PHYS3152 E3

Transistors 2 and Operational Amplifiers 1

Purpose:
using transistors as emitter followers and amplifiers.
using operational amplifier to construct useful circuits:
Exercise
I.1 Emitter follower with a single power supply
2 Common-emitter amplifier
II. 1 Non-inverting amplifier 2 Buffer 3 Inverting amplifier
4 Op amp integrator 5 Op amp summer 6 Circuit design

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 Emitter Follower
Diode drop
V=
E VB − 0.6V R1
I=
E I=
C β I B , β ≈ 100

Working condition: VB > 0.6V

If VB < 0.6V, transistor turns off, R2
“valve” is closed, no current and VE
= 0.

To make VB > 0.6V, add a Voltage

Divider Biasing R1 & R2.
Biasing is important in the circuit Quiescent voltage R2
V = 12V
design as it establishes the correct when no input signal B R1 + R2
operating point of the transistor
2
 Emitter Follower
Input AC signal Vin (t )
(DC component is blocked by the capacitor)
R2
V=
B (t ) Vin (t ) + 12V R1
R1 + R2
Requirement: VB > 0.6V
When the amplitude of input signal is
large, output signals have clips. Why? R2

How to change R1/R2 to increase the V= VB (t ) − 0.6V

E (t )
usable range?
Vin (t ) Vout (t )
Input resistance =  = β RE , β ~ 100
IB IE / β

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 Common-Emitter Amplifier
An AC signal Vin (t ) Requirement: VB > 0.6V

R2
V=
B (t ) Vin (t ) + 12V
R1 + R2
VE (t )
=12V − ⋅ RC
RE

∆Vout (t ) ∆VC RC V= VB (t ) − 0.6V

voltage gain = = = − E (t )
∆Vin (t ) ∆VB RE
depends on the ratio of the resistors rather
than the transistor's intrinsic and
unpredictable characteristics

The output is an inverted copy of the AC-component of the input

that has been amplified by the ratio RC/RE and shifted by a DC
voltage determined by all four resistors.
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 Integrated Circuits (IC, Chips)
 Entire circuit contained inside a single chip
 A few thousand to millions of logic gates,
flip-flops, etc in a few square millimeters.
 Examples: op amp, logic gate, random-
access memory (RAM), central processing
unit (CPU)……
 Low cost: all components are printed as a
unit by photolithography
 High performance: fast speed, low power
dissipation,
 Invented by Jack Kilby in 1958, Nobel Prize
in Physics 2000
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 What is an Operational Amplifier?
op-amp: high-gain electronic voltage amplifier.

circuit symbol or simply

V+: non-inverting input, in phase with the output

•V−: inverting input, 180° phase difference with the output
•Vout: output (relative to the ground)
•VS+: positive power supply (sometimes also VDD, VCC, or VCC+ )
•VS−: negative power supply (sometimes also VSS, VEE, or VCC − )
•Working voltage: VS+ ~ -VS−~ 10 - 15 V

Active devices: need power supply, e.g. op-amp…

Passive devices: no power supply, e.g. resistors, capacitors… 6
 A practical Op-Amp (LM741)

Pin 1 and 5 are both labeled “Offset null” and they are used to compensate
for very small nonzero output when input is 0 (usually of little or no concern).

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 The Three stages inside an Op-Amp
High input R

The Operational Amplifier is

probably the most versatile
Integrated Circuit available. It
may contain several hundred
components.

low output R

amplification

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 Internal Structure of LM741

Transistors
Basic components: Resistors
9
Capacitors
 Basic Characteristics
 The op-amp amplifies the difference between the voltages
applied to its two input terminals: Vout = AOL (V+ - V-)
where AOL is the open-loop gain.

 Ideal op-amp: voltage gain = ∞

input impedance = ∞
output impedance = 0
 Real OP-Amp
√ Gain: AOL ≈ 105 – 109
√ Input resistance: 250k – 40MΩ for BJT, 1012Ω for FET.
√ Output resistance: 100Ω.
√ Bandwidth: unity gain bandwidth for 741 is about 1MHz
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 Open and Closed Loop Configurations
Open loop: saturated and distorted
+15V
10mV - +15V Seldom used
+
-15V
-15V A =1000,000
ol

Negative feedback:
Closed loop: negative
feedback  lowered the amplification
 stabilized the output
+15V
10mV  less distortion
- +10V
 broader bandwidth
+
-10V
-15V Acl=1000
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 The Golden Rules of Op-Amp
 In normal operation, the op-amp (with the feedback) adjusts its
output current such that

V+ ≈ V-
 Since input resistance is very large

I input ≈ 0

Rule 1. The output attempts to do whatever is necessary to make

the voltage difference between the inputs zero.
Rule 2. The inputs draw no current.
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 Inverting Amplifier
Vin
Vout
i2
i1

From the two golden

i
rules, we have
V- ≈ V+ = 0 (V- is a virtual
ground) and i1 = i2. Thus,
Vin Vout Vout R2
=I =− ⇒ ACL = =−
R1 R2 Vin R1
180° phase difference
Input impedance = R1; output impedance = Zout e.g.100 Ω. constant I source when Vin=constant 13
 Non-inverting Amplifier

Vin Vout
=I=
R1 R1 + R2
For closed loop (e.g. inverting and
Vout R2
A= = 1+ non-inverting), gain only depends on
In phase components in the feedback loop.
Vin R1
Aol does not matter.
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 Voltage follower

The circuit has a very high input resistance, a

very low output resistance, and a voltage gain
nearly to 1. The main application is as a buffer to
connect a device with a high source impedance to
a device with a low input impedance.

Summing amplifier

When

When

Output is inverted. Input impedance Zn = Rn, for each input V − is a virtual

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ground.
 Differential amplifier
• The circuit shown is used for
finding the difference of two
voltages each multiplied by
some constant (determined by
the resistors).
• The name "differential amplifier"
should not be confused with the
"differentiator"

Amplified difference Difference amplifier

When R1 = R2 and Rf = Rg, when R1 = R2 = Rf = Rg:

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 Frequency Response
Bandwidth:
open loop
from 0Hz (DC amplifier) to

amplifier’s gain
fc (where output power =
50%, e.g. -3dB)

fc
closed loop
A= 10(dB/20)
bandwidth
e.g. Aol = 10(100/20) = 100,000 bandwidth
Acl = 10(40/20) = 100 fug

The closed-loop gain doesn't change with frequency until the line for ACL meets the
line for AOL on the amplifier’s gain versus frequency graph. Many op-amps, like the
741, roll off at 20 dB per decade. 17
 Gain Bandwidth Product
gain bandwidth product (GBP) =
voltage gain of an amplifier × available band width at this gain

GBP ≡ fc × A
⇔ log(GBP) = log(f) + log(A) = constant

Straight line in the log(f) - log(A) plot

GBP = a constant = fug ×1

fug
Different closed-loop gain

Examples: if GBP = 1MHz.

The open-loop gain = 20,000 ⇒ open loop bandwidth = 1MHz/20000 = 5Hz
A negative feedback loop gain = 100 ⇒ closed loop bandwidth = 1MHz/100 = 10kHz
The higher the gain, the narrower the bandwidth; their product is a constant.
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Low Pass Filter with Op Amp
The transfer function for the
circuit
Vout Z 1 1 R1
=− since = + jωC Z =
Vin R2 Z R1 1 + jωCR1
R1
−
R2 R1 1
= where AV = − , ω0 =
1 + jωCR1 R2 R1C
AV ω 0
=
ω 0 + jω
Vout ω0
= AV
Vin ω 02 + ω 2
At high frequencies (ω>>ωo) the
capacitor acts as a short, so the gain of
the amplifier goes to zero. At very low
frequencies (ω<<ωo) the capacitor is an
open and the gain of the circuit is AV. 19
High Pass Filter with Op Amp

Vout ω
= AV
Vin ω 02 + ω 2

At high frequencies (ω>>ωo) the capacitor acts as a short, so the gain

of the amplifier goes to AV= -R1/R2. At very low frequencies (ω<<ωo)
the capacitor is an open and the gain of the circuit is zero.

Band Pass Filter with Op Amp

This circuit will attenuate low

frequencies (ω<<1/R2C2) and high
frequencies (ω>>1/R1C1), but will
pass intermediate frequencies
with a gain of -R1/R2.
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 Differentiator
A differentiator differentiates the
(inverted) signal over time.
The input voltage Vin appears across C
and the input current is
dQC dVin
iC = =C
dt dt
This input current flows through R and the voltage across R is
Vout.
where Vin and Vout are functions of time

Integrator
An integrator integrates the (inverted)
signal over time.
Vin dQ dV
i= = − C = −C out
R dt dt

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