Accessing the World's Most Exclusive Club: Influencing Decision-Making on the UN

Security Council
Author(s): Sabine Hassler
Source: Georgetown Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 16, No. 2 (Summer/Fall 2015),
pp. 19-30
Published by: Georgetown University Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/43773692
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 Accessing the World's Most
Exclusive Club

Influencing D
Council

Sabine Hassler

Sabine
Without question, the United Nations Security Council is Hassler PhD,
is a Senior Lecturer at the
an exclusive club with unchanged and seemingly unchange-
Department of Law, Uni-
able central actors and limited temporary membership.
versity of the West of Eng-
As a consequence, matters on its agenda inevitably land.
tendHer tobook Reforming
reflect the concerns of its members. This has left many non-
the UN Security Council
members feeling dissatisfied, frustrated, and excluded, not
Membership: The Illusion
of Representativeness
only with regard to items under review but also in terms of was
published by Routledge in
having their concerns raised and their voices heard. Argu-
20I2.
ably, this "ivory tower" perception is one that undermines
the Council's mission.

Calls for Council reform are understandable, especially

bearing in mind that the Council is the organ entrusted
with maintaining international peace and security.2 Its pri-
mary responsibility under Article 39 the UN Charter is to
determine the "existence of any threat to the peace, breach
of the peace or act of aggression." Moreover, since its incep-
tion, the Council's reach in terms of its primary responsibil-
ity has expanded well beyond anything originally imagined or
intended by its designers. Many of today's global issues affect
"small" non- Council members which have no direct access

to the organ unless they find a "sponsor" or "champion" able

and willing to advance their cause. While reform has been

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ACCESSING THE WORLD'S MOST EXCLUSIVE CLUB

ongoing for over two decades, mat-

Council has increasingly expanded this
ters of global concern do notremit
waittoandinclude matters of concern
to small States.
are becoming ever more pervasive and The latter, however,
pressing, requiring immediateare not easily subsumed into "one"
reaction.
category,
Despite significant and laudable efforts thus increasing the diversity
in including small States andofaddress-
potential matters being brought to
Council's
ing these new global issues, access to theattention. This leads to the

Council remains notoriously difficult,

second aspect of how items make it onto
which is exacerbated by claims thethat
Council's
its agenda for consideration
agenda is primarily populatedby bydrawing
mat- on examples such as the
ters of interest to the core members. Ebola crisis and climate change. As will
This leaves little room for other issues be seen, the Council's agenda is already
to be discussed at Council level, no under strain owing to the variety and
matter how important they may becomplexityto of the issues it faces. Addi-
the party or parties concerned. This tionally, access to the Council and its
agenda is limited and to some extent
perceived inequality is one that arguably
undermines the Council's abilityconvoluted.
to Unless an issue is too

pressing to be ignored and thus finds

respond to today's increasingly global-
ized problems. For the Council asbacking
an by core members, small States'
concerns falter, scuppering equitable
executive organ to equitably administer
treatment. Enabling more direct access
its primary responsibility it therefore
needs to be asked: could dramatically change this. Thus,
(i) How can items not on a Coun- the third and final part evaluates cur-
cil member's radar make it onto the rent trends in Council reform to iden-

This perceived inequality undermines the

Council's ability to respond to today's increasingly
globalized problems.
tify ways in which even non- Coun-
Council's agenda in the first place?,
and cil members may effect change. The
(2) To what extent is access to the gradual adaptation of the definition
Council facilitated to ensure an equi-of "threats to peace and security" and
table approach to the world's impend- thus the remit of the Council's agen-
ing challenges? da uncomfortably highlighted a deci-
In order to answer these questions, sion-making process reflecting Great
the article will first take a look at the Power thinking. In response, working
Council's primary responsibilitymethods to and procedures were adapted
identify what makes a "threat to peace to increase transparency and to admit
and security." It will show that despite those traditionally excluded through
the originally restrictive definition informal methods of participa-
more
anchored in Great Power politics, tion. the However, although progress has

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 hassler Forum

been made, it still fails to take account

pation were built into the system. For a
of the fact that the Council's composi- matter to be considered by the Council,
tion has not kept up to date. and thus added to its agenda, it needs
to achieve a certain level of seriousness
The Article 39 hurdle. While with the potential to affect the bal-
originally set up to deal with issues ofance of the collective security system.
inter- State security, traditionally with- Even then, action is not immediate.
in the realm of great power politics and First, an assessment under the crite-
administered by the Council underria of Article 39 has to determine the
Article 39, over time the Council has matter's "merit". If it does meet the

Many members, both permanent and non-

permanent, can slow down and stifle Council
action.
been increasingly willing to expandthreshold criteria, the Council "shall
its purview to global issues like cli- make recommendations, or decide what
mate change more commonly affectingmeasures shall be taken in accordance
"small" States. with Articles 41 and 42, to maintain or
restore international peace and secu-
As a principal organ, the Security
Council is at the center of the UN col- rity". Although more a political rather
than a legal task, the Council pro-
lective security system. In Article 24 the
members of the UN "agree that in car- vides an authoritative statement regard-
ing the seriousness of an event. This
rying out its duties under [its primary]
discretion furnishes the Council with
responsibility, the Security Council acts
immense power as it effectively legis-
on their behalf". Hence, the necessity
lates what constitutes a "trigger event"
of channeling efforts and acting swiftly
was constitutionally acknowledged.that
Its unlocks the Council's collective
size is undoubtedly a reflection of security
the authority.3
belief that limited membership would Yet, whether an issue merits its
be conducive to swift, effective, and attention in the first place is more than
efficient decision- making. Yet, a determination of "merit" based on
the
Article 39 criteria; it is a determina-
question of who sits on the Council
at any time tempers this expectationtion of facts in a politically sensitive
to some extent. It would be naïve tofield. Looking at the UN Charter and
its Chapter headings in a contemporary
assume that sitting members act impar-
tially and in an unbiased manner context,
at all it is evident that it was writ-
times. In fact, many members,ten both
in a very different context. Several
issues
permanent and non-permanent, canbecome evident: collective secu-
slow down and stifle Council action. rity was interpreted to be about the set-
tlement of inter- State disputes, either
In addition to issues of partiality, pro-
through peaceful or forceful means.
cedural hurdles to small State partici-

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ACCESSING THE WORLD'S MOST EXCLUSIVE CLUB

In a contemporary setting tory

thisdefinition
does of "small". Common
not take into account that threats are criteria include but are not limited to

geographical size, population size, and

not always inter- State or indeed intra-
State. Some are beyond the narrow
degree of influence in international
confines of political alliances. Someaffairs.
are Jeanne Hey rightly identified
acute and localized (threats to public
that "small" States are not homog-
health like the Ebola crisis in Western
enous but rather fall into categories. ^
Africa), others are slow- movingEvenand these categories are not neat but
spreading (for example, effects of can
cli- overlap depending on the crite-
mate change on the Marshall islandsria applied. Thus, examples of micro -
and other low-lying States affected by such as Liechtenstein, Mona-
States
rising water levels) . co, or San Marino could also come
In order to continue fulfilling its under
role the heading of small States in the
and not to be overtaken by events,developed
the world like Belgium, Iceland,
or Malta. Depending on the criteria
Council has throughout its existence,
and with the tacit agreement of the applied,
UN small States in the develop-
membership, continuously adapteding theworld include Belize, Timor-Leste,
interpretation of what makes an issue or Mauritius
a while small States in the
"threat to peace and security" and thus Third World include the Solomon
fall within the Council's authority.^ Islands,
In Nepal or, Eritrea.^ "Small"
fact, the definition has changed dra- can, but clearly does not automati-
matically, with the Council not only cally, mean "insecure and vulnerable"
incrementally widening the scope from or "without influence".** It is therefore
traditional inter- State to intra- State important to note that "small" in the
conflicts, but also taking the controver-present context is more likely to apply
sial step of extending its activities to andthose countries that are less power-
interpreting its powers more broadly; ful in terms of economics, military
from institution-creator to quasi-leg- prowess, and political influence and
islator, addressing threats that aremore not vulnerable to the effects of global
threats.
restricted to a particular conflict or cri-
sis but to adopt generic measures, e.g. Evidently, in an ever closer and glo-
tackling the fight against global terror-balized world, classic ideas about which
ism, condemning the proliferation situations
of deserve Council action, and
weapons of mass destruction, or high- thus collective security protection, have
lighting the impact of armed conflict been superseded by more urgent con-
on women and children, clearly shifting cerns that cannot be simply defined by
the notion of threat to a more abstract traditional notions of spheres of influ-
plane. ^ With threats to peace and secu-ence. Of course, these do still exist,
rity no longer narrowly defined, many as seen by the Russian isolation on
issues now included commonly affect the issue of the Crimea region in the
those States that are seen as "small". Ukraine, or the Russian and Chinese
objection to proposed action in Syria.9
Without going too much into defi-
nitional details, it has to be acknowl-
10 Yet, while military intervention was
blocked, humanitarian aid access found
edged that there is no one satisfac-

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 HASSLER Forum

unanimous backing.11 Still, it has to be adoption of the actual agenda dealing

acknowledged that what some Council with those matters the Council decided

members deem appropriate for Coun- should be discussed, and (3) matters of
cil action no longer correlates with which the Council is seized, i.e. items
global perceptions of what the Council adopted on the agenda and, in absence
ought to do. Nevertheless, at times the of a Council decision to the contrary,
Council has taken the lead in champi- remain on its agenda indefinitely.1^
oning responses to these new threats to Unfortunately, this also means that the
global security. Thus, despite objec- agenda has become almost unmanage-
tions about whether the Council was able for the Council to deal with, an
issue which has the potential to over-
the correct forum, the United King-
whelm the Council and its ability to
dom, a permanent member, initiated
the Council's first debate on climate deal with a variety of increasingly com-
change on 1 7 April 2 O O J.12, plex matters.
Considering the variety of matters
Gettino An Item on the on the Council's agenda, whether newly
Council's Agenda. Access to the
introduced or proposed for removal,
there is some evidence that although
Council's agenda is not always straight-
forward and may seem unnecessarilycertain issues are indeed driven or at

protracted from the point of view leastofsupported by core members, this

Today, classic ideas about which situations deserve

Council action are superseded by concerns
outside of traditional notions of spheres
of influence.

a "small" State, especially consider-

is not always for entirely self-centred
reasons.1^ Thus, matters of immedi-
ing that issues on a core member's
ate concern to public health, such as
radar find their way onto the agenda
the not
fairly quickly. That, however, does Ebola outbreak, make it onto the
mean that matters of concern to "small" agenda unopposed. In this case, the
States are never addressed. Nonethe-
immediate impact may have been felt
most
less, their points of access do appear to by small States in West Afri-
be rather limited. ca, but the potential repercussions of
the outbreak becoming a global epi-
As if the matter were not bewildering
enough, there is some confusion withdemic rendered the issue too press-
ing to be ignored. Consequently, the
the term "agenda" as it is interchange-
ably used to refer to (i) the Council's
issue was dealt with reasonably swiftly.
provisional agenda, drawn up by In theS/RES/2176 of 15 September 2014
the Council expressed "grave concern
Secretary- General and listing suggest-
ed matters for consideration, (2) the
about the extent of the outbreak of the

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ACCESSING THE WORLD'S MOST EXCLUSIVE CLUB

not on a core member's radar can find

Ebola virus in West Africa, in particular
in Liberia, Guinea and Sierra Leone" comparatively swift reaction. When the
and urged "the international commu- situation at the border between the

nity to respond swiftly to the shortageKingdom of Cambodia and the King-

of qualified medical professionals anddom of Thailand worsened in 2 Oil, a
appropriate equipment and preventive letter, dated 6 February, presented by
the Permanent Representative of Cam-
measures necessary to address the Ebola
outbreak". The resolution was followed bodia to the President of the Council
by an open debate on l8 September
led to a closed meeting of the Council
2014, convened by the United States,
on 14 February thereby indicating its
which led to the unanimous passage swift
of acceptance onto the Council's
agenda.1^ Swift reaction by the Coun-
S/RES/2177 of the same day, determin-
ing that the unprecedented extentcil,
of however, does not necessarily imply
the Ebola outbreak constituted a threat immediate and satisfactory response or,
to international peace and security.1^
indeed, effective and efficient imple-
mentation by member- states; that is
Other matters like climate change that
are opposed by core members such not solely the fault of the Council but
as China and Russia to the pointrather
of an issue of the member- states'
ability and willingness to respod with
blocking decisive action are nonetheless
the relevant means.
picked up by others for consideration
and discussion as a potential future
It is undoubtedly true that for many
matter of peace and security.16 Here,member- states access to (and thus influ-
the immediate impact is felt mostly ence on) the Council is limited. Unless
by small States with the global reper-
a matter is picked up by the Secretary-
cussions not yet felt strongly enoughGeneral for inclusion on the provision-
to find the full backing of all. Thus,
al agenda, there are three rather limited
political wrangling will prevail for options
the to gain more direct access to the
time being and keep decisive action Council
off and its agenda. First, a "small"
the Council's agenda. State can become a non-permanent
Considering the above examples, member.18 Small States, however, have
core members do clearly play a central a hard time in their quest of becoming a
role in driving the Council's agenda. non-permanent member. As has been
Nevertheless, the voice of the "small" noted, "[T]he system, as a rule, permits
does carry some weight albeit often a State to aspire to a seat on the Council
heavily reliant on "bigger", more influ- in reality no more than once in IO to 15
ential members to advance the cause years."19 Thus, "[...] the opportunities
but not nearly enough to for UN Members to serve on the Secu-
guarantee
equitable or satisfactory consideration
rity are not equal; some larger States
of all matters of concern. This is the
are frequently re-elected to the Council
legacy of the Council having beenwhilst
cre- a number of other UN members
have never served on it", almost all
ated around five permanent members.
Their priorities would, and in of some
them small States. This is rooted,
cases still do, prevail. Nonetheless,
to some extent, in the relative lack of
there is some evidence that matters small States' resources, including the

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 HASSLER Forum

ability to maintain sizeable permanent
missions, although there are small
States that succeeded in this quest.22
Second, a State can ask one of the non-
permanent members to speak up on the
matter. However, bearing in mind that
non-permanent members' stint on the
Council is limited itself they are already
making processes that lie at the heart of
Council practice. In order for Council
edicts to be effective, however, a great
degree of support from the overall
membership is necessary. Yet, the dis-
tance between the permanent mem-
bers, the non-permanent members,
and non- Council members seemed to

distracted by the brief interval in which
they try to familiarize themselves with
the Council's working procedures and
also may try to campaign for re -elec-
tion. 23 Or third, a "small" State can
find the favour of, and thus a champion
in, a permanent member. This, how-
ever, is precarious and not necessarily
blessed with success. If a champion can
be found, and the matter is of interest,
time can work in the affected party's
favor. But the longer the smaller State
be increasing at a time when closer co-
operation and consultation is crucial.
This distance was, and in parts still is,
due to the practice of informal consul-
tations despite the Council's own Rules
of Procedure advocating open and pub-
lic meetings.2^ Practically speaking, the
Council tends to break into ever small-
er "mini- Councils", holding meetings
in secrecy and without records. Ambas-
sador Jaramillo of Colombia famously
said that he considered these informal

has to lobby the worse the situation consultations "dangerous and unwel-
potentially gets. Thus, the fact that come", especially if it means having
small States have to lobby and find a to stand outside a chamber where a

champion goes against the principle mini- Council is meeting and "beg" for
of a Security Council in a world where pieces of information as a "personal
global threats are becoming increas- favor" from representatives leaving the
ingly pervasive. If small States had more chamber.2^
immediate access without laboring any In an attempt to counter perceptions
of the above, the theory goes, many cri- of inaccessibility and to secure the com-
ses could be addressed more effectively. mitment and support of non- Council
members on issues of global import, the
Informal Means of Consulta- Council adapted its working methods
tion and Participation - On-
and^procedures to increase transparen-
going Reform Efforts. Although
cy.2 Procedurally, the Council has the
power to adopt and adapt its own Rules
it could be argued that the Council and
its agenda are to some extent inacces-of Procedure.2'7 As such, the Council is
sible, much has been done to open upable to react swiftly and innovate when
its proceedings to those traditionallynecessary and circumstances demand.
"left out" of deliberations. The dra- One instance is the much -acclaimed
matic increase in the Council's ambit of Arria Formula through which one
member of the Council can invite other
activity not only has had wide-ranging
members to an informal meeting out-
implications for member-states, it also
side of Council chambers and chaired
shines a spotlight on the exclusion-
ary and at times secretive decision-
by the inviting member. It allows for

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ACCESSING THE WORLD'S MOST EXCLUSIVE CLUB

andoth-
informal briefings by individuals CARICOM.34 Despite a multi-
er than high government officials orsuggestions, however, so far the
tude of
United Nations officials.28 Such Arriaattempt has not been blessed
reform
Formula meetings are used to improve
with success or even progress.
informal consultations and enhance
the Council's "contact with civil soci- Conclusion. Owing to changes in
ety and non-governmental circumstances and thanks to Coun-
organiza-
tions" which, nonetheless comes heav- cil ingenuity both terminological con-
ily caveated.29 Informal methods of straints and procedural hurdles that
participation as enshrined in the UN could have stifled progress have been
Charter, including open or orienta- overcome to some extent, allowing for
tion debates and open briefings, have an ever-wider interpretation of "threat
no doubt improved the situation and to peace and security", gradually allow-
have led to some notable successes, ing small States more influence. That
for example, during the Ebola crisis.30
does not mean that all matters of import
are treated equally, but at least the
Nonetheless, there is a general impres-
sion that matters that make it onto the interpretation of what comes within the
Council's remit has been continually
Council's agenda for its consideration
(or, for that matter, that are left off its
adapted and shows the organ's respon-
agenda), are within a particular (per-
siveness to global changes. Nonetheless,
manent) member's sphere of influence.the Council is not as effective as it could

Considering its limited size and thus or needs to be.

its potential and capability of dealing Reform has been called for from
with matters arising adequately, the the Council's inception onwards with
Council has done remarkably well structured
in discussions of both member-

making better use of the powers avail-ship and working procedures continu-
ing since 1994. While some progress
able to it, such as creating and making
use of subsidiary organs and adoptinghas
a been made on working procedures,
wide array of matters onto its agenda.31 other issues remain hotly contested.
Membership on the Council falls within
This, of course, is not to say that it has
been equitable in its choices of action, this category and is unlikely to approach
which is why calls for reform beyondconsensus any time soon, evidenced by
working methods and procedures and fact that the matter has been suc-
the

concentrating on the Council's mem- cessively put on the General Assem-

bly's agenda and is currently stuck in
bership have been consistent. Notably,
small States have made considerable "continued intergovernmental nego-
attempts to engage with this processtiations
and on Security Council reform in
informal plenary meetings."3^ While it
have, either individually or collectively,
advanced proposals for more equitable
has to be acknowledged that reform of
representation on the Council. This
such magnitude cannot be achieved as a
includes efforts by the "Uniting for "fix-all" event but rather as an
one-off,
incremental improvement process, it
Consensus" grouping, which suggested
is vital to show how this can be realized
the addition of twenty non-permanent
without disrupting the effective and
seats,32 efforts by the "L69" group,33

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 hassler Forum

seen in the context of current climate

efficient workings of the Council. This
change discussions. To overcome these
author has argued elsewhere for a much
more flexibly structured Council thatbiases and to address all issues brought
can take account of both short-term, before it equitably, the Council would
immediate and long-term crises. ^ have to be operated and staffed by
The important point to note is thatimpartial and neutral parties who are
despite attacks on the Council, somedisinterested in the outcome. This is
no doubt justified, it has dealt with a clearly unrealistic and not necessarily
variety of challenges that were origi- conducive to achieving global security
nally, when reading its mandate fromas having interested parties involved
a narrow perspective, outside its remit.adds substance to otherwise bare delib-

The Council is not as effective as it could or

needs to be.

erations. Of course, the Council in its

Much effort has gone already into
allowing increased access to the Coun-current form is by no means ideal, but,
cil and its debates. Where matters arediscussions on its membership aside,
access even by "small" States is improv-
urgent, it can work relatively efficiently
as evidenced by the Ebola outbreak.
ing all the time.
Where matters are urgent but politi-
cally sensitive, movement is unbearably
slow; the infamous Rwanda delay is a
case in point. Where matters are not
urgent but politically sensitive, block-
ing action is almost inevitable as can be

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ACCESSING THE WORLD'S MOST EXCLUSIVE CLUB

NOTES

*Sabine Hassler, PhD, Senior Lecturer in Law us-syria-un-rights-idUSTRE7B0lM720III202, 2

December 20II, (date accessed: January 3, 2015).
at the Department of Law, University of the West of
England. Contact: Sabine2.Hassler@uwe.ac.uk. II Press Release, "Security Council Unanimously
I See Article 23, UN Charter, 24 October 1945»
Adopts Resolution 2139 (2013) to Ease Aid Delivery
I UNTS XVI, Internet, http://www.unwebsite.com/ to Syrians, Provide Relief from "Chilling Dark-
charter (date accessed 14 February 2015). ness"," Security Council, Internet. http://www.
2 Article 24, UN Charter, 24 October 1945, I un.org/press/en/2014/sci1292.doc.htm, 7n6th
UNTS XVI, Internet, http://www.unwebsite.com/ Meeting (AM), 22 February 2014, (date accessed:
charter (date accessed 14 February 2015). January 3, 2015).
3 See Abram Chayes, "Law and Force in the 12 Press Release, "SECURITY COUNCIL
New International Order: The Use of Force in HOLDS FIRST-EVER DEBATE ON IMPACT
the Persian Gulf," in Lori Fisler Damrosch and OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON PEACE, SECURI-
TY,
David Scheffer, eds, Law and Force in the New International HEARING OVER 50 SPEAKERS," SC9000,
Order (Boulder: Westview Press 1993), 6. ArticleInternet.
39 http://www.un.org/press/en/2007/
sc9000.doc.htm, 17 April 2007 (date accessed: 4
has been called a normative "trip wire". Thomas
M. Franck, Fairness in International Law and Institutions
December 2014). Also U.N. Security Council, 62nd
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995)» 284. Year, Letter dated 5 April 20oyjrom the Permanent Representa-
4 Karel Wellens, "The UN Security Council tive
andof the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland to
New Threats to the Peace: Back to the Future," C&S the United Nations addressed to the President of the Security Council
Law 8 (2003): 15. (S/2007/186), S/PV.5663, 17 April 2007, Internet,
5 Jurij Daniel Aston, "Die Bekämpfung abstrak- http : //daccess - dds - ny . un .org/ doc/UND O C/PRO/
ter Gefahren für den Weltfrieden durch legislative No7/309/o8/PDF/No7309o8.pdf?OpenElement
Maßnahmen des Sicherheitsrats - Resolution 1373 (date accessed: 14 February 2015).
(2001) im Kontext," Zeitschrift fur ausländisches öffentliches 13 Rules 7, 9» IO and II respectively of the (Pro-
Recht und Völkerrecht, 62 (2OO2): 278. visional) Rules of Procedure, S/96/Rev.7, 1983,
6 Jeanne A.K. Hey (ed.), "Introducing Small Online Internet http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/
State Foreign Policy," in Small States in World Poli- doc/UNDOC/GEN/N83/40o/i7/IMG/N83400i7.
tics: Explaining Foreign Policy Behavior (Boulder: Lynne pdf?OpenElement (date accessed: February 14,
Rienner Publishers 2003), 2. 2015). Rules 6 to 12 of the (Provisional) Rules of
7 One source includes UNESCO which lists the Procedure deal with the Council's agenda in general.
so-called Small Island Developing States (SIDS), 14 See, for instance, the Repertoire of the Prac-
tice of the Security Council (17th Supplement, 20I0-
Internet, http : //www. unesco .org/ new/ en/ natural-
sciences/priority-areas/sids/about-unesco-and-sids/ 2011) Part II, Internet, http://www.un.org/en/sc/
sids-list/ (date accessed January 22, 2015). repertoire/2 OIO- 2 0Il/Part%20lI/2 OIO- 2 OII_
8 See, e.g. Yee Kuang Heng, "Confessions of Part%20ll.pdf#page=24 (date accessed: 6 January
a Small State: Singapore's Evolving Approach to 2015).
Peace Operations, "Journal of International Peacekeeping 16 15 See U.N. Security Council, 69th Year, S/
(2012): 119 and, in the context of the EU, Skander PV.7268, Agenda: Peace and Security in Arica,
Nasra, "Governance in EU foreign policy: explor- Ebola, 18 September 2014, Internet, http : //daccess -
ing small state influence," Journal of European dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/PRO/Ni4/538/6l/
Public Policy 18, no. 2 (2011): 164. Excellent start- PDF/Nl45386l.pdf?OpenElement (date accessed:
ing points when mapping the idea of "small" States 14 February 2015) and Press Release, "With Spread of
include Annette Baker Fox, The Power of Small States: Ebola Outpacing Response, Security Council Adopts
Diplomacy in World War II (Chicago: Chicago University Resolution 2177 (2014) Urging Immediate Action,
Press 1959)» Robert O. Keohanes' overview "Lil- End to Isolation of Affected States," SC11566, Inter-
liputians' Dilemmas: Small States in International net. http://www.un.org/press/en/20i4/scli566.doc.
Politics," International Organizfltion 23, no. 2 (1969): htm, 18 September 2014 (date accessed: 4 December
291 and Peter R. Baehr's review article "Small States: 2014). See also the briefing on the Ebola epidemic
A Tool for Analysis?," World Politics 27, no. 3 of 14 October 2014, U.N. Security Council, 69th
(1975)= 456. Year, Agenda: Peace and Security in Africa, S/
9 UN News Centre, UN Security Council action PV.7279, Internet, http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/
on Crimea referendum blocked," Internet, http:// doc/UNDOC/PRO/Ni4/567/49/PDF/Ni456749-
www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp9NewsID = 473^2 pdf?OpenElement (date accessed: 14 February
&Kwl =ukraine&Kw2 = &Kw3 =# . VKfqPtKsXw8 , 1 5 2015) and a further debate on 21 November 2014,
March 2014 (date accessed: January 3, 2015). U.N. Security Council, 69th Year, Agenda: Peace
IO Stephanie Nebehay, "U.N. urges action in and Security in Africa, S/PV.7318, Internet.
Syria, Russia and China object," Reuters, Inter- http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/PRO/
net . http : //www. reuters. com/ article/ 2011/12/02/ Nl4/642/8l/PDF/Nl46428l.pdf?OpenElement

[28] Georgetown Journal of International Affairs

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 hassler Forum

(date accessed: 14 February 2015)- Council , S/2011/484, 2 August 20II, Online Internet
16 Press Conference on Impact of Climate http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/
Nll/4l5/07/PDF/Nll4l507.pdf?OpenElement
Change on Marshall Islands, Internet. http://www.
un.org/press/en/20i3/i302i5-MI.doc.htm, 15 Feb-(date accessed 14 February 2015).
ruary 2013 (date accessed: 6 January 2015). 24 According to Rule 48, unless it decides
Ed King, "China and Russia block UN Secu- otherwise, the Security Council shall meet in pub-
rity Council climate change action," Respond- lic". (Provisional) Rules of Procedure, S/96/Rev-7,
ing to Climate Change, Internet http://www.rtcc. 1983, Internet, http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/
org/2013/02/18/china-and-russia-block-un-secu- UNDOC/GEN/N83/400/17/IMG/N8340017.
rity-council-climate-change-action/, 19 February pdf?OpenElement (date accessed: 14 February
2013 (date accessed: 6 January 2015). 2015). See Natalie Reid, "Informal Consultations: a
17 See Letter dated 6 February 20II from the Summary," Global Policy Forum, Internet, https://
Permanent Representative of Cambodia to the United Nationswww.globalpolicy.org/security-council/32943-html
(date accessed: 30 December 2014).
addressed to the President of the Security Council, S/2011/58,
7 February 20II, Internet http://daccess-dds-ny.25 James A Paul, "Security Council Reform:
un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/Nll/227/47/PDF/ Arguments about the Future of the United Nations
NlI22747-pdf?OpenElement, (date accessed: System,"
14 Global Policy Forum, Conference on
February 2015). Council reform in May 1994» Internet. https://www.
globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/l85-
18 For an excellent analysis of what "small" States
can contribute, see Baldur Thorhallsson, "Small general/41128-veto-analysis.html, revised February
States in the UN Security Council: Means of Influ-!995 (date accessed: 30 December 2014).
ence?," The Hague Journal of Diplomacy 7 (2012): 135- 26 See UN Security Council, Working Methods
19 See Ukrainian reply on the Question of Equitable Represen-Handbook (2011), Internet, http://www.un.org/en/
tation on and Increase in the Membership of the Security Council,sc/about/methods/ (date accessed: 3 January 2015).
U.N. General Assembly, 48th Session, 27 August 27 Article 30, UN Charter, 24 October 1945»
1993, A/48/264/Add.2: 7» paragraph 4» Internet.I UNTS XVI, available at: Internet, http: //www.
http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/unwebsite.com/charter (date accessed 14 Febru-
N93/472/32/IMG/N9347232.pdf?OpenElement ary 2015). See (Provisional) Rules of Procedure,
(date accessed 14 February 2015). S/g6/Rev.7, 1983, Internet. http://daccess-dds-ny.
20 U.N General Assembly, 49*^ Session, 18un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N83/400/i7/IMG/
September 1995» Letter dated 1 5 September 1$S5 fr0171N83400l7.pdf?OpenElement (date accessed: 14
February
the Permanent Representatives of Finland and Thailand to the2015). Although not amended since, Pres-
idential notes have successively clarified its work-
United Nations addressed to the President of the General Assembly,
ing methods and procedures, Internet. http://www.
Agenda Item 33, A/49/965: 8, paragraph II, Internet,
un. org/ en/ sc/ repertoire/ rules/ overview. shtml (date
http : // daccess - dds - ny . un .org/ doc/UND O C/ GEN/
N95/286/62/IMG/N9528662.pdf?OpenElementaccessed: 14 February 2015).
(date accessed 14 February 2015X 28 See James Paul, "The Arria Formula," Global
21 See Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft, The PGAPolicy Forum, Internet, https ://www.globalpolicy.
Handbook: A practical guide to the United Nations General Assem-org/
component/ content/ article/l85/40°88 .html,
revised October 2003 (date accessed: January 22,
bly (New York: Permanent Mission of Switzerland to
the United Nations, 20Il), 29- 2015).
22 See Colin Keating, "The United Nations 29 See U.N Security Council, 6lst Year, 20
Security Council: Options for Small States", December 2006, Note by the President of the Security
Council, S/2006/507: II, paragraph 54, S/PV.560I:
Internet, http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/
atf/cf/%7B65BFCF9B-6D2 7-4E9C-8CD3- 13, Online Internet http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/
CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/Media%2 0Small%2 0 doc/UNDOC/PRO/No6/672/22/PDF/No667222.
pdf?OpenElement (date accessed February 14,
States%2 oReykjavik.pdf, Reykjavik, Iceland, l6June
2008 (date accessed: 3 January 2015), and Audrey 2015). Generally, see Security Council, Working
Young and Claire Trevett, "NZ wins seat on Secu- Methods Handbook, "Background Note on the
rity Council: "Victory for the small states"," The "Arria
New -Formula" Meetings of the Security Coun-
cil Members," Online Internet http://www.un.org/
paland Herald, Internet, http://www.nzherald.co.nz/
en/sc/about/methods/bgarriaformula.
nz/ news/ article . cfm ? c_id = I &obj ectid =11343853» 1 7 shtml, (date
October 2014 (date accessed: 3 January 2015). accessed: 3 January 2015).
23 In an effort to facilitate their orientation, 30 See U.N Security Council, 6lst Year, l8
workshops for newly elected and present Council September 2014, Agenda: Peace and Security in
members are held. See, for instance, U.N. Security Africa, Ebola, S/PV.7268: page 2/50, Internet.
http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/PRO/
Council, Letter dated 1 August 2011 from the Permanent Repre-
Ni4/538/6i/PDF/Ni45386i.pdf?OpenElement
sentative of Finland to the United Nations addressed to the President
(date
of the Security Council, Annex: " Hitting the ground running": accessed 14 February 2015) for an extensive list
of participants
eighth annual workshop for newly elected members of the Security in the meeting pursuant to Rule 37 of

Summer/Fall 2015 [29]

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All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
ACCESSING THE WORLD'S MOST EXCLUSIVE CLUB

the Council's Provisional Rules of Procedure. Previ- Representatives and Permanent Observes to the United Nations,
ously, the German representative had expressed New his York , Internet, http://www.un.org/en/ga/presi-
appreciation at an open briefing held on 22 March dent/67/letters/pdf/Security%20Council%20
2000 in connection with the situation in Bosnia and Reform%20-%20Chair%20letter%20-%20l7%20
Herzegovina. Mr Kastrup, U.N. Security Council, January%2020I3.pdf (date accessed: 24 March
55th Year, 22 March 2000, Agenda: The situation 2015).
in Bosnia and Herzegovina, S/PV.4117: 16, Internet, 34 See Donn Bobb, "CARICOM calls for over-
http : / / daccess - dds - ny . un . org/doc/UND O C/PRO/haul
of UN Security Council," United Nations
N00/354/39/PDF/N0035439.pdf?0penElement Radio, Internet, http://www.unmultimedia.org/
(date accessed 14 February, 2015). See Friedrichradio/ english/ 2 0 1 3/1 i/car ico m - calls - fo r - overhaul -
Soltau, "The Right to Participate in the Debatesof-un-security-council/, 8 November 2013 (date
of the Security Council," ASIL Insights 5» n<>- !3»accessed: 24 March 2015).
Online Internet http://www.asil.org/insights/vol- 35 Leland Goodrich, Edvard Hambro and Anne
ume/5/issue/l3/right-participate-debates-security- Simons, Charter of the United Nations (3rd ed.,
council, 2 October 2000 (date accessed: 3 January New York: Columbia University Press, 1969), 645-
2015). And see U.N. General Assembly, 69th Plenary Meet-
31 A power conferred by Article 29, UN Char- ing, 3 December 1993» Question of equitable representation
ter, and procedurally dealt with under Rule 28, on and increase in the membership of the Security Council, A/
(Provisional) Rules of Procedure, S/96/Rev.7, RES/48/26, Online Internet http: //daccess- dds -
1983, Internet, http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NRo/7il/lO/
UNDOC/GEN/N83/400/17/IMG/N8340017. IMG/NRo7HIO.pdf?OpenElement (date accessed:
pdf?OpenElement (date accessed: 14 February 14 February 2015) deciding to create an Open-Ended
2015). To highlight its practice and its effortsWorking
to Group on the Question of Equitable Representation on and
become more transparent in its working meth- Increase in the Membership of the Security Council and other mat-
ods, Highlights of Security Council Practice are published
ters related to the Security Council.
annually. See Security Council, Internet, http://36 U.N. General Assembly, 68th Session, 8
September 2 014, Question of equitable representation on
www. un . o rg/en/ sc/ documents/highlights . shtml (date
accessed: 27 January 2015). and increase in the membership of the Security Council and related
32 There was the 'Uniting for Consensus' pro-
matters, A/68/PV.106, Internet, http : //daccess -dds -
ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/Ni4/528/l6/PDF/
posal, A/59/L.68, July 21, 2005, Internet, http://
daccess-dds-ny.un.org/ doc/UNDOC/LTD/ Nl4528l6.pdf?OpenElement (14 February 2015).
No5/434/76/PDF/No543476.pdf?OpenElement 37 -This author has analysed the various propos-
(date accessed: 24 March 2015)- More recent devel-als and their viability in Sabine Hassler, Reforming the
opments include the efforts by the UN Security Council Membership: The illusion of representativeness
33 See Letter dated 1J January 2012 to all Permanent(Abingdon: Routledge, 2013).

[30] Georgetown Journal of International Affairs

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