Dec.2013/Jan.

2014

Updates
Third Semester B.E. Degree Examination

Electronic Instrumentation
Time: 3 hrs. Max. Marks: 100

Note: 1. Answer any FIVE full questions, selecting at least two questions from each part.

PART - A
1. a. Dene the following terms as applied to an instrument: i) Accuracy and Precision ii) Random Error
iii) Absolute and relative error iv) Gross error v) Systematic error (06 Marks)
Ans: i) Accuracy is dened as the degree of exactness (closeness) or conformity to the value of quantity
under measurement. Precision is defined as the degree of agreement within a group of measurement
(repeatability of measurement).
ii) Random errors occur due to reasons that are unknown, and occur at random. Since the reason for them
cannot be accounted for, they cannot be eliminated completely.
iii) Absolute error may be dened as the difference between the true value and measured value. Absolute
error represents the physical error in the measurement. Relative error is dened as the ratio of the
absolute error produced in a given measurement to the measured value.
iv) Gross errors occur mainly due to the carelessness/lack of experience of the person involved in the
measurement of any quantity.
v) Systematic error occurs mainly due to the defective parts and ageing of the instrument and also
environmental effects. They may be due to the friction in the bearings, moving parts, variation in air
gap, loading effect etc.
1. b. Determine the value of the multiplier resistance on the 50V range of a dc voltmeter that uses a 250mA
meter movement with an internal resistance of 100. (06 Marks)
Ans: Given Ifsd = 250 mA, Internal resistance = 100 , Range = 50V
Sensitivity of the meter movement is
1 1
S= = = 4kΩ / V
Ifsd 250 × 10−6

The value of multiplier resistance RS is found by the relation

RS = S u Range – internal resistance
= 4000 u 50 – 100 = 199900
= 199.99 k
1.c. Explain in detail the working of true RMS voltmeter and give the difference between peak responding
and average responding voltmeters. (08 Marks)
Ans: True RMS - Reading AC voltmeter: A DC meter can be converted into a true RMS voltmeter.
For converting a given DC meter to read the RMS values, we use the form factor, which is the ratio of the
RMS value of the wave to its DC (average) value.

6-Electronic Instrumentation Dec.013-Jan.014.indd 101 05/08/2014 12:49:37 PM

  Dec.2013/Jan.2014 Electronic Instrumentation
Updates

For a sinusoidal input waveform, the form factor is 1.11. We multiply the rectified DC with 1.11 to get
the corresponding peak value of the input AC wave. The scale of the simple AC voltmeter can then be
converted (and calibrated) to read peak values. For obtaining the RMS value of a non-sinusoidal waveform,
corrections have to be made, as its form factor will be different from the standard sinusoidal value of 1.11.
Figure shows the construction of a directly calibrated true - RMS reading voltmeter. The voltage to
be measured is applied through an operational amplifier OA 1 to the heating element H1, of the main
thermocouple unit TM. H1, in turn, produces a heat proportional to the input AC. The thermocouple TM
senses this heat and produces a voltage that is proportional to it. It can be seen that this voltage represents
the true RMS value of the input AC voltage, since it is proportional to the power dissipated in H1.
The output voltage of TM is amplified by OA 2, which drives an ordinary moving-coil voltmeter M.
To remove errors due to common-mode signals, such as ambient temperature, we use a feedback line from
the output of OA 2 to drive heating element 2 of thermocouple TD, which senses the error produced and
applies a corrective voltage to OA 2.
Since this meter senses the heating effect and produces proportional voltages, this can indeed be directly
calibrated to read the true RMS value of any applied input AC.

ac input voltage OA1

TM OA2

M
Heating element
H1

TD

H2

Fig. True RMS reading voltmeter

The difference between peak responding and average responding meters: The peak responding show
the peak value (maximum value) of a signal while the average responding meters show the average value of
the signal. This can be done by calibrating the meter for the required value after introducing the necessary
changes in the meter circuits.
2. a. Explain in detail the working of successive approximation type digital voltmeter and give the output
for a 4 bit control word. (08 marks)
Ans: Successive Approximation DVM is based on the principle of simple weighing technique used in practice.
The basic block diagram of a successive approximation DVM is shown.
When a +ve start pulse is applied to multi-vibrator which activates the control circuit, SAR is cleared to
“00000000” and VCout of DAC is 0V.
if Vin > VCout then comparator output is positive during rst clock pulse of the counter and D7 = 1 and all
V
other registers to ‘0’ and VCout jumps to ref .
2
Now VCout > Vin then comparator output is negative during second clock pulse of the counter and D7 = 0, D6
V
= 1 and all other register to ‘0’ and VCout jumps to ref .
4

6-Electronic Instrumentation Dec.013-Jan.014.indd 102 05/08/2014 12:49:40 PM

 Electronic Instrumentation Dec.2013/Jan.2014 

Updates
Similarly, the rest of bits beginning from D7 to D0 are set and tested. Therefore in 8 clock cycles the
measurement is completed and the content in SAR is the actual digital output.

Sample and
Hold Clock

2. b. A 4 ½ digit DVM is used for voltage measurements. (i) Find its resolution (ii) How would 67.50V be
displayed on a 5V range (iii) How would 0.716V be displayed on 1 V and 10 V ranges. (06 Marks)
Ans: i) Number of full digits on a 4 ½ digit multimeter = 4
In general, resolution of a DVM with an n-digit display is given by
1
Resolution =
10n
Substituting n = 4, we get
1
Resolution = = 0.0001
104
ii) Using the 4 ½ digit display, there would be 5 digits on the display panel, with the most digit being a 0
or a 1.
Thus 67.50V would be displayed as 067.50
iii) Resolution on 1 V range = 0.0001u1V = 0.0001V (100V)
It means any reading up to 4th decimal can be displayed
Hence, 0.716 would be displayed as 0.7160 in 1V range.
Similarly, Resolution in 10 V range = 0.0001u10V= 0.001V (1mV). Hence decimal upto 3rd decimal
places can be displayed. So, 0.716 would be displayed as 00.716.
2. c. Explain in detail the working of digital multimeter. (06 Marks)
Ans: Digital multimeter is one of the most versatile instrument capable of measuring dc and ac voltage as well
as current and resistance. Over its analog counter parts, it offers high accuracy, high input impedance and
smaller in size.
The basic circuit of digital multimeter is a dc voltmeter only. Current is measured by converting it into
voltage by passing through a precision low shunt resistance.. Similar way the alternating current is converted

6-Electronic Instrumentation Dec.013-Jan.014.indd 103 05/08/2014 12:49:40 PM

  Dec.2013/Jan.2014 Electronic Instrumentation
Updates

in to dc by employing rectifiers and filters. The meter having a precision low current source applied across
the unknown resistance for the purpose of measuring resistance. The output across this unknown resistance
is again a dc voltage that is digitized and read out as ohms.
Fig. 2(a), shows the basic block diagram of a digital multimeter.
Digital
ac ac Display
attenuator Converter BCD
Output

High ac
ac A/D
attenuator Interface
bc convertor

ohms
Input converter Precision
Shunt reference

Low
Fig: 2(a) Basic block diagram of a DMM
The DMM can be a bench top, which is used mainly for stand alone operation and usual operation ready, or
it may be a system meter that provide a BCD output or some time micro processor based computing power,
depend upon the customer requirement.

3. a. Explain in detail the generation of time base signal for the horizontal deecting plates. (05 Marks)

Ans: Sweep or time base generator is a part of horizontal deecting circuit of a CRO. There are two kinds of
sweep generators; continuous sweep and triggered sweep, depend upon the application.
i) Continuous sweep CRO: Time base generator for a continuous sweep CRO, using a UJT and the
corresponding wave forms are shown Fig.3(a).
Initially, when the power is switched on, the UJT is OFF and the capacitor CT charge exponentially through
the variable resistance RT, which makes the emitter voltage, VE rises towards VBB and reaches VP as shown
in the wave form. This makes the emitter to Base 1 junction forward biased and the UJT triggers ON, which
in turn provides a low resistance path for the capacitor discharge that subsequently make the emitter voltage
to reach the minimum voltage resulting into the UJT OFF. Once the UJT becomes OFF, the capacitor
recharges and the cycle repeats. The charging period to increase the emitter voltage to reach VP is called
sweep time (TS) and that falls to minimum is called retrace time (Tr). RT is a used for continuous control of
frequency within a particular range and CT is varied in steps to change the range itself. For this reason, they
are called timing resistor and timing capacitor. The sync pulse enables the sweep frequency to be exactly
equal to the input (CRO) signal frequency, so that the signal is looked on the screen.

ii. Triggered sweep CRO: A triggered sweep is necessary, when short duration signals such as voice or
music signals are to be displayed. In triggered mode, the input signal is used to generate substantial
pulse that trigger the sweep, ensuring that the sweep is always synchronised with the input signal that
drives it.

6-Electronic Instrumentation Dec.013-Jan.014.indd 104 05/08/2014 12:49:41 PM

 Electronic Instrumentation Dec.2013/Jan.2014 

Updates
+VBB
Ts  Sweep time
R2 Tr  Retrace time
Synch RT V
pulse
input B2 VBB
VP
B1 E

CT Vo
R1
VV
t

TS Tr
Circuit diagram Wave form in output

Fig. 3(a) : Continuous sweep

Circuit diagram for the triggered sweep and the corresponding output waveforms are shown in Fig.3(b).
+VBB Ts Sweep Time
Tr Retrace Time
Th Hold Time
R2 RT R3 V
CC
Trigger 0
Input Trigger
D VD input pulse

VD
CT R4 Vo Output
R1

t
Tr Ts Th

Circuit diagram Wave form

Fig: 3(b) Triggered sweep wave form

Resistances R3 and R4 form a Voltage divider so as to make the voltage Vd at the cathode of the diode below
peak voltage VP such that UJT dosen't conduct in the normal condition. At the time of switching ON the
circuit, UTT is OFF and CT charges exponentially through RT towards VBB until the diode becomes forward
biased and conducts. Because of the action of diode, the capacitor voltage can not reach the peak voltage
required for UJT to conduct but is clamped at VD. However, a negative pulse of sufficient amplitude is fed
to the base – 2 of the UJT and the peak voltage is lowered for a moment, the UJT fires and this makes the
capacitor discharges rapidly through the UJT until the maintaining voltage of the UJT is reached. Once it
reaches this voltage, the UJT switches OFF and the CT charges towards VBB till it clamped at VD and the
cycle repeats.
3. b. What is an electronic switch and explain in detail its various modes of operation (05 Marks)
Ans: The electronic switch is used in cathode ray oscilloscope to display two channels at a time. The electronic
switch basically consists of two separate gain control and gate stages. These gate stages are alternating
biased to cut-off by a square wave signal applied to the gate stage. This technique allows only one gate is in

6-Electronic Instrumentation Dec.013-Jan.014.indd 105 05/08/2014 12:49:41 PM

  Dec.2013/Jan.2014 Electronic Instrumentation
Updates

a condition to pass its signal at any given time. The outputs of these gate stages are directly coupled through
a capacitor to VDF of CRT.

To vertical
deection
of CRT

3. c. List the various control knobs on the front panel of CRO (04 Marks)
Ans: Typical front - panel controls of a basic oscilloscope (2 channel) is explained below:
1. On - off switch. - To switch on or off the scope.
2. INTENS. This is the intensity control connected to the grid G to control the beam intensity and hence
the brightness of the screen spot. Make the intensity control just bright enough for clear visibility.
3. FOCUS Control allows you to obtain a clearly defined line on the screen.
4. POSITION knob allows you to adjust the vertical position of the waveform on the screen. (There is
one of these for each channel).
5. AMPL/DIV. is a control of the Y (ie. vertical) amplitude of the signal on the screen. It is a rotary
switch individual for each channel.
6. AC/DC switch. This should be left in the DC position unless you cannot get a signal on-screen
otherwise. If it is kept in AC position, DC voltage will be blocked.
7. A&B/ADD switch. This allows you to display both input channels separately or to combine them into
one.
8. +/- switch. This allows you to observe the waveform on the display start from its +ve half or -ve half
cycle.
9. X POSITION Only one control knobe for both the channels, that allow you to adjust the horizontal
position of the signals on the screen.
10 LEVEL This allows you to determine the trigger level; ie. the point of the waveform at which the
ramp voltage will begin in timebase mode.
11. Time/Div This selector controls the frequency at which the beam sweeps horizontally across the
screen in timebase mode, as well as whether the oscilloscope is in timebase mode or xy mode. It helps
to measure the time period of the waveform and hence frequency.
12. A/B selector. This allows you to choose which signal to use for triggering (channel 1 or 2).
13. -/+ press button switch will force the ramp signal to synchronise its starting time to either the
decreasing or increasing part of the unknown signal you are studying.
14. INT/EXT This will determine whether the ramp will be synchronised to the signal chosen by the A/B
switch or by whatever signal is applied to the EXT. SYNC. input :

6-Electronic Instrumentation Dec.013-Jan.014.indd 106 05/08/2014 12:49:41 PM

 Electronic Instrumentation Dec.2013/Jan.2014 

Updates
15. External trigger input: External trigger signal is applied to this terminal if EXT is selected
(refer the above part 14)
3. d. An electrically deected CRT has a nal anode voltage of 2000V and parallel deecting plates
1.5cm apart. If the screen is 50 cm from the center of the deecting plates, nd (i) the beam speed
(ii) deection sensitivity of the tube (iii) Deection factor. (06 Marks)
Ans: Given
Final anode voltage, VA = 2000 V,
Distance between plates, d = 1.5 cm = 0.015 m
Distance from center of deflection plates to screen, L = 50 cm = 0.5 m
2eVA
i) Then, beam speed V =
m
where e= charge of electron (1.6u10–19C), m= mass of electron (9.1u10– 31 kg)
2 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 20000
Therefore, V = = 26.52 × 106 m
9.1 × 10−31
Lld
ii) Deection sensitivity, S =
2dVA
where ld = effective length of the deection plates in meters and let it be 1cm = 0.01 m.
0.5 × 0.01
Therefore, S = = 83.3 × 10−6 m / V
2 × 0.015 × 2000
1
iii) Deection factor, G = (Volt / meter )
s
1
G= = 12000V / m
83.3 × 10−6
4. a. Explain in detail the working of sampling oscilloscope with necessary waveforms (10 Marks)
Ans:
Reconstructed output wave Higher frequency input wave
v
3 4
5
2 6
7
1 t

Sampling Pulses

Sampling Pulses Sampling Pulses

v

t
Fig. 4.a Sampling of high-frequency signal into a low-frequency signal

6-Electronic Instrumentation Dec.013-Jan.014.indd 107 05/08/2014 12:49:41 PM

  Dec.2013/Jan.2014 Electronic Instrumentation
Updates

Consider an ordinary oscilloscope being applied with a high-frequency signal at its vertical input. With a
high-frequency being applied across the vertical deflection plates, the writing speed of the electron beam
increases. The immediate result of higher writing speed is a reduction in image intensity on the CRT screen.
In order to obtain sufficient image brilliance, the electron beam must be^accelerated to a higher velocity so
that more kinetic energy applied to the screen to produce normal image brightness. An increase in electron-
beam velocity is easily achieved by raising the voltage on the accelerating anodes. A beam with higher
velocity also needs a greater deflection potential to maintain the deflection sensitivity. This immediately
places higher demands on the vertical amplifier.
In the sampling oscilloscope, the input waveform is reconstructed from many samples taken during
recurrent cycles of the input waveform and thus overcomes the frequency limitations of conventional CRTs.
The technique is illustrated by the waveforms indicated in Fig. 4 (a).
Figure 4 (a) shows a higher frequency input wave being sampled by a group of sampling pulses. The principle
involves in taking one sample each from each recurrent full cycle of the applied wave. As illustrated in the
figure, sample 1 is taken from the first cycle, sample 2 is taken from the second cycle, sample 3 is taken
from the third cycle, and so on.
It may also be noted that the samples are taken from different points on the applied wave in such a fashion
that, when regrouped, these points will form a single wave, which is replica of one cycle of the applied
wave, as shown in Fig. 4 (a), where the reconstructed wave is indicated by thick dotted lines.

Input Sampling Vertical

signal To vertical
gate Amplier
deection plate

Trigger Blocking Ramp Voltage Staircase To horizontal

Input oscillator Generator Comparator Generator deection plate

Attenuator

Fig. 4(b) black diagram of the sampling circuitry in a sampling scope

Figure 4 (b) shows a simplified block diagram of the sampling circuitry used in a sampling oscilloscope.
The input waveform to be observed is applied to the sampling gate. Sampling pulses momentarily bias the
diodes of the balanced sampling gate in the forward direction, thereby briefly connecting the gate input
capacitance to the test point. These capacitances are slightly charged toward the voltage level of the input
circuit. The capacitor voltage is amplified by the vertical amplifier and applied to the vertical deflection
plates. Since the sampling must be synchronized with the input signal frequency, the signal is delayed in
the vertical amplifier, allowing the sweep triggering to be done by the input signal. When a trigger pulse is
received, the avalanche blocking oscillator (so called because it uses avalanche transistors) starts an exactly
linear ramp voltage, which is applied to a voltage comparator. The voltage comparator compares the ramp
voltage to the output-voltage of a staircase generator. When the two voltages are equal in amplitude, the
staircase generator is allowed to advance one step and simultaneously a sampling pulse is applied to the
sampling gate. At this moment, a sample of the input voltage -is taken, amplified, and applied to the vertical
deflection plates.
Advantages over Real time CRO
1. Greater band width
2. Larger dynamic range

6-Electronic Instrumentation Dec.013-Jan.014.indd 108 05/08/2014 12:49:42 PM

 Electronic Instrumentation Dec.2013/Jan.2014 

Updates
3. Very low signal to noise ratio
4. Better frequency response

4. b. Explain in detail the working of digital storage oscilloscope and list the advantages of DSO.
(10 Marks)
Ans: Digital storage oscilloscope:
Input
Input S/H A/D D/A
Vertical Memory
signal circuit converter converter
amplifier

Trigger
circuit
Vertical
deflection
amplifier
Control
logic D/A
converter

Horizontal
deflection
amplifier

CRT deflection plants

In a digital storage Oscilloscope, the waveform to be displayed and stored is converted into binary digits
(1s and 0s), stored in a random access memory, and retrieved for display on screen. The stored wave form
may be continuously displayed by repeatedly scanning the stored waveform and, therefore, a conventional
oscilloscope tube can be used for the display.
The stored data can be displayed indenitely as long as power is applied to the memory. The digitized
waveform can be analyzed by either the oscilloscope itself or by using a digital computer connected to it.
Figure 4.3 shows the block diagram of a digital storage oscilloscope. The input is amplied and attenuated with
input ampliers as in any oscilloscope. The digital storage oscilloscope uses the same types of input circuitry
as a conventional oscilloscope and can operate in a conventional mode, bypassing the digitizing and storing
features.
As shown in the gure, the input signal amplied by the vertical amplier-attenuator combination is applied
to an analog-to-digital converter, which then drives a random-access memory (RAM). This temporarily
stores the digitized input data.
A control logic circuit is used to control the operations of the ADC and the memory. The output of the
memory is applied to a digital-to-analog (DA) converter, which in turn is used to drive the vertical deection
amplier and vertical deection plates.
The control logic also drives the horizontal-sweep DAC and the horizontal deection amplier. The combined
action of the deection plates, as in the conventional oscilloscope produces display on the screen.

6-Electronic Instrumentation Dec.013-Jan.014.indd 109 05/08/2014 12:49:42 PM

  Dec.2013/Jan.2014 Electronic Instrumentation
Updates

Advantages of digital storage oscilloscope

1. They can be used to observe fast and slow phenomena alike. Can be used to analyze minute details in
any type of waveform.
2. Data can be stored permanently for viewing at convenience.
3. Real-time analysis is also possible.
4. Can be directly connected to digital computers for analysis of waveforms.
5. Waveforms appearing only once (like a transient) can be observed and analyzed easily.
6. With large memory capacity, a lot of data can be stored in a DSO.
7. Several channels are possible in modern DSO’s which help in analyzing waveform at different parts
of a system simultaneously.
8. Can be used to pre-trigger view.
9. Compatible with modern at-panel displays using TFT’s
10. Analyses can be displayed on the screen itself by computational ability of the scope.
11. Brighter and bigger display.
12. Different colors employed to distinguish multiple traces.
13. Much higher resolutions possible.
14. Detection of peak signal possible.
15. Waveform zooming in and zooming out is possible for ner examinations.
16. Allows automation.
17. Three dimensional imaging easy.

PART - B
5. a. Explain in detail the working of function generator. (08 Marks)
Ans: A function generator is used to generate a variety of wave form functions, whole frequencies are adjustable
over a wide range. The most common output wave forms are sine, triangular and square wave forms.
Fig. 5(a) shows a typical block diagram of a function generator. The basic wave form produced in a function
generator is a triangular wave and the sine and square waves are derived out of this triangular wave form.

Constant – current Schmitt

Square
source trigger

I
Frequency
– control Integrator Triangular
circuit I

Constant – current Wave –

Sine
source shaper

Fig: 5. a block diagram a typical function generator

The generation of basic signal is done by two constant sources driving an integrator. The upper current

6-Electronic Instrumentation Dec.013-Jan.014.indd 110 05/08/2014 12:49:42 PM

 Electronic Instrumentation Dec.2013/Jan.2014 

Updates
source is used to charge the integrator capacitor at a uniform rate, which produces a positive going ramp
according to the relation. V = –C³idt. The capacitor after reaching the final value will discharge through the
lower constant current source that results into a negative going ramp. The two actions; the charging and
discharging of the capacitor will produce a triangular wave as shown in Fig. 5(b).
V

+V

b t

+V

c
t

Original
–V wave
Shaped sine
wave

Fig: b Triangular, square, and shaped sine waves

The triangular wave is fed to a schmitt – trigger (voltage comparator) circuit to produce a square wave form.
To get a sine wave, a wave shaping circuit using diodes are used. The wave shaping circuit will smoothen
the edge of the triangular wave to form into a sine wave as shown in the figure. The output circuit of the
function generator consists of two output amplifiers to provide simultaneous amplifications for individually
selected outputs of any of the wave form function.

5. b. Explain in detail the working of square and pulse generator. (08 Marks)

Ans: The block diagram of a typical square-wave and pulse generator circuit, shown in Fig. 5(b), which consists
of two constant current (C-C) sources. The switch first connects capacitor C to the top C-C source, which
charges it to a predetermined value, and then connects it to the bottom C-C source, which discharges it. The
charging and discharging of C produces a triangular wave, which is squared by the Schmitt-trigger circuit
as shown in Fig 5 (c).
The charging and discharging can be made asymmetric to give different duty cycles of the square-wave
output. The output may be a square wave or a trigger wave. Typical square-wave generators (of the type
described above) are usually available with outputs in the range of 1 Hz to 10 MHz. They also produce
square waves, which are needed to drive logic gates.

6-Electronic Instrumentation Dec.013-Jan.014.indd 111 05/08/2014 12:49:42 PM

  Dec.2013/Jan.2014 Electronic Instrumentation
Updates

C-C Square
Charging of C Amp 1
source wave

Frequency Schmitt
control Switch trigger
C

C-C Discharging
of C Trigger
source Amp 2
pulses

Fig. 5 (b) : Block diagram of square-wave and pulse generator circuit

+V

b t

Fig 5(c) Outputs of square-wave and pulse generator

5. c. Explain in detail the working of sine and square wave generator. (04 Marks)
Ans: Figure 5(d) shows the block diagram of a sine- and square-wave generator. It consists of a variable frequency
Wien-bridge oscillator that drives an isolation amplifier. The output of this amplifier is amplified further
and attenuated to give a sine-wave output, as shown. The sine-wave is squared using a Schmitt-trigger
circuit to give a square-wave output. This generator is used to give audio-frequency sine and square-wave
outputs.

Amplier Sine wave

Wien-bridge Isolation
oscillator amplier
Schmitt Square wave
trigger

Fig 5(d) Block diagram of a sine- and square-wave generator

6. a. Explain in detail the working of wein bridge oscillator and nd the parallel R and C that causes the
wein bridge to null with the following components values: R1 = 27k, R2 = 22k, C1 = 5F, R4 =
100k, and the operating frequency is 2.2 kHz. (12 Marks)

6-Electronic Instrumentation Dec.013-Jan.014.indd 112 05/08/2014 12:49:42 PM

 Electronic Instrumentation Dec.2013/Jan.2014 

Updates
Ans: i) Wein bridge oscillator is an RC oscillator and is used to generate sinusoidal oscillations in the audio
frequency range. The following figure (a) shows the circuit of wein bridge oscillator. It consists of
an Op-amp non-inverting amplifier in the forward path and a lead-lag network in the feedback path.
Series R1C1 network is a lead network and the parallel R2C2 network is the lag network. The name
wein bridge is due to the fact that the feedback resistor R3 and R4 of Op-amp amplifier and lead-lag
network forms a bridge as shown in the following figure (b). At the oscillator frequency, the lead-lag
network is designed to introduce 0o phase shift. The Op-amp non-inverting amplifier introduces 0o
phase shift. Hence, the total phase shift around the loop is zero. The expression for the frequency of
oscillation is obtained from the balancing condition of the bridge.

R3
C1
R4 +VCC R1 R3
– a
b Vo
c
d + d b
R2
R1 R4
C1
C2
Lead - Lag network c
R2 C2

Fig (a) Wein bridge Oscillator Fig (b) Wein bridge

ii) Given R1 = 27k:, R2 = 22k:, C1 = 5PF, R4 = 100k:, f = 2.2kHz
Then Z = 2Sf = 2 u 3.14 u 2200 = 13.83 krad/s
R4 ⎛ 1 ⎞
Parallel Resistance R 3 = ⎜ R1 + 2 ⎟
R2 ⎝ ω R1C12 ⎠

⎛ ⎞
100k ⎜ 1 ⎟
= 27k +
22k ⎜
⎝ (13.83k )
2
× 27k × (5 × 10 )⎠
−6 2 ⎟

= 4.545 (27k + 0.0077 ) = 122.7kΩ

Parallel Capacitance
⎛ ⎞
R2 ⎛ C1 ⎞ 22k 5 × 10−6
C3 = ⎜ 2 2 2⎟
= ⎜ ⎟
R 4 ⎝ 1 + ω R1 C1 ⎠ (
100k ⎜⎝ 1 + (13.83k )2 × (27k )2 × 5 × 10−6 ) ⎟⎠
2

⎛ 1 ⎞
= 1.1 × 10−6 ⎜ = 0.315 × 10−6 = 0.315pF
⎝ 1 + 3485875.7 ⎟⎠

Parallel Resistance R3 = 122.7k and Parallel Capacitance C3 = 0.315pF

6. b. For the Wheatstone’s bridge shown in Fig Q6 (b), the galvanometer has a current sensitivity of 12mm/
A. The internal resistance of galvanometer is 200. Calculate the deection of the galvanometer
caused due to 5 unbalance in the arm AD. (08 Marks)

6-Electronic Instrumentation Dec.013-Jan.014.indd 113 05/08/2014 12:49:42 PM

  Dec.2013/Jan.2014 Electronic Instrumentation
Updates

R2
0

=
20

10
=

R5 = 200 :

0
R

:
1
A S B

R4

:
00
=
20

10
00

=
:

R
3
D

10V

Fig Q6 (b)
Ans: Given R1 = 200 , R2 = 100 , R3 = 1000 , R4 = 2005 , RG = 200 , V = 10V.
To find the current through the galvanometer, we have to find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit and the
circuit may be modified as shown in Fig (a).

R1 R2

C
A B
D

R4 R3

10V

Fig (a) Circuit to nd the Thevenin’s equivalent

Referring Fig. (a), Thevenin’s Voltage between the points C and D is
⎛ R2 R3 ⎞
Vth = V ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ R1 + R 2 R 4 + R 3 ⎠

⎛ 100 1000 ⎞
= 10 ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 200 + 100 2005 + 1000 ⎠
= 5.5 × 10−3 V
Thevenin’s Equivalent Resistance is
⎛ R R RR ⎞
R th = ⎜ 4 3 + 1 2 ⎟
⎝ R 4 + R 3 R1 + R 2 ⎠

⎛ 2005 × 1000 200 × 100 ⎞

=⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 2005 + 1000 200 + 100 ⎠
= 600Ω
Referring circuit in Fig. (b), the current through the Galvanometer is
Vth 5.5 × 10−3
IG = = = 6.9μA
R th + R G 600 + 200

Deflection = Sensitivity u Galvanometer current

6-Electronic Instrumentation Dec.013-Jan.014.indd 114 05/08/2014 12:49:42 PM

 Electronic Instrumentation Dec.2013/Jan.2014 

T = S u IG = 12 u 6.9 = 82.8 mm

Updates
Rth = 600:
VRh
Rg = 200: G
5.5mv

Fig. (b) Thevenin's equivalent

7. a. Explain in detail the working of resistive position transducer and also calculate the output voltage
when wiper is 10cm from extreme end for the applied voltage of 5V and if the resistive position
transducer uses a shaft with a stroke of 50cm. The total resistance of the potentiometer is 5k.
(10 Marks)

Ans: it is a common requirement in industrial measurement is to able to sense the position of an object or the
distance it has moved, which is possible by the use of a displacement transducer. A resistive position
transducer is an electromechanical device containing a resistance element that is contacted by a movable
slider and motion of the slider results in a resistance change. Fig. (a) shows the basic construction of this
type of transducer and fig. (b) be illustrates the working principle or measurement technique.

Conducting strip A

Shift
R1
Wiper
Vt W

R2 Vo

B A W B

Fig.(a) Resistive Position Transducer Construction Fig (b) Measurement technique

It has a resistive element with a sliding contact or wiper linked to the object being monitored or measured.
It can be seen that the resistance between the slider and one end of the resistance element depends on the
position of the object. The output voltage depends on the wiper position that is applied to a voltmeter
calibrated in centimeters for visual display.
Referring fig. (b), it may be seen that the output voltage is a certain fraction of the applied voltage depending
on the position of the wiper.
vo R2
That is, =
v t R1 + R 2

Given size of the shaft stroke = 50 cm

Position of the wiper = 10 cm
Total resistance of the Pot = 5 k
Applied voltage Vt = 5 V
Referring Fig. (c) and given data,

6-Electronic Instrumentation Dec.013-Jan.014.indd 115 05/08/2014 12:49:42 PM

  Dec.2013/Jan.2014 Electronic Instrumentation
Updates

Vt R1
R2
wiper
Vo = ?

B
Fig (c)
10
R2 = × 5000 = 1000Ω = 1kΩ
50
Vo R2
=
Vt R1 + R 2

Therefore,
R2
Vo = × Vt
R1 + R 2

1000
Vo = × 5 = 1V
5000
7. b. Explain the construction, principle and operation of LVDT. (10 Marks)
Ans: LVDT

Figure shows the construction of the linear variable differential transformer (LVDT). The differential
transformer consists of single primary winding and two secondary windings wound on a hallow cylindrical
former. The two secondary windings have equal number of turns and are placed on both sides of the primary
winding. The primary winding is excited by an ac source.
A movable soft iron core slides in & out the hallow former effecting the magnetic coupling between primary
and two secondary windings.

6-Electronic Instrumentation Dec.013-Jan.014.indd 116 05/08/2014 12:49:43 PM

 Electronic Instrumentation Dec.2013/Jan.2014 

Updates
When the core is at the normal position (exactly at the middle of the former) the secondary voltages
induced are equal and hence the output voltage is the difference of these two voltages, Vo = E1 – E2 = 0 .
V0 = 0V
When the core is moved to the bottom more ux links ‘S1’ than ‘S2’the output voltage is E1, the output
voltage V0 = E1 − E 2 .
when the moved to bottom most, the output voltage is very negligible (almost zero).
E 2 = 0 → so V0 ≈ E1

Similarly, when the core is moved in the opposite position Vo = E2 =E1. At the extreme end, E1 = 0
V0 = E 2

Thus, we find that, as the position of the core changes within the former, the voltages induced in the
individual secondary coils differ; this produces an output voltage that is linearly proportional to the position
of the core; hence the name linear variable differential transformer.
The transfer curve of the LVDT is shown in Fig. 7 (c). The transfer characteristic shows a fairly linear
operation of the LVDT.
V0 = V01 – V02

+Xmax
Position of the core (–X)
Position of the core (+X)
–Xmax

V0 = V02 – V01
Fig. 7. c Transfer characteristic of LVDT
8. a. Write a short note on signal conditioning system. (06 Marks)
Ans: Signal conditioning circuits
Signal - conditioner: Signal conditioning equipment is required to perform basic linear processes such
as attenuation, amplication and mathematical operations like integration and differentiation. They can
also be used to perform non-linear process such as ltering, multiplication, sampling and modulation/
demodulation. These functions require proper selection of components and faithful reproduction of the
required nal output. The signal conditioning / data acquisition system is an excitation system/amplication
system for passive transducers, or it can be an amplication system for active transducer.

Simplier

Fig. DC signal conditioning system

For a passive transducer excitation is essentially required. The passive transducer like strain gauge
thermometers, capacitive transducers and potentiometers to be excited from an external dc source. The

6-Electronic Instrumentation Dec.013-Jan.014.indd 117 05/08/2014 12:49:43 PM

  Dec.2013/Jan.2014 Electronic Instrumentation
Updates

active transducers like thermocouples, photo diode piezoelectric transducers does not require any external
dc source for excitation. But these transducers are connected to ampliers to amplify the low level input
signal.
A simple dc signal conditioning system is as shown in gure. The dc bridge is excited by a dc source and
stain gauge is connected to one arm of the wheastone’s - bridge. The bridge can be basically balanced
using a potentiometer and output of calibration is applied to dc amplier the essential requirements of dc-
amplier are as follows.
1. The input differential amplier should have a high CMRR.
2. It should have a large long term stability
3. If should be easy to calibrate
The main draw back in using dc amplifier is the problem of drift. Hence at low frequency this spurious
signal appear at the output of conditioning system as data. In order to avoid this spurious signal, LPF is used
at the output of dc amplifier. In order to overcome the problem of drift an AC signal conditioning system
is used..

8. b. Explain the working of Piezo Electric Transducer with circuit diagram. (10 Marks)
Ans: Piezo means press. Then piezo electricity means press and generate electricity. It is found that when certain
crystaline materials such as quartz, Rochelle salt and Barium titanate placed under stress, they generated
electricity. This property is used in the construction of piezoelectric transducer, where a crystal is placed
between a solid base and the force summing member as shown in Fig 8 (a).
An externally applied force entering the transducer through its pressure part applies pressure to the top of
the crystal, which produces an emf across the crystal proportional to the magnitude of the external pressure.
Equivalent electrical circuit of the crystal is also shown in Fig. 8 (a). The basic expression for the generated
emf is given by
Force - summing

C1
R1
Cp
output
L1

Base Crystal (Barium

Titanate Rochelle Equivalent
Salt Quartz) Circuit of Crystal
Fig. 8.a Peizo Electrical Transducer

Q
E=
CP

where E = generated electricity

Q = generated charge
CP = Shunt capacitance
For a pizeo electric element under pressure, part of energy is converted to an electrical potential that
appears on opposite faces of the element, analogous to a charge on the plates of a capacitor. The rest of the
applied energy is converted to mechanical energy, analogues to compressions of a spring. The piezo electric
element returns to its original shape and losses its charge, when the external pressure is removed. From
these relationship, it is derived that

6-Electronic Instrumentation Dec.013-Jan.014.indd 118 05/08/2014 12:49:43 PM

 Electronic Instrumentation Dec.2013/Jan.2014 

Updates
Mechanical energy converted into electrical energy
K=
Applied mechanical energy
or
Electrical energy converted into Mechanical energy
K=
Applied electrical energy
The piezo electric effect is reversible. That means, these crystals exhibits the property of electrostriction
when an electric field is applied across the crystal, mechanical stress is produced. An alternating voltage
is applied to the crystal causes it to vibrate at its natural frequency. This property is used in high frequency
accelerometers.
Disadvantages:
1. Can not measure static conditions since voltage is generated only when external pressure is applied.
2. Output is affected by temperature changes.

8. c. Compare LED displays and LCD displays. (04 Marks)

Ans: Comparison between LED displays and LCD displays.
LED LCD
1. Small and compact 1. Medium and compact
2. Small size 2. Small size
3. Bright displayed 3. Good contrast
4. Low power 4. Low- power
5. high speed 5. Medium speed

6-Electronic Instrumentation Dec.013-Jan.014.indd 119 05/08/2014 12:49:43 PM