Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ON
ANTIBIOTICS...
Submitted to:
FOOD TECHNOLOGY
B.Tech in
Chemical Engineering
Submitted by:
PRATISH SINGH
342/07
H.B.T.I. Kanpur...
CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the seminar report titled as
“ANTIBIOTICS” has been prepared by me for the partial
fulfilment of requirements for the award of degree of
Bachelor of Technology in the Chemical Technology with
specialization in Biochemical Engineering and submitted to
the department of Biochemical Engineering and Food
Technology. The sources of literature have been duly
acknowledged and the information in this report is correct to
the best of my knowledge.
PRATISH SINGH
CERTIFICATE
(Asst. Professor)
BEFT Department
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
As the compilation of my seminar report reaches a
successful conclusion I have a deep sense of gratitude towards
all those people who, during this journey, have enhanced my
knowledge and the understanding and given me memories to
herish lifelong.
First of all I would like to express my profound sense of
regard to my respected Professor Mr. Brajesh Singh BEFT
department for his inspiring guidance, indispensable support,
enthusiastic mentoring and critical appreciation. Our extended
interactions have always been provided to me with a
stimulating atmosphere and kept my interest levels high in the
course of this research.
I would like to thank all the people I came across at
BEFT Department, H.B.T.I. Kanpur who were, and still
continue to be, a source of limitless inspiration to me; key
among them are Mr. S.J.Nagar Lecturer , Dr S.K. Mandal
Asst Professor.
I would like to acknowledge the indispensable support
and continuous encouragement of my friends and batch mates.
ABSTRACT
Antibiotics are the substances produced by other
microorganisms that is antagonistic to other microorganism of
high dilution. Types of inhibitors are Protein synthesis inhibitor,
tetracycline antibiotics, peptidyl transferase, cell envelope
antibiotics, nucleic acids inhibitors. They are also classified on
the basis of generations. Their further classification is based on
their target specificity that is narrow spectrum and broad
spectrum. Different modes of action of antibiotics are inhibition
of cell wall synthesis, disruption of cell membrane function,
action as anti metabolites and inhibition of protein and nucleic
acid synthesis. Production is carried out using fermentation,
usually in strongly aerobic form. Side effects are many, varied,
and can be very serious depending on the antibiotics used and
the microbial organisms targeted. Certain antibiotics
metronidazole, tinidazole cause serious side effects whih
include vomiting, nausea, and shortening of breath. There are 5
mechanisms of resistances as far studied.
CONTENTS...
Introduction
History of antibiotics
Antibiotic classes
Production
o Administration
o Side effects
Modes of action
Antibiotic resistance
o Antibiotic misuse
Uses of antibiotics
Penicillin
Types of penicillin
Penicillin Production
References
INTRODUCTION
The term "antibiotic" was coined by Selman Waksman
in 1942 to describe any substance produced by a
microorganism that is antagonistic to the growth of other
microorganisms in high dilution.[2] This original definition
excluded naturally occurring substances that kill bacteria but
are not produced by microorganisms (such as gastric juice and
hydrogen peroxide) and also excluded synthetic antibacterial
compounds such as the sulfonamides. Many antibiotics are
relatively small molecules with a molecular weight less than
2000 Da.
With advances in medicinal chemistry, most antibiotics
are now semisynthetic—modified chemically from original
compounds found in nature,[3] as is the case with beta-lactams
(which include the penicillins, produced by fungi in the genus
Penicillium, the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems). Some
antibiotics are still produced and isolated from living
organisms, such as the aminoglycosides, and others have been
created through purely synthetic means: the sulfonamides, the
quinolones, and the oxazolidinones. In addition to this origin-
based classification into natural, semisynthetic, and synthetic,
antibiotics may be divided into two broad groups according to
their effect on microorganisms: those that kill bacteria are
bactericidal agents, while those that only impair bacterial
growth are known as bacteriostatic agents
HISTORY...
Penicillin, the first natural antibiotic discovered by
Alexander Fleming in 1928.
Many treatments for infections prior to the
beginning of the twentieth century were based on medicinal
folklore. Treatments for infection in ancient Chinese medicine
using plants with antimicrobial properties were described over
2,500 years ago. Many other ancient cultures, including the
ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks used molds and plants
to treat infections. The discovery of the natural antibiotics
produced by microorganisms stemmed from earlier work on
the observation of antibiosis between micro-organisms.
Pasteur observed that "if we could intervene in the antagonism
observed between some bacteria, it would offer ‘perhaps the
greatest hopes for therapeutics’". Synthetic antibiotic
chemotherapy as a science and the story of antibiotic
development began in Germany with Paul Ehrlich, a German
medical scientist in the late 1880s.Scientific endeavours to
understand the science behind what caused these diseases, the
development of synthetic antibiotic chemotherapy, the
isolation of the natural antibiotics marked milestones in
antibiotic development.
Originally known as antibiosis, antibiotics were drugs
that had actions against bacteria. The term antibiosis, which
means "against life," was introduced by the French
bacteriologist Vuillemin as a descriptive name of the
phenomenon exhibited by these drugs (Antibiosis was first
described in 1877 in bacteria when Louis Pasteur and Robert
Koch observed that an airborne bacillus could inhibit the
growth of Bacillus anthracis.). These drugs were later
renamed antibiotics by Selman Waksman, an American
microbiologist in 1942.
Bacterial antagonism of Penicillium spp. were first
described in England by John Tyndall in 1875. The
significance to antibiotic discovery was not realized until the
work of Ehrlich on synthetic antibiotic chemotherapy, which
marked the birth of the antibiotic revolution. Ehrlich noted
that certain dyes would bind to and color human, animal or
bacterial cells, while others did not. He then extended the idea
that it might be possible to make certain dyes or chemicals
that would act as a magic bullet or selective drug that would
bind to and kill bacteria while not harming the human host.
After much experimentation, screening hundreds of dyes
against various organisms, he discovered a medicinally useful
drug, the man-made antibiotic, Salvarsan. In 1928 Fleming
made an important observation concerning the antibiosis by
penicillin. Fleming postulated the effect was mediated by a
yet unidentified antibiotic like compound which could be
exploited a naturally occurring antibiotic although he didn’t
pursue its development, In the meantime, another synthetic
antibacterial antibiotic Prontosil was developed and
manufactured for commercial use by Domagk in 1932.
Prontosil, the first commercially available antibacterial
antibiotic was developed by a research team led by Gerhard
Domagk (who received the 1939 Nobel Prize for Medicine for
his efforts) at the Bayer Laboratories of the IG Farben
conglomerate in Germany. Prontosil had a relatively broad
effect against Gram-positive cocci but not against
enterobacteria. The discovery and development of this first
sulfonamide drug opened the era of antibiotics. In 1939
discovery by Rene Dubos of the first naturally derived
antibiotic like substance named gramicidin from B. brevis. It
was one of the first commercially manufactured antibiotics in
use during World War II to prove highly effective in treating
wounds and ulcers. Florey and Chain succeeded in purifying
penicillin. The purified antibiotic displayed antibacterial
activity against a wide range of bacteria. It also had low
toxicity and could be taken without causing adverse effects.
Furthermore its activity was not inhibited by biological
constituents such as pus, unlike the synthetic antibiotic class
available at the time the sulfonamides. The discovery of such
a powerful antibiotic was unprecedented. The development of
penicillin led to renewed interest in the search for antibiotic
compounds with similar capabilities. Because of their
discovery of penicillin Ernst Chain, Howard Florey and
Alexander Fleming shared the 1945 Nobel Prize in Medicine.
Florey credited Dubos with pioneering the approach of
deliberately, systematically searching for antibacterial
compounds. Such a methodology had led to the discovery of
gramicidin, which revived Florey's research in penicillin.
ANTIBIOTIC CLASSES..
Molecular targets of antibiotics on the bacteria cell
Antibiotics are commonly classified based on their
mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of
activity. Most antibiotics target bacterial functions or growth
processes. Antibiotics that target the bacterial cell wall
(penicillins, cephalosporins), or cell membrane (polymixins),
or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes (quinolones,
sulfonamides) are usually bactericidal in nature.
Those that target protein synthesis, such as the
aminoglycosides, macrolides, and tetracyclines, are usually
bacteriostatic. Further categorization is based on their target
specificity: "narrow-spectrum" antibiotics target particular
types of bacteria, such as Gram-negative or Gram-positive
bacteria, while broad-spectrum antibiotics affect a wide range
of bacteria.
In the last few years three new classes of antibiotics
have been brought into clinical use. This follows a 40-year
hiatus in discovering new classes of antibiotic compounds.
These new antibiotics are of the following three classes:
cyclic lipopeptides (daptomycin), glycylcyclines (tigecycline),
and oxazolidinones (linezolid). Tigecycline is a broad-
spectrum antibiotic, while the two others are used for Gram-
positive infections. These developments show promise as a
means to counteract the bacterial resistance to existing
antibiotics.
PRODUCTION..
Since the first pioneering efforts of Florey and
Chain in 1939, the importance of antibiotics to
medicine has led to much research into discovering and
producing them.
The process of production usually involves the
screening of wide ranges of microorganisms, and their
testing and modification. Production is carried out using
fermentation, usually in strongly aerobic form.
ADMINISTRATION..
ANTIBIOTIC MISUSE...
MODES OF ACTION...
Five different modes of actions of antibiotics are-
Inhibition of cell wall synthesis
Disruption of cell membrane function
Inhibition of Protein synthesis
Inhibition of nucleic acid synthesis
Action as anti-metabolites .
5.Action as Antimetabolites
These are the substances that affect the utilization
of metabolites and therefore prevent a cell from
carrying out necessary metabolic reactions .
Functions in two ways –
By competitively inhibiting enzymes
And by erroneously incorporated into important
molecules such as nucleic acids .
USES OF ANTIBIOTICS…
In the last few years three new classes of
antibiotics have been brought into clinical use. These
new antibiotics are of the following three classes:
Cyclic lipopeptides (daptomycin),
Glycylcyclines (tigecycline), and
Oxazolidinones (linezolid).
Tigecycline is a broad-spectrum antibiotic, while
the two others are used for Gram-positive infections.
These developments show promise as a means to
counteract the bacterial resistance to existing
antibiotics.
PENICILLIN...
TYPES OF PENICILLIN…
Penicillin is basically of two types-
Natural Penicillin -
Penicillin G and Penicillin V
Semi-synthetic Penicillin – Methicillin ,
Ampicillin,Carbenicillin,Amoxicillin
DIFFERENT TYPES OF PENICILLIN..
PENICILLIN PRODUCTION...
MAT CULTURE
Medium – Agar
Inoculums – Wet or Dry spores of mycelia
Temp. – 24 – 28 *C
Incubation period – 6- 7 days
Deep Tank Aerated Fermentation
REFERENCES...