KINEMATICS OF CIRCULAR MOTION:

Circular motion is one of the most familiar motion in nature. For instance, motion of
satellites around Earth, motion of a simple pendulum (about the point of its
suspension), motion of any point of a rotating (or rolling) wheel (relative to the center
of wheel), tips of the hands of a watch (relative to the centre of the dial) etc. are few
examples of circular motion at macroscopic level.

Uniform and Non-uniform Circular motion:

If the speed of the particle P remains constant with moving in a circular path, the
motion is called “uniform circular motion.” When the speed of the particle varies with
time, we call it “non uniform circular motion.”
Motion of satellite around the earth, motion of any point of the hands of a watch etc,
are the common examples of uniform circular motion.
Motion of a simple pendulum, a swinging boy, etc, are the examples of non-uniform
circular motion because the speed of the swinging objects increases from zero to
maximum while moving from extreme to mean positions.

Angular Position:
To decide the angular position of a point in space, we need to specify (1) origin and (2)
reference line.

The angle made by the position vector w.r.t origin, with the reference line is called
angular position.
Clearly angular position depends on the choice of the origin as well as the reference
line.
Circular motion is a two-dimensional motion or motion in a plane. Suppose a particle
P is moving in a circle of radius r and centre O.
The angular positions of the particle P at a given instant may be described by the angle
 between OP and OX. This angle  is called the angular position of the particle.

Angular Displacement:
Angle through which the position vector of the moving particle rotates in a given
interval is called angular displacement. Angular displacement depends on origin, but it
does not depend on the reference line.
Important points
 Angular displacement is a dimensionless quantity. Its SI unit is radian. Some
other are degree and revolution. 2 rad  3600  1 rev
 Infinitesimally small angular displacement is a vector quantity, but finite angular
displacement is a scalar because while the addition of the infinitesimally small
angular displacement is commutative, the addition of finite angular displacement
is not.
   
d 1  d  2  d  2  d 1 but 1   2   2  1
 The direction of small angular displacement is decided by right hand thumb rule.
When the fingers are directed along the motion of the point then the thumb will
represent the direction of angular displacement.

AVERAGE ANGULAR VELOCITY:

It is defined as the total angular displacement divided by the total time taken.
Angular displacement
Or av 
Total time taken
  
 2 1
t2  t1 t
Where 1 and  2 are angular positions of the particle at time t1 and t2 , respectively.
Since angular displacement is a scalar, average angular velocity is also a scalar
quantity.

Angular speed and Angular velocity:

It is the limit of average angular velocity as t approaches zero, i.e,

  d
  lim 
t 0 t dt

When point P moves in a circular path, the angle  made by radius vector r changes
with time.
The unit of  is radian per second. If  is more, the particle turns more quickly about
O and vice-versa.
 
Since infinitesimally small angular displacement d is a vector quantity,

instantaneous angular velocity  is given by “right hand thumb rule.” The magnitude
of the angular velocity is given as angular speed.
If we wrap the fingers of the right hand in the sense of revolution (turning) of the point
P, the extended thumb will give us the direction of the angular velocity.

Angular Acceleration:
The angular acceleration of P relative to O can be given as,   d / dt
d
Where  
dt
d 2
Then,   2
dt
 
When  increases,  is directed along  ;
 
Where  decreases,  is directed opposite to  .

Radius of Curvature:

When a particle moves in a curve, it has a tangential acceleration at due to change in

its speed and it must have a radial (normal) acceleration ar because of the change in
  
the direction of its velocity. Then, the total acceleration, a  at  an , where
 
at  d v / dt and a  v 2 / R .
Any curved path can be assumed to be made of infinite circular arcs. The radius of
curvature at a point is defined as the radius of that circular are which fits at that
particular point on the curve as shown in below figure.


If we know the magnitude and direction of the total acceleration a of the particle,
  
resolving a perpendicular to the velocity of the particle, we have ar  an  a cos ,
 
where  is the angle between a and v . Substituting an  v , we have
v2
R
an
Where R is the radius of the effective circle at any instant when the particle has a
 
velocity v and acceleration a . This is known as radius of curvature of the path
followed by the particle at the given position (or time).

TANGENTIAL AND RADIAL ACCELERATION:

The linear distance PP1 travelled by the particle in time t is
sr 
s 
Or, r
t t
Or, v  r

Where v is the linear speed of the particle. Differentiating above equation with respect
to time, the rate of change of speed is
dv d
1  r
dt dt
Or, 1  r 
dv
Remember that 1  is the rate of change of speed and is not the rate of the change
dt
of velocity. It is, therefore, not equal to the net acceleration.
We shall show that 1 is the component of acceleration along the tangent and hence
we have used the suffix t. It is called the tangential acceleration.

UNIT VECTORS ALONG THE RADIUS AND THE TANGENT:

Consider a particle moving in a circle. Suppose the particle is at a point P in the circle
at a given instant. Take the centre of the circle to be the origin. A line OX as the x-axis
and a perpendicular radius OY as the Y-axis. The angular position of the particle at
this instant is  .

   

Draw a unit vector PA  er , along the outward radius and a unit vector PB  et along
 
the tangent in the direction of increasing  . We call er the radial unit vector and et
the tangential unit vector. Draw PX1 parallel to the X-axis and PY1 parallel to the Y-
axis.
From the figure,
  
PA  i PA cos  j PA sin 
  
Or, er  i cos   j sin  ……………… (i)
 
where i and j are the unit vectors along the X and Y axes respectively. Similaraly,
  
PB  i PB sin   jPB cos 
  
Or, er  i sin   j cos  ……………… (ii)

ACCELERATION IN A CIRCULAR MOTION:

Consider the situation shown in above figure, it is clear from the figure that the
position vector of the particle at time t is
  
r  OP  OPer
 
 
= r i cos  j sin  ……………… (i)
Differentiating above equation with respect to time, the velocity of the particle at time
t is

 dr d  
v   r (i cos  i sin  ) 

dt dt
  d    d  
 r i   sin    j   cos  
  dt   dt  
 
 
= r i sin   j cos ……………… (ii)

The term, r is the speed of the particle at time t and the vector in the square bracket

is the unit vector et along the tangent. Thus, the velocity of the particle at any instant
is along the tangent to the circle and its magnitude is v  r .

 dv
The acceleration of the particle at time t is a 
dt
From (ii),
 d   d   
a   i sin   j cos    i sin   j cos  
dt dt 
  d  d  d 
  r  i cos   j sin  r et
 dt dt  dt
  d  
  2 r i cos   j sin    r et
dt
 2
 dv 
  rer  r et ……………… (iii)
dt
 
Where er and et are the unit vectors along the radial and tangential directions
respectively and v is the speed of the particle at time t. We have used
d d dv
r  (r   )  .
dt dt dt

Uniform Circular Motion:

If the particle moves in the circle with a uniform speed, we call it a uniform circular
dv
motion. In this case,  0 and equation (iii) gives
dt
 
a   2 rer

Thus, the acceleration of the particle is in the direction of er , that is, towards the
centre. The magnitude of the acceleration is
ar   2 r
v2 v2
= 2 r  ……………… (iv)
r r

Thus, if a particle moves in a circle of radius r with a constant speed v, its acceleration
v2
is directed towards the centre. This acceleration is called centripetal acceleration.
r
Note that the speed remains constant, the direction continuously changes and hence the
“velocity” changes and there is an acceleration during the motion.

Non uniform Circular Motion:

If the speed of the particle moving in a circle is not constant, the acceleration has both
the radial and the tangential components. According to equation (iii), the radial and the
tangential accelerations are
ar   2 r  v 2 / r
dv
and ar  ……………………… (v)
dt
Thus, the component of the acceleration towards the centre is  2 r  v 2 / r and the
component along the tangent (along the direction of motion) is dv / dt . The magnitude
of the acceleration is
2
 v 2   dv  2
a  ar2  at2 =    
 r   dt 
The direction of this resultant acceleration makes an angle  with the radius where
2
 dv   v 
tan     /  
 dt   r 

Dynamics of Circular Motion

An external force required to make a body move along circular path with uniform
speed is called centripetal force.
Centripetal force required to move a body of mass M with uniform speed v along a
circular path of radius r is given by
Mv 2
F ……………………… (1)
r
Since v  r , the above result may be expressed as
F  M  2 r ……………………… (2)
Again, if v is frequency of revolution of the body, then
  2 v
Therefore, the equation (2) may be written as
F  4 2 Mv 2 r …………………………. (3)

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE:
It is our experience that whenever a bus takes a turn, the passengers sitting in the
bus start experiencing a force, which tries to throw them away from the centre of the
curved path. In the same manner, children sitting in a merry – go – round experience
outward force as the merry – go – round moves along the circular path.
This outward radius force experienced by an object, when in circular motion, is
called Centrifugal force.
We know that when a bus accelerates along a straight path, the passengers in the
bus experience force in backward direction and they get pressed against the back of
their seats. On the other hand, when a bus retards, the passengers experience a force in
forward direction, which makes them to fall ahead. In fact, it happens due to inertia, it
follows that the passengers in the bus experience force in a direction opposite to that in
which the velocity of the bus changes. Likewise, when a bus moves along a circular
path and its velocity changes along the radius towards the centre of the circular path,
due to inertia, the passengers experience a force along the radius but away from the
centre. Thus, the centrifugal force is due to inertial property of the material a bodies.
The magnitude of the centrifugal force acting on a body of mass M moving with
velocity v along a circular path radius r is same as that of the centripetal force required
to move the body along the circular path. Hence, the centrifugal force acting on the
body is also given by
Mv 2
F  M  2 r  4 2 Mv 2 r …………………………. (4)
r
The centrifugal force is not a real force. As el cannot identify the source, it is called a
fictitious or pseudo force. As discussed above, when the bus takes a turn, the
passengers inside the bus simply participate in rotation and experience centrifugal
force. The centrifugal force can be understood in terms of inertia but actually inertia is
not the source of this force.

SOME ILLUSTRATIONS OF CENTRIFUGAL FORCE:

The concept of centrifugal force has wide applications. Following a few of such
applications, which illustrate the utility of centrifugal force:
1. Centrifuge: It is a device used to separate lighter particles in suspension from the
more dense liquid in which they are contained. Such a mixture is poured into the
container (or tube) of the centrifuge, which is then whirled at high speed in a
horizontal circle. The lighter particles move towards the axis of rotation as explained
below.
A mass m of the dense liquid revolving at a distance r from the axis of rotation
of the centrifuge requires a centripetal force Mr 2 , where  is the angular speed of
the centrifuge. The required centripetal force is provided to his mass of the liquid by
the pressure gradient existing in the liquid. If in place of this mass of liquid, lighter
particles of mass m1 (m1 < m) are present, then the centripetal force ( mr 2 ) on the
dense liquid will be greater than then centripetal force ( m1r 2 ) on the lighter particles.
As a result, the lighter particles move towards the axis of the rotation under the effect
of the net force ( m  m1 ) r 2 . When the centrifuge is stopped, the suspension in the
container (or the tube) is found at the top and the clear liquid at the bottom.
It follows that the heavy particles in a suspension will collect at bottom of the
container of the centrifuge, leaving clear liquid at the top. On this principle,
(i). Cream is separated from the milk in cream-separators.
(ii). In sugar industries, sugar crystals are separated from the molasses.
(iii). The wet clothes are dried by dry-cleaners in the drying machines.
(iv). Centrifuges are used to separate honey from the wax
 (v). Ultra centrifuge (huge speed centrifuge) are used to separate finest particles of
the sediments from water or from even highly viscous liquids.

2. Centrifugal pump: By making use of centrifugal force, it is possible to transfer

large quantities of liquid against low back pressure. Such a device is called centrifugal
pump. These pumps are also used as exhaust fans and blowers.

3. Centrifugal governors: By making use of centrifugal force, the speed of an engine

can be automatically controlled. Such an automatic device is called speed governor.

Note: The maximum permissible speed for the vehicle is much greater than the
optimum value of the speed on a banked road. It is because, friction between road and
the tyres of the vehicle also contributes to the required centripetal force.

As the vehicle moves along the circular banked road OA, force of friction
between road and tyres of the vehicle i.e,
F  R
acts in the direction AO
The force of friction can be resolved into two components
(i).  R sin  along vertical (in downward direction) and
(ii).  R cos  along horizontal (in inward direction)

Since, there is no motion along vertical R cos  Mg   R sin  …………………. (1)

Let, vmax be the maximum permissible speed of the vehicle. The centripetal force is
now provided by the components R sin  and  Mg cos  i.e,
2
Mvmax
R sin    R cos   …………………. (2)
r
From the equation (1), we have Mg  R cos 1   tan   ……………………….. (3)
Also, from the equation (2) we have
2
Mvmax
 R cos (   tan  ) ……………………….. (4)
r
Dividing the equation (4) by (3), we have
2
vmax   tan 

gr 1   tan 
 gr    tan   
Or vmax    ……………………….. (5)
 1   tan  
The equation (5) gives the maximum permissible speed for a vehicle on a banked road.

BENDING OF A CYCLIST:
A cyclist provides himself the necessary centripetal force by leaning inward on a
horizontal track, while going round a curve. Consider a cyclist of weight M g taking a
turn of radius r with velocity v. In order to provide the necessary centripetal force, the
cyclist leans through angle  inwards as shown in below figure. The cyclist is under
the action of the following forces.
(i). The weight M g acting vertically downward at the centre of gravity of cycle and
the cyclist.
(ii). The reaction R of the ground on cyclist. It will act along a line making angle 
with the vertical.
The vertical component R cos of the normal reaction R will balance the weight at the
cyclist, while the horizontal component R sin  will provide the necessary centripetal
force to the cyclist. Thus,
R cos   M g ………………….. (6)
Mv 2
and R sin   ………………….. (7)
r
Dividing the equations (6) by (7), we have
R sin  Mv 2 / r

R cos  Mg
v2
Or tan   ………………….. (8)
rg
Therefore, the cyclist should bend through an angle
v2
1
  tan
rg
So as to have the necessary centripetal force, while going round a curved path. It
allows that angle through which the cyclist should bend will have to be greater, if
(i). The radius of the curve is small i.e, the curve is sharper and
(ii). The velocity of the cyclist is large

It may be pointed out that for the same reasons, an ice skater or an aeroplane has
to bend inwards, while taking a turn.

CIRCULAR TURNING AND BANKING OF ROADS:

A vehicle of mass M moving at a speed v is making a turn on the circular path of
radius r. The external forces acting on the vehicle are
i) Weight Mg
ii) Normal contact force N and
iii)Friction f s

If the road is horizontal, the normal force N is vertically upward. The only horizontal
force that can act towards the centre is the friction f s . This is static friction and is self
adjustable. The tires get a tendency to skid outward and the frictional force which
opposes this skidding acts towards the centre. Thus, for a safe turn we must have
v2 f
 s
r M
Mv 2
Or fs  .
r
However, there is a limit to the magnitude of the frictional force. If  s is the
coefficient of static friction between the tires and the raod, the magnitude of friction
f s cannot exceed  s N . For vertical equilibrium N  Mg so that
f s   s Mg
Thus, for a same turn
Mv 2
  s Mg
r
v2
Or,  s  …………………. (vi)
rg
Friction is not always reliable at circular turns if high speeds and sharp turns are
involved. To avoid dependence on friction, the roads are banked at the turn so that the
outer part of the road is somewhat lifted up as compared to the inner part.

The surface of the rod makes an angle  with the horizontal through out the turn. The
normal force N makes an angle  with the vertical. At the correct speed, the horizontal
component of N is sufficient to produce the acceleration towards the centre and the
self adjustable frictional force keeps its value zero. Applying Newton’s second law
along the radius and the first law in the vertical direction.
Mv 2
N sin  
r
and N cos   Mg
These equations give,
v2
tan   ………………….. (vii)
rg

The angle  depends on the speed of the vehicle as well as on the radius of the
turn. Roads are banked for the average expected speed of the vehicle. If the speed of
the particular vehicle is a little less or a little more than the correct speed, the self
adjustable static friction operates between the tires and the road and the vehicle does
not skid or slip. If the speed is too different from that given by equation (vii) even the
maximum friction cannot prevent a skid or a slip.

MOTION IN A VERTICAL CIRCLE:

Consider a body of mass M tied at the end of a string and whirled in a vertical circle of
radius r. Let v1 and v2 be velocities of the body and T1 and T2 be tensions in the string
at the lowest point A and the highest point B respectively. The velocities of the body at
points A and B will be directed along tangents to the circular path at these points,
while tensions in the string will always act towards the fixed point O as shown in
below figure.
At the lowest point A, a part of the tension T1 balances the weight of the body and the
remaining part provides the necessary centripetal force. Therefore,
 Mv12
T1  Mg  ………………….. (9)
r
At the highest point, the tension in the string and the weight of the body together
provide the necessary centripetal force. Hence,
Mv22
T2  Mg  ………………….. (10)
r

Let us now find the minimum velocity, the body should possess at the lowest
point, so that the string does not slack when it is at the highest point. The body is then
said to just loop the vertical circle. It is obvious that the velocity at the lowest point
will be minimum, when the velocity at the highest point is also minimum.
Minimum velocity at the highest point. From the equation (10) if follows that the
velocity at the highest point will be minimum, when the tension in the string at the
highest point is zero i.e,
T2  0 ………………….. (11)
In that case, the whole of the centripetal force will be provided by the weight of the
body. Therefore, in such a case, the equation (10) becomes
Mv2 2
0  Mg 
r
Or v2  gr ………………….. (12)
This is the minimum velocity the body should possess at the top so that it can just loop
the vertical circle without the slackening of the string. In case, the velocity of the body
at point B is less than gr , the string will slack and the body will not loop the circle.
Therefore, a body will just loop the vertical circle, if it possesses velocity equal to
gr at the top.
Minimum velocity at the lowest point: According to the principle of conservation of
energy.
K.E of the body at point A = (P.E + K.E) of the body at point B
 1 1
i.e., Mv12  Mg (2 r )  Mv2 2
2 2
2 2
or v1  4 gr  v2

As said earlier, when the velocity at the highest point is minimum, the velocity at the
lowest point will also be minimum. Setting v2  gr , we have
v12  4 gr  gr
Or v1  5 gr …………………….. (13)
The equation (13) gives the magnitude of the velocity at the lowest point with which
body can safely go round the vertical circle of radius r or can loop the circle of radius
r. Let us find the tension in the string at the lowest point in such a case.
In the equation (9), setting v1  5 gr we have
2

T1  Mg 
M  5 gr 
r
Or T1  Mg  5Mg
Or T1  6 Mg ……………………… (14)

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF MOTIONS IN A VERTICAL CIRCLE:

Following are a few practical applications of motion in a vertical circle:

1. If a bucket containing water is rotated along a vertical circle such that its
velocity at the lowest point is equal to or greater than 5gr , the water will not
spill, even when bucket is at the highest point.
When the water bucket is rotated along a vertical circle of radius r with
velocity v, it requires a centripetal force M v 2 / r , where M is the mass of the
water bucket. Let v be the velocity of the bucket at the top of the circular path.
The weight of the water bucket is used the bucket at the top of the circular path.
The weight of the water bucket is used up in providing the necessary centripetal
force and hence the water does not spill.
2. For the same reason, the pilot of an aeroplane who is not tied to his seat will not
fall down, while looping the vertical circle.
3. In circus, the motor cyclist is able to perform the feat of driving the motor cycle
along a vertical circle inside a cage.

He also is able to do so, when the velocity at the lower most point of the cage is
equal to or greater than 5gr . He can attain the minimum velocity i.e 5gr at
the point B by allowing the motor cycle to roll down inclined plane through a
suitable height as shown in figure. The required height h can be calculated as
below:
In the relation, v 2  u 2  2aS , setting u  0, a  g and S  h , we have
v 2  02  2 gh
Or v  2 gh
So that the motor cyclist may attain the required minimum velocity 5gr ,
2 gh  5 gr
5r
Or h
2
Note:
Suppose that a body is made to go around a vertical circular path of radius with
uniform speed v. If T1 is tension in the string at the lowest point, then
Mv 2
T1  Mg 
r
 v2 
Or T1  M   g  ……………………… (15)
 r 
Also, if T2 is tension in the string at the highest point then
Mv 2
T2  Mg 
r
 v2 
Or T2  M   g  ……………………… (16)
 r 
The equation (15) and (16) may be used to find the tension in the string at the
lowest and the highest point in such a vertical circular motion.
CONICAL PENDULUM:
A conical pendulum is a small heavy mass suspended by a string from a rigid support
and whirled round in a horizontal circle with a constant speed.

Consider a heavy mass M tied to a string and suspended from a rigid support S. The
mass is whirled round in a horizontal circle of radius r with a constant speed v, such
that the string SA makes an angle  with the vertical as shown in figure. When the
mass is in position A, it is acted upon by the following forces.
(i). The weight M g of the suspended mass acting vertically downward.
(ii). Tension T in the string acting along the length of the string towards the point of
suspension.
The tension T in the string can be resolved into two components i.e T sin  along AO
and T cos along vertically upwards. The components T cos balances the weight
Mg of the suspended body and the component T sin  provides the necessary
centripetal force to move it along horizontal circular path. Thus,
T cos  Mg ……………………… (17)
And T sin   M r  2 ……………………… (18)
Dividing the equation (17) by (18), we get
T sin  M r  2

T cos  Mg
r 2
Or tan  
g
g tan 
Or 
r
Therefore, time period of the suspended body (conical pendulum) is given by
2 2
t 
 g tan  / r
r
Or t  2 ……………………… (19)
g tan 
Knowing r, g and  , time period of the conical pendulum can be found. The equation
(17) may be used to find the tension in the string.