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CHAPTER I

1. INTRODUCTION:
Energy is a key ingredient for the overall development of an economy.
India has been endowed with abundant renewable solar energy resource. India is
large country and the rate of electrification has not kept pace with the expanding
population, urbanization and industrialization and has resulted in the increasing
deficit between demand and supply of electricity. This has not only resulted in
under electrification but also put heavy pressure on the governments to keep
pace with demand for electricity. People not served by the power grid have to
rely on fossil fuels like kerosene and diesel for their energy needs and also incur
heavy recurring expenditure for the poor people in rural areas. Wherever the
rural areas have been brought under power grid the erractic and unreliable
power supply has not helped the farmers and the need for an uninterrupted
power supply especially during the critical farming period has been has been a
major area of concern. India receives a solar energy equivalent of 5,000 trillion
kWh/year with a daily average solar energy incidence of 4-7 kWh/m2. This is
considerably more than the total energy consumption of the country. Further,
most parts of the country experience 250-300 sunny days in a year, which
makes solar energy a viable option in these areas.
Decentralized renewable energy systems, which rely on locally available
resources, could provide the solution to the rural energy problem, particularly in
remote areas where grid extension is not a viable proposition
Solar energy, with its virtually infinite potential and free availability,
represents a nonpolluting and inexhaustible energy source which can be
developed to meet the energy needs of mankind in a major way. The high cost,
fast depleting fossil fuels and the public concern about the eco-friendly power
generation of power have led to a surge of interest in the utilization of solar
energy. To evaluate the energy potential at particular place, detailed information
on its availability is essential. These include data on solar intensity, spectrum,
incident angle and cloudiness as a function of time.

1.2. USE OF SOLAR ENERGY:


1.2.1Solar energy can be utilized in two ways:
Solar Thermal (ST) technologies where the heat produced are used to operate
devices for heating, cooling, drying, water purification and power generation.
The devices suitable for use by village communities include solar hot water
heaters, solar cookers and solar driers.
Solar Photovoltaic (SPV) systems which convert sunlight into electricity for use
applications such as lighting, pumping, communication and refrigeration.
The Solar Energy Programme is prominent among the technology-based
renewable energy programmes of the MNES. Areas covered under this
programme include solar thermal technology (hot water systems, cookers,
dryers, solar passive architecture etc.), solar photovoltaic technology (lanterns,
fixed systems, pumpsets) as well as information dissemination, marketing,
standardisation of products and R&D. The support to the programme is mainly
in the form of subsidies and technical support.
Currently the MNES is promoting solar PV (and other) devices through
(a) State nodal agencies of the MNES, (b) NGOs/CBOs, (c) authorized outlets
of the MNES and (d) through local entrepreneurs.
1.3. SOLAR ENERGY FOR AGRICULTURE
The demand for electrical energy is far outstripping supply, especially in
the agricultural sector, and it is becoming increasingly difficult to meet this
exponential growth in demand Agricultural productivity is closely associated to
direct and indirect energy inputs and policies are required to consolidate this
relationship to the benefit of farmers. If rural development is to be achieved,
energy inputs must be made available, and this might require special efforts
from the country as a whole, to develop and utilize renewable energy sources
most important being the solar energy, to their potential which remains far from
being tapped to the potential. Rural electrification has eluded the most far flung
rural areas of the countries. It is cost-prohibitive for the Government to extend
utility grid power to remote areas especially to meet agriculture loads. An
integrated approach for irrigation with water conservation with scientific
agricultural practices the solar water pumping systems assume relevance for
optimum exploitation of the water resource and serving the small/marginal
farmers for all time to come.
Intersectoral cooperation is necessary, and should include government,
financial institutions/banks, CBOs/NGOs and the private sector. It would appear
that there is a strong case for the design of institutional mechanisms for
encouraging closer cooperation and collaboration between institutions, in
particular between the agricultural and energy sectors
1.4.SOLAR ENERGY BASED WATER LIFTING ANDPUMPING
SYSTEMS FOR SMALL IRRIGATION PROJECTS

Among the solar technologies useful in agriculture are water lifting and
pumping with solar photovoltaic systems. Water pumping by solar power is a
concept which has won widespread interest since the early seventies. Solar
energy can be utilized to operate pumps, utilizing either the thermal or light part
of solar radiation. With a solar pump, energy is not available on demand, and
the daily variation in solar power generation necessitates the storage of a surplus
of water pumped on sunny days for use on cloudy days. In view of the
fluctuating water demand of any irrigation scheme, solar energy needs to be
reserved in the form of either electricity in batteries or lifted water in a storage
tank. The suitability of solar power for lifting water to irrigate plants is
undeniable because of the complementarity between solar irradiance and water
requirements of crops. The more intensively the sun is shining the higher is the
power to supply irrigation water while on the other hand on rainy days irrigation
is neither possible nor needed.
Small scale irrigation is one of the most potential applications of solar
power. The main advantage is that solar radiation is intense when the need for
irrigation is high. Further, solar power is available at the point of use, making
the farmer independent of fuel supplies or electrical transmission lines. The
solar pumps have the potential to revolutionize small scale irrigation in the
developing countries in the near future. The technical feasibility of solar (photo
voltaic) pumps have been established.The major limiting factor has been the
high cost and the lack of familiarity of the technology which require concerted
effort in training of technicians and large scale introduction in a region with
adequate technical support.However with the incentives and initiatives
undertaken by MNES/State Govt the scheme may be propagated in rural areas
for small irrigation system in far flung rural areas where electrification is a
costly proposition.
The model scheme is to introduce solar water pumping and support
irrigation schemes to provide a sustainable economic activity to farmers in
unelectrified or under electrified rural areas .Various agencies and financial
institutions are in place to assist in developing credit scheme targeted for
unelectrified rural area
1.5. PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER GENERATION

1.5.1 SOLAR CELLS

Photovoltaic cells frequently referred to as solar cells, convert the light


part of the solar spectrum (Sunlight) into electricity. They are the most rapidly
expanding energy sources in the world. Large scale manufacture of photovoltaic
cells, coupled with continued research and development is expected to further
make photovoltaic with in the economic framework of rural areas in developing
countries.
Specifications
250watt solar panel made of Taiwan high efficiency and quality solar cells
(156*156mm 60pieces)
Made by Taiwan high quality poly crystalline cells
Peak power Output WP (W): 250Wp
Best voltage Vmp (V):29.4V
Best electric current Imp (A):8.5A
Short Circuit electric current Isc
(A):9.2A Open Circuit Voltage Voc
(V):36.3V Dimension
(mm):1640×990×50 Weight (kg):18KG
Impact Resistance Hail impact Test: 227g steel ball down from 1m height
Maximum system voltage:e1000V
Quality guarantee: nominal power keep more than 90% in 10 year and 80% in
25 years

Faster Installation
Large surface area requires fewer interconnects and structural members
All module-to-module wiring is built right into the module ulti-Contact Plug-n-
Play connectors mean source-circuit wiring takes just minutes
Unique mounting systems available for commercial roofs eliminate need for
traditional mounting rails, heavy ballast, and roof penetrations

More Reliability
Bypass diode protection for every 18 solar cells in series, thus
minimizing power loss, and mitigating overheating/safety problems
Advanced encapsulation system ensures steady long-term module
performance by eliminating degradation associated with traditional
EVA-encapsulated modules
Moisture impermeable glass on both sides of the module protects against
tears, perforations, fire, electrical conductivity, delamination and moisture
Patented no-lead, high-reliability soldering system guarantees long life
and ensures against environmental harm should the module break or be
discarded
Higher Quality
Each of the module’s 216 individual semi-crystalline silicon cells is
inspected and power matched to ensure consistent performance between
modules
Every module is tested utilizing a calibrated solar simulator to ensure
that the electrical ratings are within the specified tolerance for power,
voltage, and current
Module-to-module wiring loss is factored into the module’s labeled
electrical ratings by testing through the module’s cable/connector
assemblies

1.5.2. SOLAR CELL OPERATION


The solar cell operates on the principle of the photovoltaic effect - the
creation of charge carrier with in a material by the absorption of energy from
the incident solar radiation. The efficiency of solar cells in converting incident
solar energy into electrical energy depends on the illumination spectrum
intensity, materials of construction and design of the cell, atmospheric
temperature and dustiness of the sky. Solar cell used in running DC electric
motors have efficiencies ranging from 10 to 12 percent.
Silicon is the most commonly used material for making solar cells. Other
materials include cadmium sulfide and gallium arsenate. The fabrication of the
solar cell involves a large number of processes. Wafer form, followed by
junction formation, contact fabrication and anti-reflection coating on the active
surface of the cell. The outer surface of the panel is protected by a special
tempered glass which provides high transmittance of sunlight.
1.5.3. SOLAR ARRAY:
A solar cell behaves like a low voltage battery whose charge is
continuously replenished at a rate proportional to the incident solar radiation.
Connecting such cells into series parallel configuration results in photovoltaic
modules or solar arrays with high current and voltages. The power developed by
a solar array ranges from 80 to 120 watts per square meter of the panel. The
photovoltaic power can be utilized to operate conventional electrical appliances,
including DC electric motors. The solar array is mounted on a simple frame
which has provision for adjusting the array manually against the position of the
sun.
1.6 POSSIBLE WATER SOURCES
The SPV based pumpsets are low head high discharge and may be
productively used at sites where water is available at relatively shallow level.
The possible water
sources for the SPV systems are Diggies; pen dug wells, tanks, farm ponds and
surface water from canals and rivers.
1.6.1. SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS
Submersible pumps are installed completely underwater, including the
motor. The pump consists of an electric motor and pump combined in a single
unit. Typically the pump will be shaped like a long cylinder so that it can fit
down inside of a well casing. Although most submersible pumps are designed to
be installed in a well, many can also be laid on their side on the bottom of a lake
or stream. Another common installation method for lakes and rivers is to mount
the submersible pump underwater to the side of a pier pile (post). Submersible
pumps don't need to be primed since they are already under water. They also
tend to be more efficient because they only push the water, they don't need to
suck water into them. Most submersible pumps must be installed in a special
sleeve if they are not installed in a well, and sometimes they need a sleeve even
when installed in a well. The sleeve forces water coming into the pump to flow
over the surface of the pump motor to keep the motor cool. Without the sleeve
the pump will burn up. Because the power cord runs down to the pump through
the water it is very important that it be protected from accidental damage. You
wouldn't want a boat tangled up in the cord or a snapping turtle or alligator to
bite through it!
1.6.2TURBINES AND JET PUMPS
A turbine pump is basically a centrifugal pump mounted underwater and
attached by a shaft to a motor mounted above the water. The shaft usually
extends down the center of a large pipe. The water is pumped up this pipe and
exits directly under the motor. Turbine pumps are very efficient and are used
primarily for larger pump applications. Often they consist of multiple stages,
each stage is essentially another pump stacked on top of the one below. It works
like a train with multiple engines hitched together pulling it, each stage would
be a engine. Turbine pumps are typically the type of pumps you see on farms.
When you see a huge motor mounted on its end and a pipe coming out sideways
below the motor, that is most likely the motor for a turbine pump down inside
the well. I use turbine pumps for large parks and golf courses where we are
pumping from lakes. The turbine pump is mounted in a large concrete vault
with a pipe connecting it to the lake. The water flows by gravity into the vault
where it enters the pump. The pump motors are suspended over the vault on a
frame. I usually use two or three different sized pumps side-by-side to handle
different flow combinations. A jet pump is similar to a turbine pump but it
works by redirecting water back down to the intake to help lift the water
1.7. PUMPSETS FOR PHOTO VOLTAIC POWER

The solar pump unit consists essentially of a solar array, a direct-


current electric motor and a pumping unit. The other components are the
electrical control and some mechanism for tracking the array against the sun.
Many types of pumpingsets are used with photovoltaic systems, a vertical
centrifugal pump coupled to a submersible DC electric motor or an ordinary
volute centrifugal pump close-coupled to a horizontal DC electric motor.
However, the submersible pump unit is more suitable for the photovoltaic
system. The arrangement eliminates the suction pipe and foot valve and results
in a higher efficiency of the pumping unit. The submersible pump is made leak-
proof by a silicon carbide mechanical seal. In case of volute pump, care is taken
to limit the pump suction within about 5m to maintain a high level of pump
efficiency.
The output of the solar array varies with the intensity of the incoming radiation
and other factors. Hence, it is necessary to match a variable-speed DC motor
with the panel output. At least one make of photovoltaic powered pumping sets
utilizes a maximum power-control unit as an integral part of the
system, in order to match the load on the pump to the varying power output of
the panel.

There is considerable commercial interest in manufacturing photovoltaic


powered pumping sets. The power output of the system is directly proportional
to the number of solar cells and the surface area of the panel exposed to the sun.
The discharge of a solar pump with array area of 2-4m varies from 6-8 lits/s at a
head of 5 m. This could irrigate about 1.5 - 2 ha of land with crops having
moderate irrigation requirements or may provide protective irrigation to even a
larger command

1.8. SYSTEM COMPONENTS


Solar Photo Voltaic Pumping system for 1800 watts DC surface system
CHAPTER II
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Malawi Solar Powered Water Pump System BY:- Hunter King1 and
Dr. Andre Butler2:
This project will consist of a water pumping system to supply potable
water to an orphanage located in the Chuluchosema community of Malawi,
Africa. The water will be pumped from a nearby well up to a water tower
located in the orphanage center. The pump will be powered by a solar panel that
will capture the solar energy from the sun. This project is in association with
Mercer’s University’s Master’s Program for Environmental Engineering and
Mercer on a Mission. The water pump system will be built on Mercer’s campus
and will then be sent to the orphanage in Malawi to be assembled permanently.
The water pumping system will be built by materials that are sustainable enough
to allow the system to function properly long after the student has installed the
system and has left. The intent of this project is to provide a hands-on
experience for the graduate student by working with various professors and
manufacturers as well as different contacts from the developing country. The
goal of this project is to supply potable water to an orphanage without the
residents retrieving it from a well.Keywords: Malawi Solar Water Pump.

B.Keywords: Solar water pumping; Pump; Photovoltaics; Efficiency;


Diaphragm pump; Helical pump BY:- Brian D Vick , R.Nolan Clarck:
For several years, many types of solar powered water pumping systems
were evaluated, and in this paper, diaphragm and helical solar photovoltaic (PV)
powered water pumping systems are discussed. Data were collected on
diaphragm and helical pumps
which were powered by different solar PV arrays at multiple pumping
depths to determine the pumping performance, efficiency, and reliability of the
different systems. The highest diaphragm pump hydraulic efficiency measured
was 48%, and the highest helical pump hydraulic efficiency measured was 60%.
The peak total system efficiency (e.g. solar radiation to pumped water)
measured for the diaphragmand helical pumps were5% and7%, respectively
(based on PV modules with 12% efficiency). The daily water volume of the
three-chamber high head diaphragm pump performed better than the dual-
chamber high head diaphragm pump (5 to 100% depend-ing on PV array input
power and pumping depth). Use of a controller was shown to improve the quad
diaphragm pump performancebelow a solar irradiance of 600 W/m2(20 m head)
to 800 W/m2(30 m head). While diaphragm pumps made mostly of plastic
demonstrated similar to much etter pumping performance than diaphragm
pumps made with a high proportion of metal, the metal pumps demonstrated a
longer service life (>2 years) than the plastic pumps service life (<2 years).
Helical pumps analyzed in this paper were capable of deeper pumping depths
and usually demonstrated a longer service life than the diaphragm pumps that
were analyzed.Published by Elsevier Ltd.

C.Experimental Study Of Solar Water Pump BY:- Master of Science Erin


Williamson:
Bio resource Engineering Solar water pump studies for small-scale
rigation Irrigation is a well established procedure on many farms in western
Canada and is practiced on various levels around the world. It allows
diversification of crops, while increasing crop yields. However, typical
irrigation systems consume a great amount of conventional energy through the
use of electric motors and generators powered by fuel. The overall objective of
this research was to determine the feasibility of using photovoltaic (PV)
modules to power a water pump for a small-scale drip irrigation system in
Montréal (Québec, Canada). The study involved field observations, as well as
computer simulations of global solar radiation and PV electrical output. Field
observations involved a summer and winter installation of two amorphous
silicon 42 W PV modules, directly connected to a 12 V surface water pump.
The parameters monitored were voltage, current, back-of-panel temperature,
pressure, and flow. These observed parameters were used to determine PV
electrical output and volume of water pumped. Site latitude, elevation, and
panel tilt were applied to the solar radiation and PV electrical output models,
along with the following meteorological data: daily average, maximum, and
minimum temperatures, and global solar radiation. Daily solar radiation
prediction showed a linear correlation of 0.69 with the observed daily values,
over the years 2000 to 2005. The correlation coefficient was improved to 0.91,
when 7 day moving averages of both the observed and predicted solar radiation
data were used. PV electrical output and volume of water pumped were
monitored between August 2005 and May 2006. Both the power and water
output observations were less than expected. However, the predicted daily PV
electrical output ranged from 1.0 MJ d-1 in the summer to approximately 0.6
MJ d-1 in the winter. As expected, an increase in power caused an increase in
the volume of water pumped.
CHAPTER III

3.1.METHODOLOGY

A solar powered water pumping system is made up of two main components,


1) Solar panels:
 Photovoltaic module

 Centrifugal
 Reciprocating pump

2)Battery based
3)Solar direct

 A variety of factors must be considered in determining the optimum


system for a particular application.

 Battery based water pumping system consists of photovoltaic(PV) panels


charge controller, batteries, pump controller and DC water pump,

1)Water supply for home or cabin.

2)Pumping at night

Fig. 1: Battery Based Water Pumping System


Reciprocating pumps are those which cause the fluid to move using one or more
oscillating pistons, plungers or membranes (diaphragms).To 'Reciprocate'
means 'To Move Backwards and Forwards'.
A 'RECIPROCATING' pump therefore, is one with a forward and
backward operating action. The simplest reciprocating pump is the 'Bicycle
Pump', which everyone at some time or other will have used to re-inflate their
bike tyres. Reciprocating-type pumps require a system of suction and discharge
valves to ensure that the fluid moves in a positive direction. Pumps in this
category range from having "simplex" one cylinder, to in some cases "quad"
four cylinders or more. Most reciprocating-type pumps are "duplex" (two) or
"triplex" (three) cylinder. Furthermore, they can be either "single acting"
independent suction and discharge strokes or "double acting" suction and
discharge in both directions. The pumps can be powered by air,
Steam or through a belt drive from an engine or motor. This type of pump
was used extensively in the early days of steam propulsion (19th century) as
boiler feed water pumps. Reciprocating pumps are now typically used for
pumping highly viscous fluids including
Concrete and heavy oils, and special applications demanding low flow
rates against high Resistance.

3.2. WORKING PRINCIPLE:


Reciprocating pump is a positive displacement pump, which causes a
fluid to move by trapping a Fixed amount of it then displacing that trapped
volume into the discharge pipe. The fluid enters a Pumping chamber via an inlet
valve and is pushed out via outlet valve by the action of the piston or
diaphragm. They are either single acting; independent suction and discharge
strokes or Double acting; suction and discharge in both directions
Fig. 2: Reciprocating Pump

During the suction stroke the piston moves left thus creating vacuum in
the Cylinder. This vacuum causes the suction valve to open and water enters the
Cylinder. During the delivery stroke the piston moves towards right. This
increasing pressure in the cylinder causes the suction valve to close and delivery
to open and water is forced in the delivery pipe. The air vessel is used to get
uniform discharge
Reciprocating pumps are self-priming and are suitable for very high
heads at low flows. They deliver reliable discharge flows and is often used for
metering duties because of constancy of flow rate. The flow rate is changed
only by adjusting the rpm of the driver.
These pumps deliver a highly pulsed flow. If a smooth flow is required
then the discharge flow system has to include additional features such as
accumulators. An automatic relief valve set at a safe pressure is used on the
discharge side of all positive displacement pumps.
The performance of a pump is characterized by its net head h, which is
defined as the change in Bernoulli head between the suction side and the
delivery side of the pump. H is expressed in equivalent column height of water.
3.3 PARTS

 24 WATT SOLAR PANNEL


 24 VOLT BATTERY
 12 VOLT MOTOR WITH SPEED REDUCTION GEARBOX
 CIRCULAR DISC
 CONNECTING ROD
 PISTON CYLINDER
 2 NRVs
 SUPPLY PIPES
 SUMP AND OVERHEAD TANK
 BASE FOR SUPPORTING THE SYSTEM

3.4 OPERATIONS
3.4.1 Procurement of Material:
1. Pneumatic pump: - Instead of hydraulic pump over here
pneumatic pump is used to reduce the cost of pump. The
dimensions of the pump are 50mm * 150mm. At one end silencer
is provided and by providing a branch tee at another end suction
and discharge is provided. Forward motion of the piston is used
for discharge and backward is used for the suction of water from
the sump.
2. Dc Motor with speed reduction gear box: -12volt dc motor with
torque magnification gear box is used to provide high starting
torque to the disk and speed is reduced.

3. 20 Watt Solar panel: - A 20 watt solar panel is used to convert


the incident solar energy into electricity of required amount.
4. Two 12v battery: - Two 12 battery is connected in series to obtain 24volt
output.
5. Pipe: - Flexible pipe of 9mm * 12mm is used for suction from sump and
delivery to the overhead tank

3.4.2 Calculation and Development of Component:

1. Disc: - The circular disk of 147mm diameter and 3mm thickness


is used to convert rotary motion of the gear box to reciprocating
motion for piston and cylinder.
2. Connecting rod: - A connecting of 264mm is used to connect the
disk and the piston with a special attachment to provide
reciprocating motion. The center hole distance is 233mm.

3.4.3Fabrication Process:
Cutting:
25mm * 50mm MS pipe is used for construction of base .The base
required for the structure is made from the rectangular pipe of length of
764.5mm and width of 276.8mm. Height of the base 124.5 mm. the base is
build up by the cutting operation performed on the pipe for the required
measurement. Connecting rod is made from the 25mm MS strip
Drilling:

Hole of 15mm is drilled into the base pipe for holding pneumatic cylinder
rigidly with the nut and bolt. Hole at both end of the connecting rod id drilled to
connect with the disk and piston of the pump. A 10mm hole is drilled into the
hub for attaching it with the shaft of gear box and two 5mm holed are radially
drilled on the hub at 60 degree for holding the shaft and disc tightly
Welding:

The base is build up by the joining pipe with the help welding. Also the
stand for the structure is made by it. The hub is connected with disk by welding
also the motor is joined rigidly with the base for smooth working with the help
of the welding
Grinding:
Burrs and uneven surface developed because of welding process is
finished by the grinding process
Assembly:

First of all pneumatic pump is fitted to the base with the help of nuts and
bolt, visor are used over here for the rigid fitting and to avoid vibration and miss
alignment.
Then after one end of the connecting rod is attached to the disk with help
of the bearing nut for the smooth rotational motion of the disk and the rod
VI. RESULT ANALYSIS
Theoretical Calculations: Losses Ignored
Bore Diameter= 50mm Length of stroke= 150mm Head or height h=3.5m
Speed of rotation N=15rpm Pipe Dia= 9mm
Pipe Length=1m Suction lift= 0.5m
Q = π×d2×L×N = π×(0.05)2×0.15×15 = 7.35×10-5 m3/s 4×60 4×60
P = ρ×g×h = 1000×9.81×3.5 = 2.5Watt
Max speed (piston) = ɷ×r = 2×π×N×r = 0.07m/s
60
Max velocity of water in delivery pipe = 0.07×0.052
0.0092
= 2.16m/s
Head loss friction = 2×ρ×L×V2
g×D
Supply Inertia head = L×dp2×ɷ2×r
g×dd2
3.5×.052×1.42×.05 9.8×0.009
1.05m
Suction Inertia head = -0.26m
B. Practical Calculation:
According to observations the Disc is rotating from TDC to BDC in 3secs
that means one complete rotation will be occurring in 6 sec.
So the number of rotation per minute will be 10. As the disc will
complete one rotation, one stroke of the piston will be completed.
It has been observed that approx. one liter of water is delivered to the required
head at the end of fourth stroke. That means the
discharge is equal to 2.5 liters per minute.
RPM= 10
Discharge in one stroke= 0.25 liter per minute
No of rotation = No of stroke
So, Total Discharge 0.25×10 = 2.5 liter/minute
CHAPTER IV
ENVIRONMETAL ASSESSMENT

1. Potential environmental impacts of solar energy technologies and


mitigation measures

Every energy generation and transmission method affects the environment.


As it is obvious conventional generating options can damage air, climate,
water, land and wildlife, landscape, as well as raise the levels of harmful
radiation. Renewable technologies are substan-tially safer offering a solution to
many environmental and social problems associated with fossil and nuclear
fuels (EC, 1995, 1997).

Solar energy technologies (SETs) provide obvious environmental advantages


in comparison to the con-ventional energy sources, thus contributing to the
sustainable development of human activities (Table 1). Not counting the
depletion of the exhausted natural resources, their main advantage is related to
the reduced CO2 emissions, and, normally, absence of any air emissions or
waste products during their operation.

Concerning the environment, the use of SETs has additional positive


implications such as:

* reduction of the emissions of the greenhouse gases (mainly CO2, NOx) and
prevention of toxic gas emissions (SO2, particulates)

* reclamation of degraded land;


* reduction of the required transmission lines of the electricity grids; and

* improvement of the quality of water resources (Various, 2000).

In regard the socio-economic viewpoint the benefits of the exploitation of


SETs comprise:

* increase of the regional/national energy indepen-dency;

* provision of significant work opportunities;

* diversification and security of energy supply;

* support of the deregulation of energy markets; and

* acceleration of the rural electrification in developing countries.

This article overviews of the various environmental aspects of the deployment


of SETs and illustrate the ways that can be used to successfully address
potential burdens to the environment
Table -1
Environmental and social indicators
of SETs

Central Distributed Central Distributed Solar thermal


Indicator solar solar photovoltaic photovoltaic electricity
power power
thermal thermal generation generation

CO2 1.4 1.4 kg/kWh 0.6–1.0 0.6–1.0 Annually 688


emissions kg/kWh or or kg/kWh kg/kWh t/MW when
840 kg/m2 840 kg/m2 compared to a
savings a a combined
cycle plant 1.360
t/MW
when combined
to a cola
fired plant
4000 2–3000 1 permanent
Production jobs/a 4000 jobs/a jobs/a 2–3000 jobs/a job/MW for
employmen operation+10–15
t jobs/MW
(EU wide) for 12–18 month
construction
Total
employmen 12,000 12,000 4–5000 1000 permanent
t jobs/a jobs/a jobs/a 4–5000 jobs/a jobs for
1000 MW
Generic issues
Furthermore, unfavourable effects of SETs are usually minor and they can be
minimized by appropriate mitigation measures. The potential environmental
bur-dens of SETs are regularly site specific, depending on the size and nature of
the project. As it is obvious from Tables 2 and 3, these burdens are usually
associated with the loss of amenity (e.g. visual impact or noise—during the
installation and the demolition phases) and the impacts can be minimized by
(ETSU, 1996; Gekas et al., 2002; Frantzeskaki et al., 2002; Tsoutsos, 2001):

* the appropriate siting of central solar systems, which involves careful


evaluation of alternative locations and estimation of expected impact (away
from densely populated areas and not in protected areas or areas of significant
natural beauty); the residential solar systems can be installed anywhere,
especially integrated in the roofs;

* the appropriate operational practices (including rational water use, safety


measures, waste disposal practices, use of biodegradable chemicals, etc.);

* the engagement of the public and relevant organiza-tions in the early stages of
planning, in order to ensure public acceptance;

* the use of the best available technologies/techniques and the improvement of


technology (e.g. use of air as the heat-transfer medium in central tower
systems, ‘‘advanced’’ Stirling engines);

* the integration in the building’s shell;


* the sensible planning constraints and pre-develop-

ment assessments (e.g. on water use, habitat loss, estimation of expected CO 2


savings, etc.);

* the training of workers, use of special sunglasses during operation and


construction, use of heat-insulating uniforms, familiarization with the system;
A the re-establishment of local flora and fauna, giving the environment enough
time to come up to its previously state again; and

B thorough Environmental Impact Assessment Studies for central solar systems.

B.Environmental impacts from solar thermal heating systems

Though the production of solar thermal (ST) systems requires reasonable


quantities of materials, insignificant amounts are also consumed during their
operation; at that time the only potential environmental pollutant arises from the
coolant change, which can be easily controlled by good working practice. The
accidental leakage of coolant systems can cause fire and gas releases from
vaporized coolant, unfavourably affecting public health and safety. On the
contrary, the large-scale deployment of ST technologies will significantly
reduce the combustion of conventional fuels and will conse-quently; reduce the
environmental impacts associated with these fuels.

More analytically:
3.1. Land use

For low/medium heat systems it is the characteristics of the chosen system,


which define the land use. For instance, in the case of single-dwelling hot water
or space heating/cooling, no land will be required since the system will usually
be added to the roof of the existing building. Communal low-temperature
systems might use some land, though again the collection surfaces might well
be added on already existing buildings. The principal additional use of land
might be for heat storage.
Table 2
Solar energy technologies’ negative
impacts

Impacts–burdens Alleviation technologies/techniques

Solar thermal heating


Visual impact on buildings’ Adoption of standards and regulations for
aesthetics environmentally friendly design;
Good installation practices;
Improved integration of solar systems in
buildings;
Avoid siting of solar panels on buildings of
historic interest or in conservation areas.
Routine & accidental releases of
chemicals Recycling of the used chemicals;
Good practices—appropriate disposal.
Land use Proper siting and design.
Photovoltaic power generation
Land use: large areas are required
for central systems. Use in isolated and deserted areas;
Avoidance of ecologically and archeologically
Reduction of cultivable land sensitive areas;
Integration in large commercial buildings
(facades, roofs);
Use as sound isolation in highways or near
hospitals.
Visual intrusion—aesthetics Careful design of systems;
Integration in buildings as architectural
elements;
Use of panels in modern architecture instead of
mirrors onto the facade of buildings.
Impact on ecosystems (applicable to Avoidance of sensitive ecosystems and areas of
large PV schemes). natural beauty, archaeological sites.
Use of toxic and flammable Avoidance of release of potentially toxic and
materials (during construction hazardous materials with the adoption
of the modules). of existing safety regulations and good practice.
Slight health risks from Good working practices (use of protecting
manufacture, use, & disposal gloves, sunglasses, clothing during
construction).
Solar thermal electricity
Construction activities Good working practices;
Site restoration;
Avoidance of sensitive ecosystems and areas of
natural beauty.
Proper siting (avoidance of sensitive ecosystems
Visual impact—aesthetics and areas of natural beauty, densely
populated areas).
Land use Proper siting.
Effect on the ecosystem, flora and Proper siting (avoidance of sensitive
fauna (especially birds) ecosystems).
Impact on water resources water use Appropriate constraints (not the excessive use
(for cooling of steam of existing resources);Improved
plant) and, possibly, water pollution technology (use of air as heat-transfer
due to thermal medium);Exploitation of the warm water in
discharges or accidental discharges the nearest industry in the production
of chemicals used by stream.Good operating practices and
compliance with existing safety
the system regulations;Employees should be educated and
familiarized with the systems.

Safety issues (occupational hazards)

(Tsoutsos et al., 1997; Various, 2000).

Grade of the potential negative environmental impacts of solar technologies

Environmental Central Distributed Central Distributed Solar


problem solar solar photovoltaic photovoltaic thermal
power power electrici
thermal thermal generation generation ty

Visual impact ++ + ++ + +++


Routine &
accidental releases + ++ +++ +++ ++
of chemicals
Land use ++ + ++ + +++
Work safety and
hygiene ++ ++ ++ ++ +++
Effect on the
ecosystem + + ++
Impact on water
resources ++ + + + +++

For high temperature systems, the land-use require-ments of concentrating


collectors providing process heat are more problematical.

Concerning the loss of habitat and changes to the ecosystem due to land use in
the case of large-scale systems, provided that predevelopment assessments are
carried out and ecologically important sites are avoided, these are unlikely to be
significant.

3.2. Routine and accidental discharges of pollutants

During the operation of the ST system coolant liquids may need change every
2–3 years. Such discharges require careful handling. In some cases, the coolant
will be water based; but all indirect systems are likely to contain anti-freeze or
rust inhibitors, as well as substances leached from the system during use. Heat
transfer fluids might therefore contain glycol, nitrates, nitrites, chromates,
sulphites, and sulphates. Higher temperature applications would use more
complex substances, such as aromatic alcohols, oils, CFCs, etc. The large-scale
adoption of SETs might well require control on the disposal of these substances
(OECD/IEA, 1998).

Except for the normal use, there may be the risk of accidental water pollution
through leaks of heat transfer fluid. In parallel, solar converters can achieve
relatively high temperatures if their coolant is lost (up to 200 C). Consequently,
at this temperature, there is a fire risk, with the additional problem of out-
gassing from panel components (insulant, plastic components, epoxys) and the
release of heat transfer fluids in gaseous state or following combustion (e.g.
burnt freon).

3.3. Visual impact

Till recently ‘‘integration’’ used to be synonymous with ‘‘invisibility’’. It was


actually considered desirable to hide the fact that the solar elements were
different than other building elements. This trend, fortunately, changed.
Architects have discovered that solar elements can be used to enhance the
aesthetic appeal of a building, and their clients have discovered the positive
effects of advertising the fact that they are using solar energy. The solar
elements are used as architectural elements in attractive and visible ways.

The aesthetic impact of solar panels is evidently a matter of taste, though flat
panels usually are designed in such a way as to fit closely to the existing
roofline and produce little glare.

Modern ST systems allow for the manufacturing of collectors that can be


easily integrated in buildings in an aesthetically pleasant manner.
3.4. Effect on buildings

Theoretically the ST placement in the shell of the buildings could increase fire
risk (OECD/IEA, 1998) and water intrusion into the roof. This can be easily
avoided, since only four holes per panel on the roof will be integral part of the
roof3.5. Other burdens

Other burdens applicable to central power systems only (e.g. noise—during


the construction period, visual intrusion, etc.) are likely to prove insignificant
(provided areas of scenic beauty are avoided), because such schemes are likely
to be situated in those areas of low population density. Therefore, all the
impacts of suitably located large ST schemes are expected to be small and
reversible.

Environmental impacts from photovoltaic power generation

Photovoltaics (PV) are seen to be generally of benign environmental impact,


generating no noise or chemical pollutants during use. It is one of the most
viable renewable energy technologies for use in an urban environment,
replacing existing building cladding ma-terials. It is also an attractive option for
use in scenic areas and National Parks, where the avoidance of pylons and wires
is a major advantage.
4.1. Land use

The impact of land use on natural ecosystems is dependent upon specific


factors such as the topography of the landscape, the area of land covered by the
PV system, the type of the land, the distance from areas of natural beauty or
sensitive ecosystems, and the biodi-versity. The impacts and the modification
on the landscape are likely to come up during construction stage by construction
activities, such as earth move-ments and by transport movements. Furthermore,
an application of a PV system in once-cultivable land is possible to damnify soil
productive areas. The ‘‘senti-mental bind’’ of the cultivator and his cultivable
land is likely to be the reason of several social disagreements and displeasure.

4.2. Routine and accidental discharges of pollutants

During their normal operation PV systems emit no gaseous or liquid


pollutants, and no radioactive substances. In the case of CIS and CdTe modules,
which include small quantities of toxic substances, there is a potential slight risk
that a fire in an array might cause small amounts of these chemicals to be
released into the environment (Various, 1996).

In large-scale central plants a release of these hazardous materials might occur


as a result of abnormal plant operations and it could pose a small risk to public
and occupational health. Thus there must be emergency preparedness and
response in case of an accidental fire or exposure to heat. Emissions to soil and
groundwater
4.3. Visual impacts

Visual intrusion is highly dependent on the type of the scheme and the
surroundings of the PV systems. It is obvious that, if we apply a PV system near
an area of natural beauty, the visual impact would be significantly high. In case
of modules integrated into the facade of buildings, there may be positive
aesthetic impact on modern buildings in comparison to historic buildings or
buildings with cultural value.

Optimal architectural solutions to minimize potential impact on visual


amenity and building aesthetics (i.e. PV integration into buildings and other
installations). The use of PV as a cladding material for commercial buildings
is showing the architectural possibilities of the technology to both the
architectural profession and their clients. Advances in the development of
multi-functional PV facades, which perform aesthetic and practical functions
such as shading and heat extraction, have provided an important stimulus for
architectural expression (Hestnes, 1999).

Proper siting and design of large PV installations.

Use of colour to assemble the PV modules in large-scale systems.

Integrated PV electrification schemes, which help to regenerate rural areas and


user associations have successfully overcome the problems of managing and
maintaining remote schemes by establishing mechanisms for collecting user
payments, arranging regular main-tenance, obtaining finance and providing
advice on energy efficient appliances.
4.4. Depletion of natural resources
The production of current generation PV’s is rather energy intensive
(especially the poly crystalline and the mono-crystalline modules) and large
quantities of bulk materials are needed (thin film modules have less primary
energy requirement per W than the a-Si PV modules (a-Si are thin films also!)
because of the difference in cell efficiency, so can be an answer to that problem)
. Also, small quantities of scarce materials (In/ Te/Ga) are required; also limited
quantities of the toxic Cd.
In general the Cd emissions attributed to CdTe production amount to 0.001%
of Cd used (correspond-ing to 0.01 g/GWh). Furthermore Cd is produced as a
byproduct of Zn production and can either be put to beneficial uses or
discharged into the environment (Fthenakis and Zweibel, 2003)
Several aspects have to be studied to minimize environmental impacts related
to the production of the PV cells:

prospects for thinner cell layers;

the full potential of the concentrator PV technologies;

prospects for more efficient material utilization;

safer materials and alternatives; and

module recycling technology and its efficiency.


4.5. Air pollution

As far as life cycle assessment is concerned, the environmental performance


of the system depends heavily on the energy efficiency of the system manu-
facturing and especially electricity production. The emissions associated with
transport of the modules are insignificant in comparison with those associated
with manufacture. Transport emissions were still only 0.1– 1% of
manufacturing related emissions. In the case of poly- and mono-crystalline
modules, the estimated emissions are 2.757–3.845 kg CO2/kWp, 5.049–5.524
kg SO2/kWp and 4.507–5.273 NOx/kWp (Raptis et al., 1995; OECD/IEA,
1998).

In urban environment, modern PV systems, which are architecturally


integrated into buildings, are able to provide a direct supply of clean electricity
that is well matched to the demand of the building, but can also contribute to
day-lighting, and the control of shading and ventilation. Also, PV panels can be
used instead of mirrors directly into the facade of a building. PV systems also
assist to create a supportive environment within which to encourage other
means of energy saving by the building promoters, owners and users. PV energy
services are particularly obvious where only low levels of power are needed,
such as in rural electrification applications, and where the users are able to
benefit directly from the very high reliability of having their own PV generator.
In the former case, to install a PV generator is frequently cheaper than to extend
the mains grid over long distances.
4.6. Noise intrusion

As with all types of construction activity, there will be little noise. Also, there
will be some employment benefits during the construction phase and especially
for large schemes during the operational phase.

Manufacturers should be encouraged to produce systems that are easily


recyclable.

Options for energy demand reduction must always be considered along with the
assessment of PV applica-tions.
4.7. Waste management

In the case of stand-alone systems, which are small fraction of the market
(Tsoutsos et al., 2003b), the effects on health of chemical substances included in
the batteries should also be studied. A life cycle analysis of batteries for stand-
alone PV systems indicates that the batteries are responsible for most of the
environmental impacts, due to their relatively short life span and their heavy
metal content. Furthermore a large amount of energy and raw materials are
required for their production. A module-recycling scheme can improve this
situation (Fthenakis, 2000).

5. Environmental impacts from solar thermal electricity

The limited deployment of ST electricity to date means that there is little


actual experience of the environmental impacts that such a scheme may have.
Similarly to other SETs, ST electricity systems present the basic
environmental benefit of the displacement or the avoidance of emissions
associated with conventional electricity generation (Tsoutsos et al., 2003a).
During their operation, these systems have no emissions. Some emissions do
arise from other phases of their life cycle (primarily materials processing and
manufacture), but they are lower, compared to those avoided by the systems
operation.

5.1. Materials’ processing and manufacture

Energy use and gas emissions (CO2, SO2, NOx) in materials’ processing and
manufacture of ST systems are noticeable. The impacts of these emissions vary
accord-ing to location, and are fewer than those of conventional fossil fuel
technologies (Norton et al., 1998).

5.2. Construction

These projects have the usual environmental impacts associated with any
engineering scheme during the construction phase—impact on landscape,
effects on local ecosystems and habitats, noise, virtual intrusion, and topical
vexation such as noise and temporally pollutant emissions due to increased
traffic because of transportation of workers and of material, occupational
accidents, temporal blindness (Theodoratos and Karakasidis, 1997), etc.

5.3. Land use

ST electric systems are amongst the most efficient SETs when it comes to
land use (they produce annually about 4–5 GWh/ha). To date, most sites used or
considered for ST systems are in arid desert areas,
5.4. Ecosystem, flora and fauna

Attention during the planning, construction and operation phases can


minimize the effects on vegetation, soil and habitat (OECD/IEA, 1998).
Furthermore, the shade offered by the reflectors has a beneficial effect on the
microclimate around the scheme and on the vegetation, too. Provided that such
schemes are not deployed in ecologically sensitive areas or in areas of natural
beauty, it is unlikely that any of the above changes would be considered as
significant.

Central concentrator power systems could pose a danger to birds, but


operational experience shows that birds avoid any danger areas (possibly by
being sensitive to air turbulence) (OECD/IEA, 1998). Flying insects can also be
burnt when flying close to the reflector’s area. The loss of the insect population
is insignificant.

5.5. Visual impact

In addition to the collector systems, the main visual impact would come from
the tower of the central receiver systems. However, the atmospheric require-
ments for these systems point to their deployment in areas of low population
densities, so provided that areas of outstanding natural beauty are avoided,
visual intrusion is unlikely to be significant.

5.6. Noise

Likewise, noise is insignificant in comparison to any other power option, such


as the conventional, the wind power generation, and the gas turbines. The noise
from the generating plant of large-scale schemes is unlikely to cause any
disturbance to the public. Noise would be generated primarily only during the
day; at night, when people are more sensitive to noise, the system is unable to
operate.

The Stirling engines of stand-alone parabolic dish systems are a source of


noise during operation, but they are unlikely to be any noisier than the stand-by
diesel generating sets, which they generally displace. Also, new (technological)
advanced Stirling engines are con-structed to operate noiselessly.

5.7. Water resources


Parabolic trough and central tower systems using conventional steam plant to
generate electricity require the use of cooling water. This could place a
significant strain on water resources in arid areas. In addition, there may be
some pollution of water resources, through thermal discharges and accidental
release of plant
chemicals (OECD/IEA, 1998), although the latter can be avoided by good
operating practice. Stand-alone parabolic dish systems require no water, other
than for periodic cleaning of reflective surfaces and so they have little impact on
water resources.

5.8. Health and safety (occupational hazards)

The accidental release of heat transfer fluids (water and oil) from parabolic
trough and central receiver systems could form a health hazard. The hazard
could be substantial in some central tower systems, which use liquid sodium or
molten salts as a heat-transfer medium. Indeed a fatal accident has occurred in a
system using liquid sodium. These dangers will be avoided by moving to
volumetric systems that use air as a heat-transfer medium.
Central tower systems have the potential to concen-trate light to intensities
that could damage eyesight. Under normal operating conditions this should not
pose any danger to operators, but failure of the tracking systems could result in
straying beams that might pose an occupational safety risk on site.

5.9. Social impacts

There will be some employment benefits during the construction and


operational phase.

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