INTRODUCTION/ THEORY

Palm oil or also known as Elaeis Guineensis is one of the major contributors to the
Malaysia economic growths. Basically, crude palm oil is obtained from the fresh fruit bunches
(FFB) that undergo processing in the plant mills, sterilization in large pressure vessels,
stripping in rotating drum which is called Stripper, then undergo extraction process in a
homogenous oil mush. Next it is experience purification in a clarification tank and finally
producing the crude palm oil. After that, this crude palm oil (CPO) is into the refining process
[1]
.

Figure 1: Elaeis Guineensis

There are two types of refining processes, physical refining and chemical refining. For the
physical refining, in producing the refined oil, this CPO is then processed through three stages,
degumming, bleaching and deodorization. This refining process will produce either the Palm
Fatty Acid Distillates (PFAD) or Refined Bleached Deodorized Palm Oil (RBDPO). While
different for the chemical refining, there are four stages which includes too the alkali
neutralization stages. This chemical refining is producing the Neutralized Bleached
Deodorized Palm Oil (NBDPO) [2].

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 Figure 2: Two types refining process

For this Physical Refining of Crude Palm Oil experiment, as mention above, three stages
are used. In degumming, fatty acid and the gum in the CPO is being separate from each other
with other impurities such as the copper, iron, and the trace minerals by the application of
phosphoric acid. Furthermore, in bleaching the oil is then mix with bleaching earth (bentonite
calcium) to remove the impurities and the colour pigments in the palm oil. Lastly in the
deodorization, the taste and the odour are removed when the oil is steamed at high temperature
of between 240⁰C to 260⁰C and then being cooled to room temperature [3].

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RESULTS AND ANALYSIS (with calculation)

TABLE OF DATA

1. Free Fatty Acids analysis

Table 1: Result for FFA analysis (CPO)

Volume of standard
Mass of test sample, m
Crude palm oil (CPO) NaOH or KOH used, V FFA value (%)
(g)
(mL)
Sample 1 13.5 5.00 6.912
Sample 2 8.6 5.50 4.003
Sample 3 8.4 6.00 3.584
Average 4.833
Mean, x 4.833
Standard deviation, ơ 1.4799

Table 2: Result for FFA analysis (RBDPO)

Refined Bleached Volume of standard

Mass of test sample, m
Deodorized Palm Oil NaOH or KOH used, V FFA value (%)
(g)
(RBDPO) (mL)
Sample 1 0.9 5.00 0.4608
Sample 2 0.9 5.50 0.4189
Sample 3 0.9 6.00 0.3840
Average 0.4212
Mean, x 0.4212
Standard deviation, ơ 0.0328

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 2. Moisture Content analysis
Table 3: Result for moisture content analysis (CPO)

Mass of dish + Moisture

Crude palm oil Mass of dish + sample
Mass of dish, m (g) sample before content (%)
(CPO) after drying, md (g))
drying, mb (g)
Sample 1 49.25 59.12 59.105 0.1520
Sample 2 49.25 59.15 59.135 0.1510
Sample 3 49.20 59.20 59.170 0.0030
Average 0.1020
Mean, x 0.1020
Standard deviation, ơ 0.0700

Table 4: Result for moisture content analysis (RBDPO)

Refined Moisture
Bleached Mass of dish + content (%)
Mass of dish, m Mass of dish + sample
Deodorized sample before
(g) after drying, md (g))
Palm Oil drying, mb (g)
(RBDPO)
Sample 1 35.40 45.47 45.40 0.6951
Sample 2 34.29 44.30 44.23 0.6993
Sample 3 34.87 44.92 44.86 0.5970
Average 0.6638
Mean, x 0.6638
Standard deviation, ơ 0.0473

According to the theory, acidity or free fatty acid (FFA) in the palm oil is calculated
as palmitic acid from the equation:

25.6 𝑥 𝑀 𝑥 𝑉
% Free Fatty Acid value =
𝑚

Where,

M is the molarity of standard NaOH or KOH solution (M)

V is the volume of the standard NaOH or KOH solution used (mL)
m is the mass of the test sample (g)

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 1. Free Fatty Acids analysis (CPO)
i. Sample 1
M= 0.1 M, V= 13.5 mL, m= 5.00 g
25.6 𝑥 𝑀 𝑥 𝑉
% Free Fatty Acid value =
𝑚

25.6 𝑥 0.1 𝑀 𝑥 13.5 𝑚𝐿

=
5.00 𝑔

= 6.912 %

ii. Sample 2
M= 0.1 M, V= 8.6 mL, m= 5.50 g
25.6 𝑥 𝑀 𝑥 𝑉
% Free Fatty Acid value =
𝑚

25.6 𝑥 0.1 𝑀 𝑥 8.6 𝑚𝐿

=
5.50 𝑔

= 4.003%
iii. Sample 3
M= 0.1 M, V= 8.4 mL, m= 6.00 g
25.6 𝑥 𝑀 𝑥 𝑉
% Free Fatty Acid value =
𝑚

25.6 𝑥 0.1 𝑀 𝑥 8.4 𝑚𝐿

=
6.00 𝑔
= 3.584 %

iv. Average % Free Fatty Acid value for Sample 1, Sample 2 and Sample 3 is
Sample1= 6.912 %, sample2= 4.003 %, sample3= 3.584 %

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 % FFA value

%FFA valueSample 1 + %FFA valueSample 2 + %FFA valueSample 3
=
3

6.912% + 4.003% + 3.584 %

=
3

= 4.833 %

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 v. Mean, x % Free Fatty Acid value for Sample 1, Sample 2 and Sample 3 is
Sample1= 6.912 %, sample2= 4.003 %, sample3= 3.584 %

𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛, 𝑥 % FFA value

%FFA valueSample 1 + %FFA valueSample 2 + %FFA valueSample 3
=
3

6.912% + 4.003 % + 3.584 %

=
3

= 4.833%

vi. Standard deviation, ơ % Free Fatty Acid value for Sample 1, Sample 2 and
Sample 3 is
Sample1= 6.912 %, sample2= 4.003%, sample3= 3.584 %
Mean, x= 4.833%
Standard deviation, ơ

(𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒1 − x)2 + (sample2 − x)2 + (sample3 − x)²

=√
𝑁

(6.912 − 4.833)2 + (4.003 − 4.833)2 + (3.584 − 4.833)²

=√
3

=1.4799 %

2. Free Fatty Acids analysis (RBDPO)

i. Sample 1
M= 0.1 M, V= 0.9 mL, m= 5.00 g
25.6 𝑥 𝑀 𝑥 𝑉
% Free Fatty Acid value =
𝑚
25.6 𝑥 0.1 𝑀 𝑥 0.9 𝑚𝐿
=
5.00 𝑔

= 0.4608 %
ii. Sample 2
M= 0.1 M, V= 0.9 mL, m= 5.50 g
25.6 𝑥 𝑀 𝑥 𝑉
% Free Fatty Acid value =
𝑚

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 25.6 𝑥 0.1 𝑀 𝑥 0.9 𝑚𝐿
=
5.50 𝑔

= 0.4189 %

iii. Sample 3
M= 0.1 M, V= 0.9 mL, m= 6.00 g
25.6 𝑥 𝑀 𝑥 𝑉
% Free Fatty Acid value =
𝑚
25.6 𝑥 0.1 𝑀 𝑥 0.9 𝑚𝐿
=
6.00 𝑔
= 0.3840 %

iv. Average % Free Fatty Acid value for Sample 1, Sample 2 and Sample 3 is
Sample1=0.4608 %, sample2= 0.4189 %, sample3= 0.3840 %

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 % FFA value

%FFA valueSample 1 + %FFA valueSample 2 + %FFA valueSample 3
=
3

0.4608 % + 0.4189 % + 0.3840 %

=
3

= 0.4212 %

v. Mean, x % Free Fatty Acid value for Sample 1, Sample 2 and Sample 3 is
Sample1= 0.4072 %, sample2= 0.4189 %, sample3= 0.3834 %

𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛, 𝑥 % FFA value

%FFA valueSample 1 + %FFA valueSample 2 + %FFA valueSample 3
=
3

0.4608 % + 0.4189 % + 0.3840%

=
3
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 = 0.4212 %

vi. Standard deviation, ơ % Free Fatty Acid value for Sample 1, Sample 2 and
Sample 3 is
Sample1= 0.4608 %, sample2= 0.4189 %, sample3= 0.3804 %
Mean, x= 0.4212%
Standard deviation, ơ

(𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒1 − x)2 + (sample2 − x)2 + (sample3 − x)²

=√
𝑁

(0.4608 − 0.4212)2 + (0.4189 − 0.4212)2 + (0.3804 − 0.4212)²

=√
3

=0.0328%

According to the theory, the moisture content can be calculated by the equation below:

𝑚𝑏−𝑚𝑑
% moisture and volatile matter = 𝑥 100 %
𝑚𝑏−𝑚
Where,

m is the mass of the dish (g)

mb is the mass of the dish and test sample (g)
md is the mass of the dish and test sample after drying (g)

3. Moisture Content analysis (CPO)

i. Sample 1
Mb= 59.12 g, md= 59.105 g, m= 49.25 g

𝑚𝑏−𝑚𝑑
% moisture and volatile matter = 𝑥 100 %
𝑚𝑏−𝑚

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 59.12 𝑔−59.105 𝑔
= 59.12 𝑔−49.25 𝑔 𝑥 100 %
= 0.152 %

ii. Sample 2
Mb= 59.15 g, md= 59.135 g, m= 49.25 g

𝑚𝑏−𝑚𝑑
% moisture and volatile matter = 𝑥 100 %
𝑚𝑏−𝑚
59.15 𝑔−59.135 𝑔
= 59.15 𝑔−49.25 𝑔 𝑥 100 %
= 0.151 %

iii. Sample 3
Mb= 59.20 g, md= 59.17 g, m= 49.20 g

𝑚𝑏−𝑚𝑑
% moisture and volatile matter = 𝑥 100 %
𝑚𝑏−𝑚
59.20 𝑔−59.17𝑔
=59.20 𝑔−49.20 𝑔 𝑥 100 %
= 0.003%

i. Average % moisture and volatile matter value for Sample 1, Sample 2 and
Sample 3 is
Sample1= 0.152 %, sample2= 0.151 %, sample3= 0.003%

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 % moisture content

%moisture content Sample 1 + %moisture content Sample 2 + %moisture content Sample 3
=
3

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 0.152 % + 0.151 % + 0.003%
=
3

= 0.102 %

ii. Mean, x % moisture and volatile matter value for Sample 1, Sample 2 and
Sample 3 is
Sample1= 0.152%, sample2= 0.151 %, sample3= 0.003 %
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛, 𝑥 % moisture content
%moisture content Sample 1 + %moisture content Sample 2 + %moisture content Sample 3
=
3

0.152 % + 0.151 % + 0.003 %

=
3

= 0.102%

iii. Standard deviation, ơ % moisture and volatile matter value for Sample 1,
Sample 2 and Sample 3 is
Sample1= 0.152 %, sample2= 0.151 %, sample3= -0.09 %
Mean, x= 0.102 %
Standard deviation, ơ

(𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒1 − x)2 + (sample2 − x)2 + (sample3 − x)²

=√
𝑁

(0.152 − 0.102)2 + (0.151 − 0.102)2 + (0.003 − 0.102)²

=√
3

= 0.070%

4. Moisture Content analysis (RBDPO)

i. Sample 1
Mb= 45.47 g, md= 45.40 g, m= 35.40 g
𝑚𝑏−𝑚𝑑
% moisture and volatile matter = 𝑥 100 %
𝑚𝑏−𝑚

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 45.47 𝑔−45.40 𝑔
=45.47 𝑔−35.40 𝑔 𝑥 100 %
= 0.6951 %

ii. Sample 2
Mb= 44.30 g, md= 44.23 g, m= 34.29 g
𝑚𝑏−𝑚𝑑
1% moisture and volatile matter = 𝑥 100 %
𝑚𝑏−𝑚
44.30 𝑔−44.23 𝑔
=44.30 𝑔−34.29 𝑔 𝑥 100 %
= 0.6993 %
iii. Sample 3
Mb= 44.92 g, md= 44.86 g, m= 34.87 g

𝑚𝑏−𝑚𝑑
% moisture and volatile matter = 𝑥 100 %
𝑚𝑏−𝑚
44.92 𝑔−44.86 𝑔
=44.92 𝑔−34.87 𝑔 𝑥 100 %
= 0.5970 %

iv. Average % moisture and volatile matter value for Sample 1, Sample 2 and
Sample 3 is
Sample1= 0.6951 %, sample2= 0.6993 %, sample3= 0.5970 %
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 % moisture content
%moisture content Sample 1 + %moisture content Sample 2 + %moisture content Sample 3
=
3

0.6951 % + 0.6993 % + 0.5970 %

=
3

= 0.6638 %

v. Mean, x % moisture and volatile matter value for Sample 1, Sample 2 and
Sample 3 is
Sample1= 0.8937 %, sample2= 0.8991 %, sample3= 0.7960 %

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𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛, 𝑥 % moisture content
%moisture content Sample 1 + %moisture content Sample 2 + %moisture content Sample 3
=
3

0.6951 % + 0.6993 % + 0.5970 %

=
3

= 0.6638 %
vi. Standard deviation, ơ % moisture and volatile matter value for Sample 1,
Sample 2 and Sample 3 is
Sample1= 0.6951 %, sample2= 0.6993 %, sample3= 0.5970 %
Mean, x= 0.6638 %
Standard deviation, ơ

(𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒1 − x)2 + (sample2 − x)2 + (sample3 − x)²

=√
𝑁

(0.6951 − 0.6638)2 + (0.6993 − 0.6638)2 + (0.5970 − 0.6638)²

=√
3

=0.0473 %

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DISCUSSION

The objectives of this experiment was to understand the principle for physical refining
of crude palm oil. The physical refining process consist of three parts such as degumming,
bleaching and deodorizing. The aim of degumming process is to remove all the undesired gums
or phosphate by treating the crude oil with the phosphoric acid. The main component inside
the gums is the phosphatides. This phosphatides will give harmful effect to crude palm oil such
as weird flavour, dark colour and also shorten the shelf life of oil. The process was run between
the temperature of 90-100 °C before it is treated with the phosphoric acid. The amount of
phosphoric acid used are measured based on the oil weight which was in range 0.05 to 0.1 %
with acid concentration between 80 - 85%.

Next, for bleaching process the degummed oil are reacted with the bleaching earth and
heated up to temperature about 90 - 120°C. In this process the bleaching agent used are about
0.2 - 2% of the weight of the oil. The bleaching agent will activated by treating it with the
sulphuric or hydrochloric acid which will cause decomposition of hydroperoxides and also
catalyses the formation of trans acid and diacylglycerols. The activated carbon will removing
the pigments and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

Moreover, the deodorizing process which was the process to remove odour. Deodorizing
process was run under temperature around 240 -260°C, vacuum presure 2mmHg to 4mmHg
and steam injection about 2.5% until 4.0% of oil weight. In this process, FFA were removed at
the upper section of deodorizer as refining waste. The carotenoids pigments, primary and
secondary oxidation products are also being removed. Then, the oil were cooled before it is
filtered and sent to storage tanks.

After that, to get the free fatty acid content of RBDPO, three samples of processed oil were
taken right after the processing was done. The samples were weighed around 5g to 6g and
added into conical flask. After that 50ml of isopropanol were added into each sample which
were then added by 0.5 ml of phenolphthalein and three drops of 0.1M of potassium hydroxide.
The samples were placed on the hot plate to regulate the temperature around 40oC. Then, the
samples were shake until a permanent pink colour appeared. Finally, the free fatty acid content
of RBDPO was calculated by using the formula given.

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 25.6 𝑥 𝑀 𝑥 𝑉
% Free Fatty Acid value = 𝑚

Other than that, to get the moisture content of RBDPO, the petri dish was dried in the oven
at 103oC for about 15 minutes and was cooled after that in the desiccators. The dish was
weighed before putting the sample and was weighed again with 10g of sample. After that, the
sample was returned to the desiccators until the oil has thoroughly cooled. Then, the sample
was placed in the oven at 103oC for 2 hours and 30 minutes. The sample was then allowed to
cool at room temperature around 45 minutes before being weighed. The process was repeated
seven times until the value was constant for the last three readings. After the process was done,
the moisture content was calculated by using the formula given.

The free fatty acid and moisture content obtained from the experiment were compared with
the standard value of refinery quality. Based on the results, for the free fatty acid the value
obtained was 0.4212% while the value of refinery quality is 0.10%. The FFA value is
depending on the temperature and the moisture content of RBDPO. The value obtained was
almost near to the standard value. However, there were some errors occurred during the
analysis of free fatty acids that resulting in differences of experimental value and standard
value. The moisture content value was 0.6638% and the standard value is 0.1%. The value is
slightly different due to the error occurred such as the petri dishes were held by hand without
glove so the moisture of the hands would affect the moisture content in the analysis.

From the result obtained, the free fatty acid (FFA) in the crude palm oil (CPO) is more
than the refined, bleached, and deodorized palm oil (RBDPO). The average value of FFA in
the CPO was 4.833% while the average value of FFA in the RBDPO was 0.4212%. It can be
conclude that, the FFA levels are actually can be affected by the bleaching earth conditions and
acidity of the adsorbent.

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 From the results obtained, the moisture content in the CPO are less than the RBDPO.
The average of moisture content in CPO was 0.1020% while the average of moisture content
in the RBDPO was 0.6638%. From the result, it can be conclude that moisture content in the
RBDPO is higher than CPO because it was affected by the degumming and bleaching processes
when phosphoric acid were added into the system. The colour of RBDPO was 50% lighter than
the original colour of raw CPO.

Furthermore, in this experiment there were several errors occur. Firstly, in moisture
analysis, the petri dishes were held by hand without glove. To avoid the moisture contents of
hands effect the moisture contents of the CPO the glove must be wore while holding the petri
dishes. Secondly, the leakage of oil at the filter of the process unit because of the filter was not
properly locked. To avoid the leakage occur, the filter must properly locked. Thirdly, electric
was tricked during the process and formed spark. To prevent the spark occur make sure that
the wire did not touching the metal pipeline. Last but not least, the oil clogged inside the
pipeline causing the oil cannot flow to the filter. The pipeline must be cleaned before run the
experiment to avoid clogging inside the pipeline.

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CONCLUSION

As conclusion, the free fatty acid (FFA) content analysis was done by three different
weighted samples that are obtained from both of raw crude palm oil (CPO), and also for the
product of Refined Bleached Deodorized Palm Oil (RBDPO) which are 5g, 5.5g and 6g. After
done some procedures for making the neutralize solution and carried out the titration, the
volumes for three sample. The result for the free fatty acid value percentage then being
calculated using formula given and obtained 4.833% as the average for raw that are higher than
the product which is 0.4212%. As comparison, the RBDPO or the product is nearly to the
standard value of refinery quality which is 0.1% than the raw or the CPO. It shown that the
bleaching earth condition and the acidity of the adsorbent that applied in the analysis were
effected the FFA values. Besides that, it clearly observe and slightly exceed from it standard
or desired quality that may due to the CPO used itself.

However, for the moisture content analysis, after done several long times procedures, it is
then calculated by using the formula given and the result obtained shows that the raw or CPO
is less than the RBDPO values. The average calculated were 0.1020% and 0.6638%
respectively. It shown that, the results were affected by the degumming and bleaching earth
processes when the phosphoric acid was added into the system. The colour shows the RBDPO
was 50% lighter than the raw CPO.

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RECOMMENDATION

There were several problems that need to overcome while conducting the experiment.
An experimenter need to have skills in conducting the experiment, this can ensure that the
experiment can be done successfully and prevent unwanted event occurred such as in the plant
the metal pipeline was touching the wire that caused spark. Next, the oil clogged inside the
pipeline cause the oil cannot passed to the filter easily. This event can be avoided by manual
stirring the oil from insert into the equipment for future process. Moreover, there are leakage
of oil at the filter. This problem can be solved by checking the filter lock to ensure it is in
properly lock. Furthermore, in the moisture analysis, petri dishes that containing the samples
cannot be hold by hand because hands have their own moisture that can effecting the samples
taken. Lastly, in the free fatty acid analysis, the burettes in the room analysis are mostly broken
and cannot be use and causes the leakage while doing the titration that need a very slowly and
precise step taken or else, the expected result cannot be obtained. An inspection to these
apparatus is needed before starting any experiment.

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REFERENCES

[1]
Palm Oil, 2016, [Online], Available from World Wide Web at :
www.etawau.com/OilPalm/PalmOil.htm [Accessed on 5th October 2017]

[2]
Palm Oil Refinery Plant and Fractionation Processing Line Machinery, 2015, Sinoder
InduTech Machinery Co. [Online], Available from World Wide Web at :
www.oilgrainmachine.com/index.php?m=content&c=index&a=show&catid=42&id=50
[Accessed on 5th October 2017]

[3]
Manufacturing- Refining into Refined, Bleached and Deodorized (RBD) palm oil and palm
kernel oil, 2017, Wilmar International Ltd.[Online], Available from World Wide Web at :
www.wilmar-international.com/our-business/tropical-oils/manufacturing/refining-into-
refined-bleached-and-deodorised-rdb-palm-oil-and-palm-kernel-oil/ [Accessed on 5th October
2017]

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