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The capacity of the optical communication infrastructure in backbone networks has increased 1000-fold over the last 20 years. Despite this rapid
progress, internet traffic is continuing to grow at an annual rate of 40%. This means that in 20 years, we will need petabit/s or even exabit/s optical
communication. In this paper, we present recent challenges and efforts toward achieving a hardware paradigm shift to overcome the capacity
limitation imposed by the current optical communication infrastructure. We will overview the latest advances on the three “multi” technologies, i.e.,
multi-level transmission with ultrahigh spectral efficiency, space division multiplexing in multi-core fibers, and mode division multiplexing with
multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO). © 2014 The Japan Society of Applied Physics
1 Tbit/s@2009
The capacity of the optical communication infrastructure in 1E 80 40% increase per year 2nd Innovation 1E
•Multi-level coherent transmission
backbone networks has increased 1000-fold over the last 20 60
40
•Multi-core fiber
•Multi-mode control
years, and this has been made possible by the development of 20
1P 1P
the erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) and wavelength
0
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Year
Optical power limitation
100T Bandwidth limitation of
division multiplexing (WDM).1) Despite such rapid progress, WDM optical amplifiers
1st Innovation
information capacity is still growing at an annual rate of 40%, 1T EDFA, WDM
10Gx80 1T
0 10-2
10
10-3
-1
10 Uncoded
10-4
BERout
Shannon limit
10-6
-3 1024 QAM
10 10-7
-4 512QAM 10-8
10
256QAM 10-9
-5
10 64 QAM 10-10
16 QAM
-6
10-11
10 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Qin (dB)
Eb/N0 [dB]
Fig. 4. (Color online) Relationship between BER after FEC and Q value
Fig. 3. (Color online) BER of 16–1024 QAM as a function of Eb/N0. without FEC.34)
Intensity
w/ FDE
Arbitrary QAM signal
Waveform 12 Gsample/s
Generator
f
Amplifier PC Att
IQ Mod. Optical Filter
(3.5 nm)
X Att
C2H2 Frequency EDFA PC PC
Y
Stabilized Fiber OFS
Laser (fOFS=2.03 GHz) PBC
Fig. 5. Experimental setup for 1024 QAM (60 Gbit/s) coherent transmission over 150 km.
independently with the same optical frequency and whose respectively. Here, the Shannon limit describes the lowest Qin
phases are 90 degrees apart. A 2N QAM signal represents N value needed to achieve an infinitely low BER by employing
bits, so it has N times the spectral efficiency compared with FEC under a certain code rate R:
OOK. R ¼ 1 þ BERin log2 BERin þ ð1 BERin Þ log2 ð1 BERin Þ
The challenge with respect to a higher QAM multiplicity is
1 Qin
to meet higher SNR and phase noise tolerance requirements. BERin ¼ erfc pffiffiffi ð2Þ
Figure 3 shows the relationship between Eb/N0 and the 2 2
theoretical bit error rate (BER) for M-ary QAM. For a BER of which is known as Shannon’s second theorem or the noisy-
2 © 10¹3, the required Eb/N0 values are 21 and 24 dB for 512 channel coding theorem.35,36) This provides the ultimate limit
and 1024 QAM, which corresponds to SNRs of 30.5 and for the minimum Q value needed to achieve an infinitely low
34 dB, respectively. To realize a better BER performance with BER. Recently, third generation FEC, namely a turbo block
a lower Eb/N0, the forward error correction (FEC) technique code with a soft decision, has been developed that enables us
has been developed. Figure 4 shows the BER after applying to realize BER performance very close to the Shannon limit.
FEC vs the input Q value without FEC, Qin.34) Qin is the SNR This indicates the possibility of realizing ultrahigh spectral
given by efficiency by combining QAM and FEC.
I1 I0 Here we describe our recent demonstration of a 1024
Qin ¼ ð1Þ QAM transmission, in which a polarization-multiplexed
1 þ 0
60 Gbit/s signal was transmitted over 150 km.4) Figure 5
where I1 and I0 are the mean values and ·1 and ·0 are the shows the experimental setup. As a coherent light source, we
standard deviations of the bits corresponding to 1 and 0, used a 1.5 µm acetylene frequency-stabilized fiber ring laser
08MA01-2 © 2014 The Japan Society of Applied Physics
Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 53, 08MA01 (2014) REVIEW PAPER
α=0
α = 0.5 α=1
α = 0.5 α=1
α=0
(a) (b)
Fig. 6. (Color online) Transfer function (a) and impulse response (b) of a raised-cosine Nyquist filter for ¡ = 0, 0.5, and 1.
Back-to-back (X)
-1
Back-to-back (Y)
10 After 150km transmission (X)
After 150km transmission (Y)
-2
10
FEC threshold
BER
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10
Back-to-back After 150 km transmission
Received Power [dBm]
(a) (b)
Fig. 7. (Color online) Experimental results for 60 Gbit/s 1024 QAM transmission. (a) BER characteristics. (b) Constellations before and after transmission.
with a linewidth of 4 kHz.37) The output of the laser was caused by individual components such as the AWG and the
modulated at an IQ modulator with a 3 Gsymbol/s 1024 IQ modulator.
QAM baseband signal produced by an arbitrary waveform The optical QAM signal was then orthogonally polar-
generator (AWG) operating at 12 Gsample/s. We employed ization-multiplexed and launched into a 150 km fiber link. At
a raised-cosine Nyquist filter at the AWG using a software the receiver, the QAM signal was homodyne-detected at a
program to reduce the bandwidth of the QAM signal. It is 90° optical hybrid. As a local oscillator (LO), we used a
well known in the microwave communication field that a frequency-tunable fiber laser whose phase was locked to the
Nyquist filter is very useful for reducing the bandwidth of pilot tone transmitted with the data signal via the optical
a data signal without introducing intersymbol interference.38) phase-locked loop (OPLL), which enables low phase-noise
Figure 6 shows the transfer function and impulse response coherent detection. After detection with balanced photo-
of the raised-cosine Nyquist filter. The transfer function is diodes, the QAM data were A/D converted and processed
given by with a DSP in an off-line condition. In the DSP, a digital
8 ðf0:5Þ
1
< 2 1 sin
> 0:5 2 jfj < 0:5 þ 2 back-propagation method was adopted to compensate for
fiber nonlinearities and dispersion simultaneously.40) Here,
HðfÞ ¼ 1 jfj < 0:5 2 ; ð3Þ
>
: we employed a split-step Fourier analysis of the Manakov
0 jfj 0:5 þ 2 equation, which describes the pulse propagation in a fiber
where ¡ is called a roll-off factor. As shown in Fig. 6(b), the with dispersion, SPM, and XPM between the two orthogonal
impulse response becomes zero at the location of neighboring polarizations under a randomly varying birefringence.41)
symbols. This indicates that the bandwidth can be reduced Finally, the compensated QAM signal was demodulated into
with the Nyquist filter while avoiding intersymbol interfer- binary data, and the bit error rate was evaluated.
ence (ISI). We employed a root raised-cosine Nyquist filter The experimental results are shown in Fig. 7. In this
with a roll-off factor ¡ = 0.35 at the AWG as well as in the experiment, 60 Gbit/s data were transmitted within an optical
digital signal processor (DSP) at the receiver using software, bandwidth of only 4.05 GHz. This indicates a net spectral
so that the bandwidth of the QAM signal was reduced to efficiency as high as 13.6 bit/s/Hz in a multi-channel trans-
4.05 GHz. In addition, a pre-equalization process based mission, even when accounting for the 7% FEC overhead.
on frequency domain equalization (FDE)39) was adopted to Along with the aim of higher multiplicity, it is very
provide high-resolution compensation for the distortions important to explore ways of increasing the symbol rate,
08MA01-3 © 2014 The Japan Society of Applied Physics
Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 53, 08MA01 (2014) REVIEW PAPER
40G
Multiplexed 40G
Ultrafast optical
40G OTDM signal sampling
40G
Time
Fig. 8. (Color online) Basic configuration for ultrahigh-speed OTDM transmission using optical Nyquist pulses.
Optical PD
PC PBS // EDFA Delay PC 15 nm 1 nm ATT 2 nm
Pulse
Δτ DI
shaper
PC EDFA EDFA
Demod. Error
⊥ PC Detector
CLK EDFA 15 nm PC HNLF Prec
40 GHz 100m 40 Gbit/s DPSK
40 GHz MLFL
PLL
DFF 640 G 40 Gbit/s reciever
EDFA
1563 nm 500 m DEMUX
NOLM
800 fs
MLFL: Mode-Locked Fiber Laser DI: Delay Interferometer
HNL-DFF: Highly NonLinear-Dispersion Flattened Fiber ATT: Optical attenuator
CLK: Clock Recovery PD: Balanced Photo Detector
PPG: Pulse Pattern Generator NOLM: Nonlinear Optical Loop Mirror
IDF: Inverse Dispersion Fiber
Fig. 9. (Color online) Experimental setup for 1.28 Tbit/s/channel–525 km polarization-multiplexed DPSK transmission with 640 Gbaud optical Nyquist
pulse.
which are currently limited by the speed and bandwidth of bandwidth without ISI during transmission, and therefore, the
analog-to-digital (A/D) and digital-to-analog (D/A) con- SE can be significantly improved.
verters. To overcome these limitations, coherent optical time Here we present the 1.28 Tbit/s (640 Gbaud) polarization-
division multiplexing (OTDM) has been demonstrated that multiplexed transmission of Nyquist OTDM signals over
employs multi-level QAM modulation for ultrashort optical 525 km.9) Figure 9 shows the experimental setup. In the
pulses.5–7) However, typical pulse waveforms such as transmitter, we first generated an optical Nyquist pulse train
Gaussian or sech profiles generally occupy a large bandwidth from a mode-locked fiber laser (MLFL) that emits Gaussian
in the frequency domain and thus may not be an appropriate pulses. The Gaussian pulses were transformed into a Nyquist
waveform in terms of SE. We recently proposed a new type profile by using a spectrum manipulation technique based
of optical pulse, which we call an “optical Nyquist pulse”, on the spatial intensity and phase modulation of spectral
whose shape is given by the sinc-function-like impulse components with a liquid crystal spatial modulator.42) The
response of the Nyquist filter shown in Fig. 6(b).8) The generated waveform is shown in Fig. 10(a), where the
fundamental configuration of the ultrahigh-speed Nyquist periodic zero crossing in the tail can be clearly seen. The
TDM transmission is shown in Fig. 8. The optical Nyquist optical Nyquist pulses were then DPSK modulated at 40
pulse trains are bit interleaved to a higher symbol rate by Gbit/s and multiplexed to 640 Gbit/s using a delay-line bit
OTDM. Here, in spite of a strong overlap, no ISI occurs due interleaver. An eye diagram of the obtained Nyquist OTDM
to the zero crossing property of the Nyquist pulse at every signal is shown in Fig. 10(b). The OTDM signal becomes
symbol interval. The OTDM demultiplexing from this an analog-like continuous data stream, and the eye diagram
continuous data sequence can be realized with ultrafast appears greatly distorted due to the interference. However, as
optical sampling, so that only data at the ISI-free point could indicated by the blue line, no ISI occurs and a constant level
be extracted. In this way, it is possible to reduce the signal is maintained at every symbol interval. The 640 Gbit/s
08MA01-4 © 2014 The Japan Society of Applied Physics
Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 53, 08MA01 (2014) REVIEW PAPER
10dB/div
-3
10
10dB/div
1.56 ps/div
-3
(b) 10
-4
Fig. 10. (Color online) The intensity profile of a 40 GHz optical Nyquist 10 1525 1535 1545 1555
pulse (a) and its OTDM to 640 Gbaud (b). Wavelength [nm]
Bit Error Rate
-5
10
Pol-MUX
Nyquist pulses were polarization multiplexed to 1.28 Tbit/s
-6
and transmitted over a 525 km dispersion-managed trans- 10
mission link. In the receiver, the transmitted Nyquist pulse 10
-7
Number of cores 19 7 12
Core pitch (µm) 35 45 37
Cladding diameter (µm) 200 150 225
Loss (dB/km) 0.23 0.18 0.199
Aeff (µm2) 72 80 88
Crosstalk (dB/km) ¹42 ¹90 ¹55 to ¹49
Reference 16 17 18
Backscattered
Optical pulse
Pbs2 Pbs3
0.20 dB/km
Pulse width: Δτ
Time
Fiber length
Input power: P0
3
2 4
1
MCF
Pbs1
Pbsm 7 5
6
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 12. (Color online) Measurement of mode coupling along MCF using synchronous multi-channel OTDR. (a) Measurement principle, (b) backscattered
OTDR signals, (c) mode coupling ratio from center to outer cores, and (d) change in mode coupling coefficient as a function of position.
mode coupling along the MCF caused by longitudinal strated with the SDM of 222 WDM channels of 456 Gbit/s
perturbations. The crosstalk is also significantly affected by PDM-32QAM signals.18)
fiber bending.14) From this perspective, heterogeneous MCF If we can obtain the mode-coupling coefficient in the
has been proposed, which is composed of cores with different propagation direction, we can analyze the optical power
propagation constants.15) It has also been found that even a distribution along each core, which will give us useful
very small fluctuation of the structural parameters results in knowledge about SDM transmission using MCF. Recently,
crosstalk reduction. Trench-assisted MCF, which is com- we proposed a novel technique for measuring the mode
posed of cores with depressed cladding, has been proposed as coupling along an MCF using synchronous multi-channel
another way of suppressing crosstalk without adversely optical time domain reflectometry (OTDR).19) This technique
affecting core density. Several groups have reported MCF clarifies the nonuniformity of the mode-coupling coefficient
with ultra-low crosstalk,16–18) including a 17.4 km MCF with along the fiber caused by the structural irregularity of the
crosstalk as low as ¹77.6 dB.16) The details of these MCFs fiber. A schematic diagram of the MCF mode-coupling
are shown in Table I. Recently, by using a low-crosstalk 12- measurement and the experimental results are shown in
core MCF, a record 1.01 Pbit/s capacity has been demon- Fig. 12. As shown in Fig. 12(a), an optical pulse is coupled
08MA01-6 © 2014 The Japan Society of Applied Physics
Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 53, 08MA01 (2014) REVIEW PAPER
Multi-core
optical amplifier
Transmitter Receiver
Triangular mirror
Multi-core
Erbium transmission line
core
Multi-core EDF
Signal to
(MC-EDF) Amplified signal
each core
Mode 1
Tx 1 Rx 1
Tx 2 Rx 2
Tx M Mode 2 Mode k
Rx N
i ¼ 1; . . . ; N ð6Þ
where hijk is the distortion when the signal is transmitted from
the jth transmitter to the ith receiver via mode k, which is
estimated from the input and received training symbols.
Equation (6) can be represented in a matrix form:
yðtÞ ¼ HxðtÞ þ nðtÞ: ð7Þ
By estimating the channel matrix H from x(t) and y(t) using
signal processing, and multiplying the inverse matrix of H, (c)
we can recover the input signal x(t). In general, to avoid
increasing the noise term through the multiplication of H¹1 Fig. 16. (Color online) Mode multiplexers and demultiplexers for mode-
by n(t), we diagonalize H in the form D = V †HU using division-multiplexed transmission.
unitary matrices U and V. Then, x(t) can be obtained by
receiving y(t) by multiplying U and V † by x and y
respectively as follows: multiplexed transmission are summarized in Table II.29–33)
For example, the 5-mode transmission of 100 Gbit/s PDM-
V y yðtÞ ¼ V y HðUxðtÞÞ þ V y n ¼ Dx þ V y n: ð8Þ
QPSK signals has been realized using the LP01, LP11a, LP11b,
Each component of x(t) can be extracted by dividing the LP21a, and LP21b modes by using 4 © 4 MIMO (used to
right-hand side of Eq. (8) with diagonal components of D. It separate degenerate modes, e.g., LP11a, x, LP11a, y, LP11b,x , and
should be noted here that the noise increase does not occur in LP11b, y).31) A 6-mode transmission including the LP02 mode
the term V †n, as the magnitude of this term is «V †n« = «n« due has also been achieved with 12 © 12 MIMO.33) These reports
to the property of a unitary matrix. potentially demonstrate the capability of spatial and polar-
Several groups have demonstrated MIMO-based multi- ization mode discrimination with MIMO.
mode transmission over a few-mode fiber using fundamental
and higher-order LP modes. Figure 16 shows examples of 5. Conclusions
mode multiplexers and demultiplexers. Higher-order modes We reviewed recent progress on the 3M scheme, which
are excited and separated using free-space optics with phase consists of multi-level modulation, multi-core fibers, and
plates for phase inversion [Fig. 16(a)],26) long-period fiber multi-mode technologies. These innovative technologies are
Bragg gratings for fundamental to higher-order mode con- expected to overcome the power and capacity limitations of
version [Fig. 16(b)],27) or a liquid crystal on silicon (LCOS)- today’s optical communication, and ultimately lead to a
type spatial intensity and phase modulator for beam profiling thousand-fold giant leap toward the Exabit optical commu-
[Fig. 16(c)].28) Recent demonstrations of mode-division- nication infrastructure in the coming 20 to 30 years.
08MA01-8 © 2014 The Japan Society of Applied Physics
Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 53, 08MA01 (2014) REVIEW PAPER
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