking tendency. Fillers are usually
chemically inert but there is no disadvantage if they have some hydraulic
properties or if they enter into harmless reactions with the products of
reaction in the hydrated cement paste.
Other cements
AGGREGATES
Aggregates are the most mined materials in the world. Aggregates are
a component of composite materials such as concrete and asphalt concrete.
It serves as reinforcement to add strength to the overall composite material.
Aggregate, in building and construction is made up of different minerals.
The aggregate gives volume, stability to the finished product.
Sedimentary Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks
Under high heat and pressure by the alterations of either igneous rocks or
sedimentary rocks
Fine aggregates include the particles that all passes through 4.75mm sieve
and retain on 0.075mm sieve.
2.0mm –
Coarse Sand
0.5mm
0.5mm –
Medium sand
0.25mm
0.25mm –
Fine sand
0.06mm
0.06mm –
Silt
0.002mm
Clay <0.002
Coarse Aggregate
Boulders >256mm
5. ACCORDING TO SHAPE
Rounded Aggregate
Irregular Aggregate
Flaky Aggregate
When the aggregate thickness is small when compared with width and
length of that aggregate it is said to be flaky aggregate. Or in the other,
when the least dimension of aggregate is less than the 60% of its mean
dimension then it is said to be flaky aggregate.
Elongated Aggregate
(a) Sand and Gravel: The source of sand and gravel are river beds, stream
deposits etc. The aggregates are the results of the weathering of bedrock
and subsequent transportation and deposition of the material by water or
ice.
Nowadays the availability of natural sand is becoming limited in a certain
region of the world. Somewhere due to soil erosion, the sand contains a
large amount of silt and clay, making it almost unusable.
CHARACTERISTICS OF AGGREGATES
The size and shape of the aggregate particles greatly influence the
quantity of cement required in concrete mix and hence ultimately economy
of concrete.
SURFACE TEXTURE
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
BULK DENSITY
1. Degree of compaction
2. Grading of aggregates
All moisture conditions are expressed in terms of oven dry unit weight.
Moisture conditions of aggregates:
DELETERIOUS MATERIALS
Organic impurities
Salt contamination
BULKING OF SAND
SOUNDNESS
Admixtures
Over decades, attempts have been made to obtain concrete with certain
desired characteristics such as high compressive strength, high workability,
and high performance and durability parameters to meet the requirement of
complexity of modern structures. The properties commonly modified are the
heat of hydration, accelerate or retard setting time, workability, water
reduction, dispersion and air-entrainment, impermeability and durability
factors.
Types of Admixtures
Mineral admixtures - Fly-ash Blast-furnace slag, Silica fume and Rice husk
Ash etc
Chemical admixtures
Actions involved:
1. Dispersion:
Surface active agents alter the physic chemical forces at the interface. They
are adsorbed on the cement particles, giving them a negative charge which
leads to repulsion between the particles. Electrostatic forces are developed
causing disintegration and the free water become available for workability.
2. Lubrication:
As these agents are organic by nature, thus they lubricate the mix reducing
the friction and increasing the workability.
3. Retardation:
A thin layer is formed over the cement particles protecting them from
hydration and increasing the setting time. Most normal plasticizers give
some retardation, 30–90 minutes
2. Super Plasticizers:
These are more recent and more effective type of water reducing admixtures
also known as high range water reducer. The main benefits of super
plasticizers can be summarized as follows:
Increased fluidity:
Flowing
Self-leveling
Self-compacting concrete
Typically give 20–35%+ water reduction. They are relatively expensive per
liter but are very powerful so a lower dose (or more dilute solution) is
normally used.
In general the dosage levels are usually higher than with conventional water
reducers, and the possible undesirable side effects are reduced because they
do not markedly lower the surface tension of the water.
3. Accelerators:
Reduce the time for the mix to change from the plastic to the hardened
state. Set accelerators have relatively limited use, mainly to produce an
early set.
2. Hardening Accelerators,
Which increase the strength at 24 hours by at least 120% at 20ºC and at 5ºC
by at least 130% at 48 hours. Hardening accelerators find use where early
stripping of shuttering or very early access to pavements is required. They
are often used in combination with a high range water reducer, especially in
cold conditions. Calcium chloride is the most effective accelerator and gives
both set and hardening characteristics. However, is limited due to
acceleration of corrosion of steel reinforcement and decrease resistance of
cement paste in a sulfate environment. For this reason, it should not be used
in concrete where any steel will be embedded but may be used in plain
unreinforced concrete. Chloride-free accelerators are typically based on salts
of nitrate, nitrite, formate and thiocyanate. Hardening accelerators are often
based on high range water reducers, sometimes blended with one of these
salts.
4. Set Retarders:
Mineral Admixtures
1. Cementitious
2. Pozzolanic
A pozzolan is a material which, when combined with calcium hydroxide
(lime), exhibits cementitious properties. Pozzolans are commonly used as an
addition (the technical term is "cement extender") to Portland cement
concrete mixtures to increase the long-term strength and other material
properties of Portland cement concrete and in some cases reduce the
material cost of concrete. Examples are
Fly ash
Silica Fume
Metakaolin
Pozzolanic Action:
1. Filler
2. Nucleating
3. Pozzolanic
1. Filler:
2. Nucleating:
These fine particles accelerate the rate of hydration and precipitation starts.
3. Pozzolanic:
When cementing material reacts with water the following reaction take
place:
C2S + H CSH + CH
C3S + H CSH + CH
CSH is responsible for strength while CH is a soluble material reacts and
dissolves in water leaving behind pores. So when admixture is added
Benefits:
1. Durability
4. Appearance
6. Strength
4. Fly Ash:
5. Silica Fume
The terms condensed silica fume, microsilica, silica fume and volatilized
silica are often used to describe the by-products extracted from the exhaust
gases of silicon, ferrosilicon and other metal alloy furnaces. However, the
terms microsilica and silica fume are used to describe those condensed silica
fumes that are of high quality, for use in the cement and concrete industry.
Silica fume was first ‘obtained’ in Norway, in 1947, when environmental
restraints made the filtering of the exhaust gases from the furnaces
compulsory. Silica Fume consists of very fine particles with a surface area
ranging from 60,000 to 150,000 ft²/lb or 13,000 to 30,000 m²/kg, with
particles approximately 100 times smaller than the average cement particle.
Because of its extreme fineness and high silica content, Silica Fume is a
highly effective pozzolanic material. Silica Fume is used in concrete to
improve its properties. It has been found that Silica Fume improves
compressive strength, bond strength, and abrasion resistance; reduces
permeability of concrete to chloride ions; and therefore helps in protecting
reinforcing steel from corrosion, especially in chloride-rich environments such
as coastal regions.
I. INTRODUCTION
CEMENT AGGREGATE
WATER
Water is the key ingredient, which when mixed with cement, forms a
paste that binds the aggregate together. The water causes the hardening
of concrete through a process called hydration. The water needs to be
pure in order to prevent side reactions from occurring which may weaken
the concrete or otherwise interfere with the hydration process. Too much
water reduces concrete strength, while too little will make the concrete
unworkable.
IMPORTANT INFLUENCES OF WATER
Workability of Concrete
What is Workability?
Mix Proportions
Size of Aggregates
Grading of Aggregates
Use of Admixtures
Time
Temperature
Water Content
It is the most important factor of workability. Workability increases with the
increase of water content (measured in kg or liter per cubic meter
of concrete). We can express the relation in terms of water cement ratio. If
the water-cement ratio is small, it indicates high amount cement which is
helpful for good strength. But the small water-cement ratio is responsible for
lower workability. If proper compaction cannot be achieved, concrete will not
be enough strong as desired. On the other hand, if the water-cement ratio is
increased, workability and compaction problem will be solved but there may
occur some other problems like bleeding and losing compressive strength.
Hence an optimum water-cement ratio has to be maintained to balance
workability and strength of concrete.
Mix Proportions
Rich concrete mix (cement content is high) is more workable because due to
sufficient cement aggregates will have proper lubrications for easy
movement which means more workability.
Size of Aggregates
Finer particles require more water for a larger surface, hence aggregate with
finer particles need more water to make it workable. On the other hand,
bigger particles have less surface area, demand less water for wetting
surface and require less amount of paste for lubricating. So bigger particles
give higher workability for fixed water content. But maximum size of
aggregate depends on some practical considerations like handling-mixing
and placing equipment, concrete section, and spacing of reinforcement.
Grading of Aggregates
Well-graded aggregates tend to fill up voids and easily get workability. Less
amount of water can make it workable. If grading is better, there will be
fewer voids and excess paste will be available to give better lubricating
effect. Due to excess paste, the mixture gets cohesive and prevent
segregation. It also makes it get compacted easily i.e. increases the
workability.
The Surface Texture of Aggregates
Aggregates with smooth surfaces are more workable than roughly textured
aggregates. Roughly textured aggregates show high friction and segregation
tendency. Besides, nonabsorbent aggregates are more workable because
porous and non-saturated aggregates demand more water than aggregates
which are nonabsorbent.
Use of Admixtures
There are some admixtures which can improve workability. Some admixtures
are mixed intentionally to increase workability and some admixtures increase
workability as a side effect of its main purpose.
Time
Fresh concrete stiffens with time and loss workability though it is not exactly
settling or getting strength at all. After mixing concrete, some water is
absorbed by aggregate, some may be lost by evaporation and some may be
spent for initial chemical reactions. The loss in workability by time depends
on various factors like:
Temperature
High temperature reduces workability and increases slump loss. Slump loss is
less influenced by temperature in stiff mixes because this type of mix is less
affected by a change in water content.
MEASUREMENT OF WORKABILITY
SLUMP TEST
Apparatus:
-Slump cone : frustum of a cone, 300 mm (12 in) of height. The base is
200 mm (8in) in -diameter and it has a smaller opening at the top of
100 mm
-Scale for measurement,
-Tamping rod(steel) 15mm diameter, 60cm length.
Types Of Slump
The slumped concrete takes various shapes, and according to the
profile of slumped concrete, the slump is termed as;
Collapse Slump
Shear Slump
True Slump
Apparatus:
-Trowels
-Hand Scoop (15.2 cm long)
-Rod of steel or other suitable material (1.6 cm diameter, 61 cm
long rounded at one end ).
-Balance.
VEBE TEST
Apparatus:
-Cylindrical container with diameter = 240 mm, and height =
200 mm
-Mold: the same mold used in the slump test.
-Disc : A transparent horizontal disc attached to a rod which
slides vertically
-Vibrating Table : 380*260 mm, supported by four rubber shock
absorbers
-Tamping Rod
-Stop watch
Apparatus:
-Base plate of size at least 900 × 900 mm
-Abrams cone with the internal upper/lower diameter equal to
100/200 mm and the height of 300 mm
-Weight ring (>9 kg) for keeping Abrams cone in place during
sample filling
-Stopwatch
-Ruler (graduated in mm)
-Bucket with a capacity of larger than 6 liters
Moist sponge or towel for wetting the inner surface of the cone
S = dmas + dperp
2
NASSER’S K TESTER
Segregation
Concrete Bleeding
MIXING OF CONCRETE
MIXING OF CONCRETE
HAND MIXING
CONCRETE MIXERS
2. CONTINUOUS MIXER
READY-MIXED CONCRETE
CONCRETE PUMPS
TYPES:
KEY POINTS:
USES/ADVANTAGES:
2 PROCESSES:
USES/ADVANTAGES/ DISADVANTAGES:
UNDERWATER CONCRETE
I. INTRODUCTION
UNDERWATER CONCRETE
1. Workability Requirements
Under water concrete must flow laterally and
compact itself under its own buoyant weight, while
conventional concrete is compacted with mechanical
vibration.
2. Mix Proportion
Due to its special site conditions and peculiar
placement methods, underwater concrete mixes must be
further refined to meet the special requirement
TREMIE
COMPONENTS OF TREMIE
PREPLACED AGGREGATE
concrete is concrete that is made by forcing into the
voids of a mass of clean, graded coarse aggregate densely
pre-packed in formwork.
Used as:
Massive reinforcement steel and embedded items
are present
Underwater repairs
Concrete and masonry repair
USES
1. Mass construction
Cooling can be achieved by circulating refrigerated
water round the aggregate and thus chilling it.
At the other extreme, in cold weather when frost
damage is feared, steam can be circulated in order to pre-
heat the aggregate.
VIBRATION OF CONCRETE
ADVANTAGES OF VIBRATION
1. Reduces the internal friction by randomizing concrete.
2. It is an economical way to compact the concrete with the
less water cement ratio.
3. Congestion of the reinforcement
4. Inaccessibility of concrete in formwork.
5. Poor shape and texture of aggregates
TYPES OF VIBRATORS
1.INTERNAL VIBRATOR
2.EXTERNAL VIBRATORS
USE:
for precast or thin in situ sections of such shape or
thickness that an internal vibrator cannot be conveniently
used. These vibrators are effective for concrete sections up
to 600 mm (24 in.) thick.
3.VIBRATING TABLES
USE:
Vibrating tables are used for compacting stiff and
harsh mixes used in precast structural members in factories
and laboratory specimens. It also provides a reliable means
of compaction of precast concrete and has the advantage of
offering uniform treatment.
Other Vibrators
4.SURFACE VIBRATOR
Also called SCREED or PAN VIBRATORS.
Applies vibration through a flat plate direct to the top
surface of the concrete. They are effective only if depth of
concrete is up to 20 cm.
5.ELECTRIC HAMMER
Can be used as a surface vibrator when fitted with a
bit having a large flat area.Application: in compacting test
cubes
6.VIBRATING ROLLER
Is used for consolidating thin slabs.
Revibration
Is delayed application of vibration to concrete which
has placed and compacted already.
This condition arises where concrete is placing in layers for a
relatively deep member. Where first layer is vibrated and
may have hardened partially and application of vibration is
transmitted to the underlying layer. In some cases this is
done intentionally. On the basis of experimental results, it
appears that concrete can be successfully revibrated up to
about 4hours from the time of mixing provided the vibrator
will sink under its own weight into the concrete.
PROCEDURE:
1. Cover the fully compacted and accurately leveled
slab with fine filter pads which prevent the removal of
cement together with the water.
2. When filter sheets are moved to an adjoining area,
place them to abut but not overlap the area just dewatered.
3. If dewatering equipment with a flexible top suction
mat is being used, place the rolled-up mat centrally on the
area to be dewatered and then roll it out flat so that it
covers the filter sheets and projects an extra 150 millimeters
all around onto the fresh concrete.
4. Connect the hose from the mat to the vacuum pump
and start the suction.
5. Keep the suction at the amount of vacuum
recommended by the manufacturer of the equipment for
about one and one-half minutes for each 10 millimeter of
slab thickness.
6. Just before stopping the vacuum pump, break the
suction on the concrete by lifting the edge of the top suction
mat for a few seconds.
7. After the suction is shut off remove the mat and
filters. A man can stand on this surface immediately.
8. Continue with additional placing and leveling of
concrete while an area is being dewatered so that good
construction progress is maintained.
ADVANTAGES:
1. The amount of water removed would be equal to the
contraction in the total volume of concrete and no voids
would be produced.
2. A higher degree of consolidation is achieved.
3. Vacuum-dewatering can be used over a fairly wide
range of aggregate/cement ratios and aggregate grading.
4. Vacuum-dewatered concrete stiffens very rapidly so
that formwork can be removed within about 30 minutes of
casting.
5. It bonds well to old concrete and can be used for
resurfacing road slabs and in other repair work.
STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
Water - Cement Ratio - the ratio of the amount of water to the amount of
cement used (both by weight)
The more the w/c ratio is increased (that is, the more water that is
added for a fixed amount of cement), the more the strength of the resulting
concrete is reduced. This is mostly because adding more water creates a
diluted paste that is weaker and more susceptible to cracking and shrinkage.
Shrinkage leads to micro-cracks, which are zones of weakness. Once the
fresh concrete is placed, excess water is squeezed out of the paste by the
weight of the aggregate and the cement paste itself. When there is a large
excess of water, that water bleeds out onto the surface. The micro channels
and passages that were created inside the concrete to allow that water to
flow become weak zones and micro-cracks.
Both the above processes (of the escape of additional water) result in
voids in the concrete. And the development of voids always reduces its
strength. Hence an attempt is made to keep the “Water Cement Ratio” as
low as possible to obtain a strong, dense concrete-mix. Any extra amount of
water added to concrete ingredients at the time of mixing also cause
segregation of aggregates during transport and placement. This is another
defect of extra water added to concrete-mix.
For a given cement and acceptable aggregates, the strength that may
be developed by a workable, properly placed mixture of cement, aggregates,
and water (under the same mixing, curing, and testing conditions) is
influenced by the:
a.) Ratio of Cement to Mixing Water
b.) Ratio of Cement to Aggregate
c.) Grading, Surface Texture, Shape, Strength, and Stiffness of
Aggregate Particles
d.) Maximum size of aggregates
e.) Weather Condition
Porosity - can be defined as the total volume of the overall volume of the
pores larger than the gel pores, expressed as a percentage of the overall
volume of the cement paste.
The reasons for this behaviour are not clear. In certain cases, some
water may be absorbed by the aggregate: a larger amount of aggregate
absorbs a greater quantity of water, the effective water/cement ratio being
thus reduced. In other cases, a higher aggregate content would lead to lower
shrinkage and lower bleeding, and therefore to less damage to the bond
between the aggregate and the cement paste; likewise, the thermal changes
caused by the heat of hydration of cement would be smaller.
It is arguable that a shorter period than 28 days could be used for the
characterization of strength, but the age of 28 days seems to have acquired
an immutable position. Thus, compliance with the specification is almost
invariably laid down in terms of the 28-day strength. If, for some reason, the
28-day strength is to be estimated from the strength determined at an
earlier age, say 7 days, then the relation between the 28-day and the 7-day
strengths has to be established experimentally for the given mix.
HARDENED CONCRETE
CURING OF CONCRETE
Curing is the name given to procedures used for promoting the
hydration of cement, and consists of a control of temperature and of the
moisture movement from and into the concrete.
In the case of site concrete, active curing stops nearly always before
the maximum possible hydration has taken place.
Importance of Curing
Methods of curing
AUTOGENOUS HEALING
Fine cracks in fractured concrete, if allowed to close without tangential
displacement, will heal completely under moist conditions-- this is known as
autogenous healing,
Failure will, however, take place only above a certain limiting value of
σh, known as fatigue limit or endurance limit.
IMPACT STRENGTH
Dahms’
For the same compressive strength, the impact strength is greater for
coarse aggregate of greater angularity and surface roughness.
ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES
1. Sound absorption
Figure 1 Diagrammatic
representation of the stress–
strain relation for
In compression tests, a small concave- up
part of the curve at the beginning of loading is sometimes encountered; this
is due to the closing of pre-existing fine shrinkage cracks. From the figure, it
can be seen that the term Young’s modulus of elasticity can, strictly
speaking, be applied only to the straight part of the stress–strain curve, or,
when no straight portion is present, to the tangent to the curve at the origin.
This is the initial tangent modulus, but it is of limited practical importance.
The magnitude of the observed strains and the curvature of the stress–
strain relation depend, at least in part, on the rate of application of stress.
Because the precise shape of the entire stress–strain curve for concrete is
not a property of the material per se but depends on the test arrangements,
there is little of fundamental importance in formulating an equation for the
stress–strain relation.
Where ε = strain
σ = stress
3. Poisson’s Ratio
When a uniaxial load is applied to a concrete specimen it produces a
longitudinal strain in the direction of the applied load and, at the same time,
a lateral strain of opposite sign. The ratio of the lateral strain to the
longitudinal strain is called Poisson’s ratio; the sign of the ratio is ignored.
Water can also be lost by evaporation from the surface of the concrete while
it is still in the plastic state. A similar loss can occur by suction by the
underlying dry concrete or soil. This contraction is known as plastic shrinkage
because the concrete is still in the plastic state. The magnitude of plastic
shrinkage is affected by the amount of water lost from the surface of the
concrete, which is influenced by temperature, ambient relative humidity, and
wind velocity. However, the rate of loss of water per se does not predict
plastic shrinkage; much depends on the rigidity of the mix. If the amount of
water lost per unit area exceeds the amount of water brought to the surface
by bleeding and is large, surface cracking can occur. This is known as plastic
shrinkage cracking. Complete prevention of evaporation immediately after
casting eliminates cracking.
Figure 4 Plastic Shrinkage of Neat Cement Paste Stored in Air at a Relative Humidity of 50 per cent
and Temperature of 20 °C (68 °F)
5. Autogenous shrinkage
Volume changes occur also after setting has taken place, and may be in the
form of shrinkage or swelling. Continued hydration, when a supply of water is
present, leads to expansion but, when no moisture movement to or from the
cement paste is permitted, shrinkage occurs. This shrinkage is the
consequence of withdraw- al of water from the capillary pores by the
hydration of the hitherto unhydrated cement, a process known as self-
desiccation.
6. Swelling
Swelling is larger in sea water and also under high pressure; such conditions
exist in deep sea- water structures. At a pressure of 10 MPa (which
corresponds to a depth of 100 m), the magnitude of swelling after 3 years
can be about eight times higher than at atmospheric pressure. Swelling
which entails movement of sea water into concrete has implications for the
ingress of chlorides into concrete
7. Drying Shrinkage
Mechanism of Shrinkage
The change in the volume of drying concrete is not equal to the volume of
water removed. The loss of free water, which takes place first, causes little or
no shrinkage. As drying continues, adsorbed water is removed and the
change in the volume of unrestrained hydrated cement paste at that stage is
equal approximately to the loss of a water layer one molecule thick from the
surface of all gel particles. Since the ‘thickness’ of a water molecule is about
1 per cent of the gel particle size, a linear change in dimensions of cement
paste on complete drying would be expected to be of the order of 10 000 ×
10–6; values up to 4000 × 10–6 have actually been observed.
In concrete specimens, the loss of water with time depends on the size of
specimen. A generalized pattern of loss of water with distance from the
drying surfaces was developed by Mensi et al. on the assumption that the
rate of diffusion of vapor is proportional to the square root of time elapsed.
8. Factors influencing shrinkage
Shrinkage takes place over long periods: some movement has been
observed even after 28 years, but a part of the long-term shrinkage is likely
to be due to carbonation. The rate of shrinkage decreases rapidly with time.
9. Prediction of shrinkage
where
st = shrinkage after t days since the end of 7-day moist
curing
sult = ultimate shrinkage, and
t = time in days since the end of moist curing
Moisture loss takes place only at the surface so that a moisture gradient is
established in the concrete specimen, which is thus subjected to differential
shrinkage. The potential shrinkage is compensated by the strains due to
internal stresses, tensile near the surface and compressive in the core.
It may be useful to point out that the values of shrinkage generally quoted
are those of free shrinkage, or potential shrinkage, that is, contraction
unrestrained either internally or by external constraints on a structural member.
The progress of shrinkage extends gradually from the drying surface into the
interior of the concrete but does so only extremely slowly.
Fig. 9.19. Progress of shrinkage with time as a function of distance from
drying surface (no drying possible in other directions). (Shrinkage values
corrected for temperature differences)
The observed shrinkage decreases with an increase in the size of the specimen
but, above some value, the size effect is small initially, although pronounced later.
The shape of the specimen also appears to enter the picture but, as a first
approximation, shrinkage can be expressed as a function of the volume/surface
ratio of the specimen. Furthermore, the ratio is linearly related to the logarithm of
time required for half the shrinkage to be achieved.
Fig. 9.20. Relation between axial shrinkage and width of concrete prisms of
square cross-section and length/width ratio of 4 (drying allowed at all
surfaces)
Cracking can be avoided only if the stress induced by the free shrinkage strain,
reduced by creep, is at all times smaller than the tensile strength of the concrete.
Furthermore, the creep relief decreases with age so that the cracking
tendency becomes greater. A minor practical point is that, if the cracks due
to restrained shrinkage form at an early stage, and moisture subsequently
has access to the crack, many of the cracks will become closed by
autogenous healing.
Fig. 9.22. Schematic pattern of crack development when tensile stress due to
restrained shrinkage is relieved by creep
One of the most important factors in cracking is the water/cement ratio of the
mix because its increase tends to increase shrinkage and, at the same time, to
reduce the strength of the concrete. An increase in the cement content also
increases shrinkage and, therefore, the cracking tendency, but the effect on
strength is positive. This applies to drying shrinkage.
The three types of expansive cement recognized by ACI 223R-939.91 and by ASTM
C 845-04, are:
CREEP
4. Other influences
-temperature
-deformation
-torsion
The apparatus of Fig. 1 can be used for accelerated creep tests by immersion
in water at a temperature of between 45 and 65 °C. As mentioned earlier, a
higher temperature leads to a higher creep so that, after 7 days, any
difference between an unknown concrete and a reference concrete can be
easily detected. This accelerated creep appears to Fig. 1 A simple test rig for the
be linearly related to the 100-day creep at normal determination of creep of concrete
under an approximately constant stress.
temperature for a wide range of mixes and
aggregates, as shown in Fig. 2.
Creep continues for a very long time, if not
indefinitely, the longest determination to
date indicating that a small increase in
creep takes place after as long as 30 years
(Fig. 2); the tests were then discontinued
because of interference by carbonation of
the specimens. The rate of creep decreases,
however, at a continuous rate, and it is
generally assumed that creep tends to a
limiting value after an infinite time under
load; this has not, however, been proved.
t
c=
a+bt
When t = ∞, then c = 1/b, i.e. 1/b is the limiting value of creep. The symbols
a and b represent
constants determined from
experimental results: by plotting t/c
against t, a straight line of slope
b is obtained, and the intercept of the t/c axis is equal to a. The straight line
should be drawn so
as to pass through the points at later ages, there being generally some
deviation from the straight
line during the early period after the application of the load.
ACI 209R-92 uses a modified Ross expression, the main difference being the
application of a power exponent of 0.6 to time t. ACI 209R-92 also offers
values of coefficients to allow for various factors influencing creep.
The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, which has made an extensive study of creep
of concrete in dams, where only basic creep occurs, has found that creep can
be represented by an expression of the type
Sometimes, values of creep per unit stress are given, usually in units of 10–6
per MPa; this is
known as specific creep or unit creep. Creep can also be expressed as a ratio
of creep to the initial
elastic deformation; this ratio is known as creep coefficient or characteristic
creep. The merit of
this approach is that it takes into account the elastic properties of aggregate,
which influence
creep and the elastic deformation of concrete in a similar manner.
All embracing, but complex, expressions for creep have been developed by
Bažant and coworkers, who published also a somewhat simplified, but not
simple, version of creep prediction expressions.
NATURE OF CREEP
From Fig. 9.30, it is apparent that creep and creep recovery are related
phenomena, but their nature is far from clear. The fact that creep is partly
reversible suggests that it may consist of a partly reversible visco-elastic
movement (consisting of a purely viscous phase and a purely elastic phase)
and possibly also a non-reversible plastic deformation.
Type of
Instantaneo Time-
deformatio
us dependent
n
Delayed-
Reversible Elastic
elastic
Irreversibl
Plastic set Viscous
e
Fig. 5. Comparison of measured and computed strains on the basis of McHenry’s principle of superposition
recovery is generally impeded by the progressive hydration of the cement.
Because the properties of old concrete change only very little with age, creep
of concrete subjected to sustained loading at the age of several years would
be expected to be fully reversible, but this has not been verified
experimentally. It should be noted that the principle of superposition leads to
a tolerable error under mass-curing conditions, i.e. when only basic creep
occurs. When drying creep is present, the error is large in that the creep
recovery is grossly overestimated.
Because creep can take place in mass concrete, it follows that seepage of
water to the outside of concrete is not essential to the progress of basic
creep, although such a process may well take place in drying creep.
However, internal seepage of water from the adsorbed layers to voids such
as capillary voids is possible. An indirect evidence of the role of such voids is
given by the relation between creep and the strength of the hydrated
cement paste: it would appear that creep is a function of the relative amount
of the unfilled space, and it can be speculated that it is the voids in the gel
that govern both strength and creep; in the latter case, the voids may be
related to seepage. The volume of voids is, of course, a function of the
water/cement ratio and is affected by the degree of hydration.
We should remember that capillary voids do not remain full even against full
hydrostatic pressure of a water bath. Thus, internal seepage is possible
under any storage conditions. The fact that creep of non-shrinking specimens
is independent of the ambient relative humidity would indicate that the
fundamental cause of creep ‘in air’ and ‘in water’ is the same.
The creep–time curve shows a definite decrease in its slope, and the
question arises whether this signifies a change, possibly a gradual one, in the
mechanism of creep. It is conceivable that the slope decreases with the
same mechanism continuing throughout, but it is reasonable to imagine that,
after many years under load, the thickness of the adsorbed water layers
could be reduced so far that no further reduction can take place under the
same stress, and yet creep after as many as 30 years has been recorded. It
is, therefore, probable that the slow, long-term part of creep is due to causes
other than seepage but the deformation can develop only in the presence of
some evaporable water. This would suggest viscous flow or sliding between
the gel particles. Such mechanisms are compatible with the influence of
temperature on creep, and can explain also the largely irreversible character
of long term creep.
Having said all this, we have to admit that the exact mechanism of creep
remains uncertain.
EFFECTS OF CREEP
Creep affects strains and deflections and often also stress distribution, but
the effects vary with
the type of structure.
Creep of plain concrete does not per se affect the strength, although under
very high stresses creep hastens the approach of the limiting strain at which
failure takes place; this applies only when the sustained load is above 85 or
90 per cent of the rapidly applied static ultimate load. Under a low sustained
stress, the volume of concrete decreases (as the creep Poisson’s ratio is less
than 0.5) and this would be expected to increase the strength of the
concrete. However, this effect is probably small.
The loss of prestress due to creep is well known and, indeed, accounts for
the failure of the original attempts at prestressing.
The effects of creep may thus be harmful but, on the whole, creep, unlike
shrinkage, is beneficial in relieving stress concentrations and has contributed
very considerably to the success of concrete as a structural material.
Rational design methods allowing for creep in various types of structures
have been developed.
Introduction
Causes of deterioration:
There are three fluids principally relevant to durability which can enter
concrete: water, pure or carrying aggressive ions, carbon dioxide and
oxygen. They can move through the concrete in different ways, but all
transport depends primarily on the structure of the hydrated cement paste.
The movement of the various fluids through concrete takes place not only by
flow through the porous system but also by diffusion and sorption, so that
our concern is really with penetrability of concrete.
Absorption
The volume of pore space in concrete, as distinct from the ease with
which a fluid can penetrate it, is measured by absorption; the two quantities
are not necessarily related. Absorption is usually measured by drying a
specimen to a constant mass, immersing it in water, and measuring the
increase in mass as a percentage of dry mass.
One reason for this variation in the values of absorption is that, at one
extreme, drying at ordinary temperature may be ineffective in removing all
the water; on the other hand, drying at high temperatures may remove some
of the combined water. Absorption cannot, therefore, be used as a measure
of quality of concrete, but most good concretes have absorption well below
10 per cent by mass.
Sorptivity
Air, some gases, and water vapor can penetrate into concrete and can
greatly affect its durability. In this case the process is called diffusion, where
gas molecules moves into pervious part of the concrete. Theoretically, the
intrinsic permeability coefficient of a given concrete should be the same
regardless of whether a gas or a liquid is used in the tests. However, gases
yield a higher value of the coefficient because of the phenomenon of gas
slippage; this means that, at the flow boundary, the gas has a finite velocity.
Curing and moisture content are the main factors which affect the concrete’s
air permeability.
Carbonation
Carbonation is the result of the dissolution of carbon dioxide
.with the presence of moisture to hydrated cement. This action of
carbon dioxide can takes place even at small concentrations.
Rate of carbonation
Measurement of Carbonation
Concrete can be attacked by liquids with a pH value below 6.5 but the
attack is severe only at a pH below 5.5; below 4.5, the attack is very severe.
A concentration of CO2 of 30 to 60 ppm results in a severe attack, and above
60 ppm results in a very severe attack.
Acid rain, which consists mainly of sulfuric acid and nitric acid and has a pH
value between 4.0 and 4.5, may cause surface weathering of exposed
concrete.
Sulfuric acid is particularly aggressive because, in addition to the sulfate
attack of the aluminate phase, acid attack on Ca(OH)2 and C-S-H takes
place.
Solid salts do not attack concrete but, when present in solution, they
can react with hydrated cement paste. Particularly common are sulfates of
sodium, potassium, magnesium, and calcium which occur in soil or in
groundwater.
3CaO.Al2O3.3CaSO4.32H2O.
Mechanisms of Attack
The attack occurs only when the concentration of the sulfates exceeds
a certain threshold. Above that, the rate of sulfate attack increases with an
increase in the strength of the solution, but beyond a concentration of about
0.5 per cent of MgSO4 or 1 per cent of Na2SO4 the rate of increase in the
intensity of the attack becomes smaller.10.7 A saturated solution of MgSO4
leads to serious deterioration of concrete, although with a low water/cement
ratio this takes place only after 2 to 3 years
EFFLORESCENCE
- Freeze-thaw attack
- Salt weathering
- By ice
- SALT WEATHERING
Preventive measures
Abrasion of concrete
The properties of the concrete in the surface zone are strongly affected
by the finishing operations, which may reduce the water/cement ratio and
improve compaction. The presence of laitance must be avoided. Particularly
good curing is of importance; it is desirable to have a period of curing twice if
normal to achieve good resistance to abrasion.
Erosion resistance
Cavitation resistance
Types of cracking
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
This measures the ability of the material to conduct heat and is defined
as the ratio of the flux of heat to temperature gradient. Thermal conductivity
is measured in joules per second per square metre of area of body when the
temperature difference is 1°C per metre of thickness of the body (Btu per
hour per sq. ft when temperature difference is 1 °F per ft of thickness). The
conductivity of ordinary concrete depends on its composition and, when the
concrete is saturated, the conductivity ranges generally. Density does not
appreciably affect the conductivity of ordinary concrete but, due to the low
conductivity of air, the thermal conductivity of lightweight concrete varies
with its density. Typical values of conductivity are listed in Table 8.1.
Conductivity is little
affected by temperature in the
region of room temperature. At
higher temperatures, the
variation in conductivity is
complex. Thermal conductivity is usually calculated from the diffusivity, the
latter being easier to measure, but a direct determination of conductivity is
of course possible. However, the method of test may affect the value
obtained. For instance, the steady-state methods (hot plate and hot box)
yield the same thermal conductivity for dry concrete, but give too low a
value for moist concrete because the temperature gradient causes migration
of moisture. For this reason, it is preferable to determine the conductivity of
moist concrete by transient methods; the hot wire test has been found
successful.
THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY
From this expression, it can be seen that conductivity and diffusivity vary in
step. Because of this direct relation, diffusivity is affected by the moisture
content of the concrete, which depends on the original water content of the
mix, degree of hydration of cement, and exposure to drying.
SPECIFIC HEAT
CONCRETING
ON HOT AND COLD WEATHER
1. Frost Heaving
- An upward movement of the subgrade resulting from the expansion of
accumulated soil moisture as it freezes.
2. Thaw Weakening
- A weakened subgrade condition resulting from soil saturation as ice
within the soil melts.
Frost Heave
Additional factors which will affect the degree of frost susceptibility (or ability
of a soil to heave):
2. Temperature gradient
Thaw Weakening
Thawing is essentially the melting of ice contained within the subgrade. As
the ice melts and turns to liquid it cannot drain out of the soil fast enough
and thus the subgrade becomes substantially weaker (less stiff) and tends to
lose bearing capacity. Therefore, loading that would not normally damage a
given pavement may be quite detrimental during thaw periods (e.g., spring
thaw
Sources of Water
The two basic forms of frost action (frost heave and thawing) both require
water. Water sources can be separated into two broad categories:
AIR ENTRAINED:
The air voids provide empty spaces within the concrete that act as reservoirs
for the freezing water, relieving pressure and preventing damage to
the concrete. Entrained air is produced during mechanical mixing
of concrete that contains an air-entraining admixture.
(a) salts of fatty acids derived from animal and vegetable fats and oils (beef
tallow being an example of this group)
Entrained-air requirements
From the requirement of a maximum spacing of air voids, it is possible to
calculate the minimum volume of entrained air in the hardened cement
paste. For each mix, there is a minimum volume of voids required. Klieger
found this volume to correspond to 9 percent of the volume of mortar. As the
volume of hardened cement paste, in which alone the air is entrained, varies
with the richness of the mix, the air content of concrete which is required
depends on the mix
Table 11.1. Air Content Required for a Void Spacing of 250μm (0.01 in.)
Typical values of the amount of air required for 250 μm (0.01 in.) spacing for
different mixes are given in Table 11.1, based on Powers’ results. A higher
specific surface, which corresponds to smaller bubbles, is desirable so as to
minimize the adverse effect of the air in concrete on its strength. Table 11.1
indicates that, for a particular value of the specific surface of the air voids,
richer mixes require a greater volume of entrained air than lean ones.
However, the richer the mix, the greater the specific surface of the voids for
a given air content.
Procedure A
-requires both thawing and freezing to take place in water
Procedure B
-freezing takes place in air, while thawing takes place in water.
It’s not reliable in causes of internal failure because the result depends on
the size and when the damage takes place at the surface of the specimen.
Some cases, failure is due to unsound aggregate.
Dilation of concrete
When concrete is subjected to slow freezing, the testing method prescribe by
ASTM should be conducted, which is ASTM C 671-94.
This shows that the commonly used agents and NaCl and Cacl 2. It
produces osmotic pressure and cause movement of water toward the top
layer where freezing takes place and where hydraulic pressure is developed.
The damage cause by de-icing agents is primarily physical and not chemical,
it depends whether the de-icer used is organic or not, or salt or not. There’s
also a possible filtration of Ca(OH)2 that has greater solubility in a chloride
solution compared to water. Chloroluminates are also possible to form under
wetting and drying. Mather suggested a sequence where as more ice melts,
the melt water becomes diluted until it’s freezing point rises to near the
freezing point of water so freezing occurs again. Therefore, freezing and
thawing occurs as often as without the use of de-icing agent because
potentially insulating layer of ice has been destroyed. As being said, de-icing
agents increases the saturation which may also increase the number of the
cycle. Thus, when concrete is exposed to relatively low concentrations of
salts the greatest damage can possibly occur.
CHLORIDES ATTACK
INGRESS OF CHLORIDE.
De-icing salts
Sea water in contact with concrete
Fine droplets of sea water or airborne dust
1. Quality of Concrete
Concrete consists of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, cement and
water. The right quality of materials with proper w/c ratio, correct mixing,
adequate compaction by tamping or vibration and proper curing results in
good quality concrete. if any of the above mentioned steps are not done in a
specified manner, then that will result in a not so good concrete and there is
a chance of corrosion of reinforcement.
3. Condition of Reinforcement
The surface condition of the steel reinforcement, at the time of its
placing in concrete, affects its corrosion rate. If the reinforcement is
contaminated with salt or badly corroded, the corrosive action on
reinforcement after placement in concrete is promoted rapidly.
5. Porosity of Concrete
The penetration of aggressive chemicals is possible due to
permeability or porosity of concrete. the porosity of concrete depends on
size, distribution and continuity of capillary pores. This depends upon the w/c
ratio for given degree of hydration. The porosity also depends upon other
factors, such as:
Age of concrete
Degree of compactness
The size and grading of aggregate
Type of cement
The first defense against rebar corrosion should be a thick covering of dense,
highly impermeable concrete. To produce this, minimize the water-cement
ratio and consolidate and cure the concrete well.
1. NONCHLORIDE ACCELERATORS
The American Concrete Institute (ACI) claims that calcium chloride
can contribute to corrosion. Because of this, ACI 318 now recommends
limits on chloride ion content.
2. CATHODIC PROTECTION
Cathodic protection stops corrosion by reversing the
electrochemical process that causes corrosion.
3. SEALERS
There are several products available: epoxy coatings; acrylic
sealers; silane sprays; and linseed oil emulsions.
TYPES OF MIXES
1. Nominal Mixes
In the past the specifications for concrete prescribed the proportions of
cement, fine and coarse aggregates. These mixes of fixed cement-aggregate
ratio which ensures adequate strength are termed nominal mixes. These
offer simplicity and under normal circumstances, have a margin of strength
above that specified. However, due to the variability of mix ingredients the
nominal concrete for a given workability varies widely in strength
1. Compressive strength
2. Workability
6. Quality Control
GOALS:
• Maximize strength
• = minimize water
• = control bleeding & segregation
• Reduce Cost
• = use largest gravel possible for the job
• = minimize paste requirement
• Provide good durability
• = use well graded aggregates
• = maximize void packing
• = reduced segregation
• Cement
• Sand
• Coarse aggregate
• Water
• Air
MATERIAL VALUES & CONSTANTS NEEDED FOR DESIGN:
SG Cement = 3.15
The standard ACI mix design procedure can be divided up into 8 basic
steps:
1. Choice of slump
2. Maximum aggregate size selection
3. Mixing water and air content selection
4. Water-cement ratio
5. Cement content
6. Coarse aggregate content
7. Fine aggregate content
8. Adjustments for aggregate moisture
ACI Limits:
Aggregate weights.
PORTLAND CEMENT
CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS
PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES
ADMIXTURES
Admixtures when added in small quantities make the hydration process much
more complex. Organic admixtures are widely used in concrete and mortar for
several decades to modify the properties of cement products. Cement is the main
binding component of the concrete and the process of hydration proceeds in a very
complex manner. Inspite of a large number of research work the mechanism of
cement hydration is still not fully understood. The hydration of cement involves
series of reactions, which mainly depend on the cement composition, the water /
cement ratio, surface area, particle size distribution, temperature and admixtures.
FRESH CONCRETE
During analysis of strength results for concrete from some new constructions, it was
noticed that strength in structural members was much lower than that specified
even when the cube results were mostly satisfactory, Possible factors namely
compaction and curing affecting results of strength were discussed in an earlier
paper. The effect of aggregates, wet or dry. was also discussed in an earlier paper
,In view of some resent observations it Is thought appropriate to 'discuss the
problems connected with the temperature of concrete in some details in present
Paper
As soon as water conies in contact with cement. hydration reaction starts at the
surface of cement particles and lot of heat is librated being an exothermic reaction
(heat of hydration of cement). Initially the rate of reaction and corresponding rate of
heat liberation is very high for few minutes, and then reduces considerably. The
amount of heat generated in the short period. depends on the chemical composition
and the fineness of cement, Cement with higher proportions of tricalcium aluminate
and tricalcium silicate would have higher heat of hydration and also higher rate of
reaction and as such higher rate of heat liberation
FRESH CONCRETE (PART II)
STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
In terms of both manpower and material resources, are commonly implemented to
design new concrete mixtures and assure their consistent performance in meeting a
specified target strength value. The observation that “the strength of the concrete
increases in direct proportion to the increase in number of cement particles in a unit
of water” could be easily extended to hypothesize that strength development over
time would be directly proportional to the volume of hydration products produced
per unit volume of mixing water. Because porosity is the key parameter regulating
strength in cement-based materials, the generally linear relationship between heat
release and porosity filled during hydration allows for the development of a linear
relationship between strength and cumulative heat release, when the latter is
properly normalized per unit volume of water initially present in the mixture.
While conventional strength testing had indicated that this relationship holds
for testing, continuous ultrasonic measurements have indicated that the
relationship is valid from about 8 hour onward for the pastes examined in the
present study. These results imply that either ultrasonic measurements or
calorimetry could be employed to monitor strength development for quality
control/assurance purposes. Each brand of cement had its own straight-line relation
between the strength and the cement-water ratio of the concrete.
HARDENED CONCRETE
DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
Based on current design practice and current knowledge, future research and
development needs are discussed, focusing on the influences of constituent
materials, deterioration prevention methods, service life modelling of reinforced
concrete. It is not difficult to recognize or to acknowledge the significant changes
that have taken place in the field of concrete durability. This period has seen an
enormous growth in our understanding of the mechanisms and processes of
deterioration, the ways in which to protect concrete against early deterioration and
the effective utilization of concrete-making materials that will enhance durability.