UNIT – 3

Syllabus

Angle Modulation: Basic concepts, Single tone frequency modulation, Single tone
Review of Semiconductor Physics
phase modulation, Spectral Analysis of Sinusoidal FM and PM signals, Differences
between FM and PM signals, Narrow band FM, Wide band FM, Constant Average
Power, Transmission bandwidth of FM Wave - Generation of FM and PM Signals -
Energy band in solids :
Direct and indirect methods. Detection of FM wave - Balanced Frequency
discriminator, Zero crossing detector, Phase locked loop, Comparison of FM & AM.

Multiplexing: Frequency Division Multiplexing, Time Division Multiplexing,

Comparison between TDM and FDM.

1. ANGLE MODULATION:

Angle Modulation may be defined as the process in which the total phase angle of a
carrier is varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating or
message signal while keeping the amplitude of the carrier constant.

Mathematical Expression:

Let us consider that an unmodualted carrier as:

c(t )  ACos c t   

Where A  Amplitude of the carrier
c  Carrier frequency
  Phase angle

d
If we let the total phase angle as   c t      c     c dt
dt
Then the unmodualted carrier can be expressed as:

c(t )  ACos
If the angle  is varied according to the instantaneous value of the message or
modulating signal, then that modulation is called as angle modulation.

Angle modulations are two types:

1) Frequency modulation
2) Phase modulation
2. FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM):

Frequency modulation is one type of angle modulation and in that the frequency of
unmodualted carrier is varied in accordance with modulating signal while keeping the
amplitude of the carrier constant.

Mathematical Expression:

Let us consider that an unmodualted carrier as:

c(t )  ACos c t   

Where A  Amplitude of the carrier
c  Carrier frequency
  Phase angle

d
If we let the total phase angle as   c t      c     c dt
dt
Then the unmodualted carrier can be expressed as:

c(t )  ACos

In case of frequency modulation, instantaneous value of carrier frequency after

modulation is given by:

i  c  k f x (t )
And the instantaneous value of total phase angle is given by:
i   i dt  c t  k f  x(t ) dt
Therefore the expression for carrier signal after frequency modulation is given by:
 
c(t ) FM  ACos c t  k f  x(t ) dt
Where k f is called as frequency sensitivity factor.

 c(t ) FM  ACos c t  k f  VmCosmt dt 
 k V 
c(t ) FM  ACos c t  f m Sin mt 
 m 

c(t ) FM  ACos c t  m f Sinm t 
k f Vm

Where m f  is called as modulation index and   k f Vm is called as

m m
maximum frequency deviation.

The term “percent modulation” is also defined for FM as:

Δfactual
Percent modulation ‘M’ = X100
Δfmax
 Time domain representation:

3. PHASE MODULATION (PM):

Phase modulation is one type of angle modulation and in that the phase of
unmodualted carrier is varied in accordance with modulating signal while keeping the
amplitude of the carrier constant.

Mathematical Expression:

Let us consider that an unmodualted carrier as:

c(t )  ACos  c t   
Where A  Amplitude of the carrier
c  Carrier frequency
  Phase angle

d
If we let the total phase angle as   c t      c     c dt
dt

Then the unmodualted carrier can be expressed as:

c(t )  ACos

In case of phase modulation, value of carrier phase after modulation is given by:

i    k p x(t )
Where k p is called as phase sensitivity factor.
 Therefore the expression for carrier signal after phase modulation is given by:


c(t ) PM  ACos c t    k p x(t ) 
After neglecting initial phase angle  :

 
c(t ) PM  ACos c t  k p x(t )
c(t ) PM  ACos t  k V Cos t   ACos t  m
c p m m c p Cos mt 
Where m p  k pVm is called as modulation index.

4. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FM & PM:

Mathematical expression for FM is given by:


c(t ) FM  ACos c t  k f  x(t ) dt 
Mathematical expression for PM is given by:

c(t ) PM  ACos c t  k p x(t ) 
From the above equations it may be observed that phase modulation (PM) and
frequency modulation (FM) are closely related to each other because in both cases
there is a variation in the total phase angle. In PM, the phase angle varies linearly
with baseband signal x (t ) whereas in case of FM the phase angle varies linearly with
the integral of baseband signal. This means that FM may be obtained by using PM
and conversely PM may be obtained by using FM as shown in the figure.
5. TYPES OF FREQUENCY MODUALTION:

From the expression for the FM signal:


c(t ) FM  ACos c t  k f  x(t ) dt
It is noted that the bandwidth of FM signal depends on the parameter k f  x(t ) dt . For
given modulating signal x (t ) , the bandwidth of FM signal finally depends on
frequency sensitivity factor k f . Hence, when k f is quite small then the bandwidth
will be narrow and when k f is large then the bandwidth will be large.

Narrow band FM: In this case k f is small and hence bandwidth of FM is narrow.

m f  1   1   m  
m

Wideband FM: In this case k f is large and hence FM signal has a wide bandwidth.

m f  1   1  m  
m

6. NARROW BAND FM:

From the expression for the FM signal:


c(t ) FM  ACos c t  m f Sin mt 

 A Cosc t Cos m f Sin mt   Sinc t Sinm f Sin mt  
In case of narrowband FM m f  1
 Cos m f Sin mt   1 and Sinm f Sin mt   m f Sin mt

 c(t ) NARROWBAND FM  A Cosc t  m f Sinc t Sin mt 
 m m 
 ACosc t  f Cos c  m t  f Cos  c  m t 
 2 2 
From the above expressions, it may be noted that the frequency spectrum of
narrowband FM is similar to an AM signal. Therefore the bandwidth of narrowband
FM is given by:

BW  2 f m

7. GENERATION OF NARROW BAND FM:

The mathematical expressions for narrow band FM is given by:


c(t ) NARROWBAND FM  A Cos ct  m f Sin c t Sin mt 
 
 A Cos c t  k f xˆ (t ) Sinc t
Based on the above equations the following figures shows the generation methods for
narrowband FM.
8. WIDE BAND FM:

When the value of modulation index m f is quite large, then in FM a large number of
sidebands are produced and hence the bandwidth of FM is sufficiently large. This
type of FM is known as wideband FM.

From the expression for the FM signal:


c(t ) FM  ACos  c t  m f Sin mt 
The above function can be expanded by Bessel function, which is given by:
 J 0 m f Sinc t  J 1 m f Sinc  m t  Sinc   m t  
 
c(t ) FM  Vc   J 2 m f Sinc  2 m t  Sinc  2 m t  
 
  J 3 m f Sinc  3 m t  Sinc  3 m t   

Where J n m f  is called as Bessel coefficient and it’s value defined as:


J n x   
 1k x 2n 2k
k 0 k! n  k !

The value of Bessel’s coefficient tabulated and plotted as:

From the values of Bessel’s coefficients, we can observe the following points:

 Unlike AM, FM has an infinite number of sidebands along with carrier, so the FM
requires infinite bandwidth in ideal.
 The J coefficient decreases when n value increases and J coefficient value
depends on modulation index m f so the modulation index determines the
sideband amplitude.
 The sidebands at equal frequency intervals from f c having equal amplitude, i.e.
the sideband distribution is symmetrical about the carrier.
 In AM, the increase of modulation index increases sideband power and hence the
total power increases. But in FM, the total power remains constant.
 In AM the amplitude of carrier component remains constant. But in FM the
carrier component amplitude depends on J 0 .
 In FM, it is possible to suppress the carrier completely by proper selection of m f ,
i.e. m f = 2.4, 5.5, 8.6 etc. are called as ‘eigen values’.
Frequency domain representation and bandwidth:

Unlike AM, FM has an infinite number of sidebands along with carrier, so the FM
requires infinite bandwidth in ideal, but the number of significant sidebands i.e. the
bandwidth of FM can be controlled by proper selection of modulation index m f , as
shown in the figure.

The table below shows the number of significant sidebands for various modulation
indices ( m f ) and the associated spectral bandwidth.

No. of sidebands which

mf are having ≥1% carrier Bandwidth
amplitude
0.1 2 2 fm
0.3 4 4 fm
0.5 4 4 fm
1.0 6 6 fm
2.0 8 8 fm
5.0 16 16 f m
10.0 28 28 f m

Carson’s Rule to calculate FM bandwidth:

BW  2   m   2m f  m   m   21  m f  m

In case of narrow band FM: m f  1  BW  2  m

In case of wide band FM: m f  1     m  BW  2 

Power of FM signal:

Now consider – if we generate an FM signal, it will contain an infinite number of

sidebands. However, if we wish to transfer this signal, e.g. over a radio or cable, this
implies that we require an infinite bandwidth channel. Even if there was an infinite
channel bandwidth, it would not all be allocated to one user. Only a limited
bandwidth is available for any particular signal. Thus we have to make the signal
spectrum fit into the available channel bandwidth.
 With reference to FM the minimum channel bandwidth required would be just wide
enough to pass the spectrum of significant components. For a band limited FM
spectrum, the power of FM signal is given by:
a
V J  2  Vc2 a J  2  Vc2  
   J n    1
2
Pt   c n  n
n  a 2 2 n  a 2  n 

From the above equation it is noted that the total power in FM signal is almost
constant.

9. GENERATION OF FM (Direct or Parameter Variation Method):

In direct method of FM generation, the instantaneous frequency of the carrier wave is

directly varied in accordance with the message signal by means of a voltage
controlled oscillator. The frequency determining network in the oscillator is chosen
with high quality factor (Q-factor) and the oscillator is controlled by the incremental
variation of the reactive components in the tank circuit of the oscillator. A Hartley
Oscillator can be used for this purpose.

The portion of the tank circuit in the oscillator is shown in figure. The capacitive
component of the tank circuit consists of a fixed capacitor shunted by a voltage-
variable capacitor. The resulting capacitance is represented by c(t) in the figure. The
voltage variable capacitor commonly called as varactor or varicap, is one whose
capacitance depends on the voltage applied across its electrodes. The varactor diode
(or) FET reactance modulator can be used as a voltage variable capacitor.

The frequency of oscillation of the Hartley oscillator is given by:

1
f i t  
2 L1  L2 c(t )
Where the L1 and L2 are the inductances in the tank circuit and the total capacitance,
c(t) is the sum of fixed capacitor and voltage variable capacitor and given by:
c(t )  co  c Cos2 f mt 
Let the un-modulated frequency of oscillation be f o . Then the relation between
instantaneous frequency f i (t ) and f o is given as:
1

 c  2
f i t   f o 1  Cos 2 f mt 
 co 
 c 
 f o 1  Cos 2 f mt   f o   f Cos 2 f mt 
 co 
The term,  f represents the frequency deviation and the relation with  c is given by:
c f

co fo
Thus the output of the oscillator will be an FM wave. But the direct method of
generation has the disadvantage that the carrier frequency will not be stable.
Varactor Diode as a variable capacitor in FM modulator:

The varactor (or capacitor) diode is a two terminal device whose capacitance varies
with applied voltage. Here applied voltage is a combination of bias voltage (V0) and
the modulating voltage m (t). The diode capacitance forms a part of the tuning
capacitance which determines the frequency of oscillations. The capacitance varies
with the change in the modulating signal and so does the frequency variation.

FET as a variable capacitor in FM modulator:

Reactance Modulator makes use of a FET which exhibits a variable reactance with
change in the modulating signal. The device is connected across the tank or tuned
circuit of the oscillator to be frequency modulated. The value of this reactance is
proportional to the transconductance (g) of FET, which can be made to depend on the
biasing of the base (or gate) of the device.
 From the figure:
Rv
vg 
R  jX c
gm R v
id  g m v g  Where g m  transconductance of FET
R  jX c
v R  jX c 1  jX 
z    1 c 
id gm R gm  R 
jX c 1 1
If X c  R  z   j j   jX eq
Rg m 2 f C R g m 2 f C eq

The above equation show that C eq depends on transconductance of FET and can
therefore can be varied using gate bias voltage, i.e. modulating signal; since:

 Vg 
g m  g mo 1  
 V p 

10. GENERATION OF FM (Indirect Method or Armstrong method):

In indirect method a NBFM wave is generated first and frequency multiplication is

next used to increase the frequency deviation to the desired level. The narrow band
FM wave is generated using a narrow band phase modulator and an oscillator. The
narrow band FM wave is then passed through a frequency multiplier to obtain the
wide band FM wave, as shown in the figure. The crystal controlled oscillator provides
good frequency stability.

The figure shows phasor diagram, which illustrates how PM is generated using
Armstrong method. The figure(a) shows an amplitude modulated signal, in that the
resultant of two sidebands are always in phase with the unmodulated carrier, so there
is only amplitude variation and phase variation is absent. But in Armstrong method,
as in figure (b), the side bands of amplitude modulated signal is added to an
unmodulated carrier with 90º out of phase, so the resultant having phase and
amplitude variations, depending on amplitude of sidebands. The amplitude variations
can be removed by using amplitude limiter, and the resultant is phase modulated
signal.
11. DEMODULATION OF FM(Balanced Slop detection Method):

Simple tuned discriminator/simple slope detector is as shown in the figure. It consists

of a resonant circuit which is tuned to a frequency slightly above the carrier
frequency. This circuit converts the FM signal into the corresponding FM signal with
amplitude variation (i.e. like AM signal). An envelope detector is used to convert the
amplitude variations in FM signal into corresponding modulating signal.

The simple tuned discriminator/simple slope detector has an advantage of simple

design, but it suffers with non linear characteristics and amplitude variation may rise
due to noise and other factors. The non linear characteristics of this circuit limit the
frequency variations in the input signal.
The non linearity of the simple slope detector has been removed by using balance
slope Detector (or) stagged tuned discriminator, as shown in the figure:

This detector uses two slope detectors connected back to back to the opposite ends of
a center tapped transformer, so that they are 180° out of phase.

In this detector the output is the difference of two outputs V1 and V2. The resonant
circuit no.1 is tuned to a frequency f1 (= fc + Δf) slightly higher than then carrier
frequency and the resonant circuit no.2 is tuned to a frequency f2 (= fc - Δf) slightly
lower than the carrier frequency as shown in the figure.

Then as the output (Vo) is the difference of V1 and V2, the output will be zero as V1
and V2 are equal at central frequency. Thus output:

Vo  V1  V2

The output of the device is almost linear so this is superior to the simple slope
detector but this detector suffers from disadvantages:

 Output is sensitive to the amplitude variation of the input signal.

 It is very difficult to tune a single transformer to three different frequencies.
 The tuned filter outputs are not strictly band limited so some distortion is
introduced by low pass filters.
 The tuned filter characteristic is not linear over the whole frequency band of the
input FM signal.
12. DEMODULATION OF FM (Zero Crossing detection Method):

The instantaneous frequency of an FM wave is given by:

1
f 
2 t
Where  t the time difference between the two adjacent zero crossovers points of the
FM wave.

Take a time internal T, such that:

 The time T is small as compared to 1/B.W. of the signal.
 The time T is large as compared to 1/carrier frequency.
If number of zero crossings during time T is n0, i.e.:
T
t 
n0
The instantaneous frequency:
1 n
fi   0
2 t 2T
As there is a linear relation between instantaneous frequency and the signal, the later
can be recovered, if n0 is known. This is the principle of operation of a zero crossing
detector.

The figure gives the block diagram of the detector.

In this method, we measure instantaneous frequency by the number of zero crossings.

The limiter converts the FM input into a square wave. The output of the limiter goes
to zero crossing detector (i.e. a differentiator). Each time the output goes positive, it
triggers the monostable multivibrator which generate a rectangular pulse of a fixed
width. The rate of zero crossing is equal to the instantaneous frequency of the input
signal. The output of multivibrator is fed to an averaging circuit (i.e. an integrator),
which gives the input modulating signal. The following figure shows the associated
waveforms.
13. DEMODULATION OF FM(PLL detection Method):

The PLL is a negative feedback system. It can be used to track the phase and
frequency of an incoming signal. Hence it is useful device in the following
applications:
 Generation and demodulation of angle modulated signals.
 Synchronous demodulation of DSBSC and SSB signals.

The PLL has three basic components:

 A voltage – controlled oscillator (VCO)
 A multiplier serving as a phase detector or phase comparator
 A loop filter (or) a low pass filter.

The block diagram of PLL is as shown in figure. The frequency of VCO can be
controlled by external voltage. In VCO, the oscillation frequency varies linearly with
its input voltage. The output of the multiplier is passed through a low pass filter and
then applied to the input of the VCO. This voltage then changes the frequency of the
VCO and keeps the loop in locked condition.
 Mathematical Analysis for PLL as FM demodulator:

Let FM input signal as:

s (t )  Ac Cos ct  1 (t )
Where 1 (t )  k f  x(t )dt and x (t ) is modulating signal.

Similarly let VCO output signal as:

r (t )  Av Sinc t  2 (t )
Where  2 (t )  k v  v(t )dt .

Therefore the error signal can be defined as:

e(t )  s(t ) r (t )  Ac Cosc t  1 (t )Av Sinc t   2 (t )
Ac Av
 Sin2ct  1 (t )  2 (t )  Sin1 (t )  2 (t )
2

If the above signal is passed through a low pass filter, then the output of low pass
filter will be:
AA AA
v(t )   c v Sin1 (t )  2 (t )   c v Sine (t )
2 2
If e (t ) is zero, then the PLL is said to be in phase locking condition. If e (t ) is less
than one radian, then the PLL is said to be in capture condition. In the capture
condition, the above equation can be rewritten as:
AA
v(t )   c v e (t )
2
 e (t )  1 (t )  2 (t )
 2 (t )  1 (t )  e (t )  1 (t )
 kv  v(t )dt  k f  x(t )dt
kf
 v(t )  x(t )  v(t )  x(t )
kv
That means that the output of low pass filter is proportional to the original modulating
signal.

14. COMPARISON OF AM & FM:

Advantages of FM over AM:

 Less radiated power.

 Low distortion due to improved signal to noise ratio (about 25dB) w.r.t. to man
made interference.
 Smaller geographical interference between neighboring stations.
 Well defined service areas for given transmitter power.

Disadvantages of FM over AM:

 Much more Bandwidth (as much as 20 times as much).

 More complicated receiver and transmitter.
 Applications:

 FM Radio
 TV sound broadcast
 2-way mobile radio

15. FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (FDM):

In many communication systems, a single, large frequency band is assigned to the

system and is shared among a group of users. Examples of this type of system
include:

 A microwave transmission line connecting two sites over a long distance. Each
site has a number of sources generating independent data streams that are
transmitted simultaneously over the microwave link.
 AM or FM radio broadcast bands, which are divided among many channels or
stations.
 A satellite system providing communication between a large number of ground
stations that are separated geographically but that need to communicate at the
same time. The total bandwidth assigned to the satellite system must be divided
among the ground stations.
 A cellular radio system that operates in full-duplex mode over a given
frequency band.

Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) means that the total bandwidth available
to the system is divided into a series of nonoverlapping frequency sub-bands that
are then assigned to each communicating source. Figure show how this division
is accomplished for a case of three sources at one end of a system that are
communicating with three separate users at the other end. Note that each
transmitter modulates its source's information into a signal that lies in a different
frequency sub-band (Transmitter1 generates a signal in the frequency sub-band
between 92.0 MHz and 92.2 MHz,t Transmitter2 generates a signal in the sub-band
between 92.2 MHz and 92.4 MHz, and transmitter3 generates a signal in the sub-
band between 92.4 MHz and 92.6 MHz). The signals are then transmitted across
a common channel.

At the receiving end of the system, bandpass filters are used to pass the desired
signal (the signal lying in the appropriate frequency sub-band) to the
appropriate user and to block all the unwanted signals.
16. TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (TDM):

Time division multiplexing (TDM) is a technique by which several message signals

can be transmitted on a single channel in different time slots in the time domain. The
concept of TDM arrives from sampling theorem.

The sampling theorem states that, if the sampling rate in any pulse modulation system
exceeds twice the maximum signal frequency, the original signal can be reconstructed
in the receiver with minimal distortion.

During the transmission, the message samples occupy the transmission channel for
only a fraction of the sampling interval on a periodic basis. In this way some of the
time interval between adjacent samples is cleared for use by other independent
message sources on a time shared basis.

Here, each input message signal is first restricted in bandwidth by low pass filter to
remove the unnecessary frequencies. The low pass filter outputs are then applied to a
commutator as shown in figure.
 The function of the commutation is two fold:
 to take a narrow sample of each of the N input messages at a rate 1/T (where T is
sampling time interval, which is slightly higher than, 1/twice the maximum signal
frequency ) and
 to essentially interleave these N samples inside a sampling interval T.

Following the commutation process, the multiplexed signal is applied to a phase

modulator. Pulse modulator transforms the multiplexed signal into suitable form for
transmission over the common channel.

At the receiving end of the system, the received signal is applied to a pulse
demodulator which performs the inverse operation of the pulse modulator. The
narrow samples produced at the pulse demodulator output are distributed to the
appropriate low-pass reconstruction filters by means of decommutator. Here
decommutator and commutator must operate in synchronism.

17. COMPARISION BETWEEN FDM AND TDM:

FDM has both advantages and disadvantages relative to TDM.

The main advantage is that unlike TDM, FDM is not sensitive to propagation
delays. Channel equalization techniques needed for FDM systems are therefore not
as complex as those for TDM systems.

Disadvantages of FDM include the need for bandpass filters, which are relatively
expensive and complicated to construct and design. TDM, on the other hand, uses
relatively simple and less costly digital logic circuits. Another disadvantage of
FDM is that in many practical communication systems, the power amplifier in the
transmitter has nonlinear characteristics and nonlinear amplification leads to the
creation of out-of-band spectral components that may interfere with other FDM
channels. Thus, it is necessary to use more complex linear amplifiers in FDM
systems.
18. PROBLEMS:

1. Find the instantaneous frequency of the following waveforms:

(a) S1(t) = Ac Cos [100π t + 0.25π]
(b) S2(t) = Ac Cos [100πt + sin(20πt) ]
(c) S3(t) = Ac Cos [100πt + (πt2) ]

Since unmodualted carrier is represented as:

c(t )  ACosc t     ACos
Where  is total phase angle and its value is given by:
d 1 d
  c t     c  f c 
dt 2 dt
(a) f c  50 Hz; hence, instantaneous frequency is constant.
(b) f c  50  10 Cos20 t ) Hz ; maximum value is 60 Hz and minimum value is
40 Hz. Hence, instantaneous frequency oscillates between 40 Hz and 60 Hz.
(c) f c  50  t  Hz; the instantaneous frequency is 50 Hz at t=0 and varies
linearly at 1 Hz/sec.

2. A sinusoidal wave of amplitude 10V and frequency of 1 kHz is applied to an

FM generator that has a frequency sensitivity constant of 40 Hz/volt.
Determine the frequency deviation and modulating index.

Message signal amplitude, Am  10 volts, frequency f m  1000 Hz and the

frequency sensitivity, k f  40 Hz/volt.
Frequency deviation,  f  k f Am  400 Hz
f
Modulation index, m f   0.4 (indicates a narrow band FM).
fm
3. A modulating signal m(t )  10 Cos10000  t  modulates a carrier signal,
Ac Cos 2  f c t  . Find the frequency deviation and modulation index of the
resulting FM signal. Use k f  5kHz/volt.

Message signal amplitude, Am  10 volts, frequency f m  5000 Hz and the

frequency sensitivity, k f  5 kHz/volt.
Frequency deviation,  f  k f Am  50 kHz
f
Modulation index, m f   10, (indicates a wide band FM).
fm
4. An FM transmitter has a power output of 10 W. If the index of modulation is
1.0, determine the power in the various frequency components of the signal.

The various frequency components of the FM signal are fc, (fc + fm), (fc + 2fm), (fc
+ 3fm), and so on.
The power associated with the above frequency components are: (J0)2, (J1)2, (J2)2,
and (J3)2 respectively.
From the Bessel’s function table, for m f  1;
J0 = 0.77, J1 = 0.44, J2 = 0.11, and J3 = 0.02
Let total power: Pt = 0.5(Ac)2 = 10 W.
Power associated with f c component is P0  Pt  J 0  = 10 (0.77)2 = 5.929 W.
2

Similarly, P1  Pt  J1  P1 = 10 (0.44)2 = 1.936 W.

2
 P2  Pt  J 2  = 10 (0.11)2 = 0.121 W.
2

P3  Pt  J 3  = 10 (0.02)2 = 0.004 W.
2

Note: Total power in the FM wave, Pt = P0 + 2P1 + 2P2 + 2P3 = 5.929 + 2(1.936)
+ 2(.121) + 2(.004) = 10.051 W

5. A 100 MHz un-modulated carrier delivers 100 Watts of power to a load. The
carrier is frequency modulated by a 2 kHz modulating signal causing a
maximum frequency deviation of 8 kHz. This FM signal is coupled to a load
through an ideal Band Pass filter with 100MHz as center frequency and a
variable bandwidth. Determine the power delivered to the load when the
filter bandwidth is: (a) 2.2 kHz (b) 10.5 kHz (c) 15 kHz (d) 21 kHz

Modulation index, m f  8 k / 2 k = 4;
From the Bessel functions; for m f  4;
J0 = - 0.4, J1 = - 0.07, J2 = 0.36, J3 = 0.43, J4 = 0.28, J5 = 0.13, J6 = 0.05, J7 = 0.02
Let total power Pt = 0.5(Ac)2 = 100 W
P0 = Pt (J0)2 = 100 (-0.4) 2 = 16 Watts.
P1 = Pt (J1)2 = 100 (-0.07)2 = 0.490 W.
P2 = Pt (J2)2 = 100 (0.36)2 = 12.960 W.
P3 = Pt (J3)2 = 100 (0.43)2 = 18.490 W.
P4 = Pt (J4)2 = 100 (0.28)2 = 7.840 W.
P5 = Pt (J5)2 = 100 (0.13)2 = 1.690 W.
P6 = Pt (J6)2 = 100 (0.05)2 = 0.250 W.

(a) Filter Bandwidth = 2.2 kHz

The output of band pass filter will contain only one frequency component fc.
Power delivered to the load, Pd = P0 = 16 Watts.

(b) Filter Bandwidth = 10.5 kHz

The output of band pass filter will contain the following frequency components:
fc, (fc ± fm) and (fc ± 2fm)
Power delivered to the load, Pd = P0 + 2P1 + 2P2 = 42.9 Watts.

(c) Filter Bandwidth = 15 kHz

The output of band pass filter will contain the following frequency components:
fc, (fc ± fm), (fc ± 2fm) and (fc ± 3fm)
Power delivered to the load, Pd = P0 + 2P1 + 2P2 + 2P3 = 79.9 Watts.

(d) Filter Bandwidth = 21 kHz

The output of band pass filter will contain the following frequency components:
fc, (fc ± fm), (fc ± 2fm), (fc ± 3fm), (fc ± 4fm) and (fc ± 5fm),
Power delivered to the load, Pd = P0 + 2P1 + 2P2 + 2P3 + 2P4 + 2P5 = 98.94 Watts.

6. A carrier wave is frequency modulated using a sinusoidal signal of frequency

f m and amplitude Am . In a certain experiment conducted with f m  1 kHz and
increasing Am starting from zero, it is found that the carrier component of
the FM wave is reduced to zero for the first time when Am  2 volts. What is
the frequency sensitivity of the modulator? What is the value of Am for which
the carrier component is reduced to zero for the second time?

The carrier component will be zero when its coefficient, J0( m f ) is zero.
From Bessels function J0(x) = 0 for x= 2.44, 5.53, 8.65.
 f k f Am m f
mf    k f  f m  (2.40)(1000) / 2 = 1.22 kHz/V
fm fm Am
Frequency Sensitivity, kf = 1.22 kHz/V

The carrier component will become zero for second time when m f  5.53
f m f f m
Therefore, Am    5.53 (1000) / 1220 = 4.53 volts
fm kf
7. Find the bandwidth of a single tone modulated FM signal described by
S(t)=10 Cos [2π108t + 6 Sin(2π103t)].


Comparing the given S(t) with equation c(t ) FM  ACos c t  m f Sinm t 
Modulation index, m f  6 and Message signal frequency, f m  1000 Hz
From Carson’s rule:
Transmission Bandwidth, BW = 2(mf + 1) fm
BW = 2(7)1000 = 14000 Hz = 14 kHz

8. A carrier wave of frequency 91 MHz is frequency modulated by a sine wave

of amplitude 10 Volts and 15 kHz. The frequency sensitivity of the modulator
is 3 kHz/V.
(a) Determine the approximate bandwidth of FM wave using Carson’s Rule.
(b) Repeat part (a), assuming that the amplitude of the modulating wave is
doubled.
(c) Repeat part (a), assuming that the frequency of the modulating wave is
doubled.

f k f Am
(a) Modulation Index, m f    3x10/15 = 2
fm fm
By Carson’s rule; Bandwidth, BW = 2(mf + 1) fm = 90 kHz

(b) When the amplitude, Am is doubled,

f k f Am
New Modulation Index, m f    3x20/15 = 4
fm fm
Bandwidth, BW = 2(mf + 1)fm = 150 kHz

(c) When the frequency of the message signal, fm is doubled

f k f Am
New Modulation Index, m f    3x10/30 = 1
fm fm
Bandwidth, BW = 2(mf + 1)fm = 120 kHz.

9. Determine the bandwidth of an FM signal, if the maximum value of the

frequencydeviation  f is fixed at 75kHz for commercial FM broadcasting
by radio and modulation frequency f m  15 kHz.

f
Modulation index, m f  5
fm
Transmission Bandwidth, BW = 2(mf + 1) fm = 12x15 kHz = 180 kHz

10. Consider an FM signal obtained from a modulating signal frequency of 2000

Hz and maximum Amplitude of 5 volts. The frequency sensitivity of
modulator is 2 kHz/V. Find the bandwidth of the FM signal considering only
the significant side band frequencies.
 Frequency Deviation  f  10 kHz
f k f Am
Modulation Index, m f   5
fm fm
No. of significant sidebands for m f  5 is 16
Bandwidth, BW = (no. of sidebands) fm = 16x2 kHz = 32 kHz

11. An FM wave is defined below:

S(t) = 12 Sin(6x10 8 π t + 5 Sin 1250 π t)
Find the carrier and modulating frequencies, the modulating index, and the
maximum deviation of the FM wave. Also find the bandwidth of the FM
wave. What power will the FM wave dissipate in a 10 ohm resistor?

 
From equation c(t ) FM  ACos c t  m f Sinm t ,
Carrier frequency = 3x108 Hz = 300 MHz
Modulating signal frequency, fm = 625 Hz
Modulation Index, m f  5;
Maximum frequency deviation,  f  m f f m  3125 Hz
Using Carson’s rule, Bandwidth = 2(3125 + 625) = 7500 Hz
A2 12 2
Power dissipated across resistor =    7.2 W.
2R 2 X 10

12. Consider an FM signal with : Δf = 10 kHz, fm = 10 kHz, Ac = 10 V, fc = 500

kHz; compute and draw the spectrum for FM signal.

f
Modulation index, m f   10 k / 10 k = 1;
fm
From Bessel function Table;
for m f  1; the coefficients are J0 = 0.77, J1 = 0.44, J2 = 0.11, J3 = 0.02.
The corresponding spectrum is defined as:

Prepared by: Dr. A. S. Srinivasa Rao

Prof. (ECE) & Dean (FS)