Set of Materials For Language of Electrical Engeneering and Information Technology-Students

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nto projekt je spolufinancován Evropským sociálním fondem a státním rozpočtem České republiky
1.1.1 Articles – Explanation
The definite article the is used
1. to identify people or things already known

• Czech people drink a lot of beer.
• The Czech people I know drink a lot of beer.
2. when speaking about specific things

• The film wasn’t very good, but I liked the music.
• The country is supported by industry. They are in the chemical industry.
3. with superlatives
• the largest factory in the region
4. with ordinal numbers

• the third experiment was successful
5. in the names of countries with republic, kingdom, states

• the Czech Republic
• the United Kingdom
• the United States
6. in the names of oceans, seas, rivers, mountains, hotels

• the Pacific, the Red Sea, the Alps, the Sheraton
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7. in specifying groups of people (the + adjective)

• the blind, the unemployed the Blacks (family), the young
8. in names of nationalities (-ch, -sh, -ese)

• the French, the Irish, the Chinese, also the Swiss
9. We say
• in the north of Austria but in northern Austria
• go to school, go to university, go to work
• be at school, be at university, be at work
• have breakfast, have lunch
10. We do not use the before noun+number

• Room 125
• Page 70
• Exercise 2
• Question 3 (in an exam)
• Platform 6
• Gate 4
The indefinite article a/an is used
1. when people or things are mentioned first

• We have set up a new computer room in our department.
2. to classify people by work or beliefs

• He´s a teacher.
• She´s a Christian.
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The article a/an is not used with uncountables or in the plural (no article)
• He never drinks water.
• They are vegetarians.
Uncountables in English
advice, equipment, evidence, homework, information, machinery, news, money,
permission, progress, traffic
Instead we say some/a bit of/an item of

• That’s good advice.
• Let me know if you need some information.
• He gave us a bit of useful advice.
• There was an interesting item of news.
Compare
• A thermometer measures temperature. Temperature is generally expressed in
degrees.
• The thermometer showed a temperature of over 50° C.
(similarly a velocity of …, a pressure of …)
• The box is made of metal. The box is made of a soft metal.
The use of articles in discourse

• We presented a paper at a conference about a new method for measuring magnetic
susceptibility. The paper explained that the method had been effective, but was still
experimental.
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Basic rules for using articles in technical English

The indefinite article (a/an) is used with singular countable nouns referring to a non-unique item
in general:
A microscope five microscopes
A plan several alternative plans
The definite article (the) is used with nouns referring to a unique specific item. A noun can have
a definite article when:
• It refers to an item previously mentioned.

A sample was taken from a bar-stock. The sample was cut and polished.
• It is modified by a superlative or ordinal number.

The most significant results
The first experiment
• It refers to an entire type or species.

The scanning electron microscope is an extremely useful investigative tool.
• There is only one of something or it is fully specified by the context or background

knowledge.
The periodic table is often used in chemistry.
The internet is now used by million of people across the world.
• It is followed by “of + noun phrase”.

The diffusion of the alloy solute
The coefficient of expansion of brass
Note:
Look carefully at using articles with the following ing-forms:
the defining of an error signal
defining an error signal
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References:
Eastwood, J.: Oxford Learner´s Grammar, OUP 2005
McCarthy, M., O´Dell, F.: Academic Vocabulary in Use, CUP 2008
Murphy, R.: English Grammar in Use, OUP 2004
Swan, M.: Practical English Usage, OUP 2005
Writing Professional English, Leonardo da Vinci Project, VUT v Brně 2005
Tento projekt je spolufinancován Evropským sociálním fondem a státním rozpočtem České republiky
1.1.2 ARTICLES - EXERCISES
Exercise 1
Fill in an article where necessary
One form of listening to (1)……. music is by using CDs.
(2)……. CD is (3)……. digital system.
The player's laser reads a series of (4)……. on/off pulses without physically touching the
disc's surface.
Not every pulse must be read accurately – as long as (5)……. number of reading errors
remains below (6)……. certain limit, (7)……. reconstruction of (8)……. music is complete.
But if (9)……. number of errors rises above that level, the player loses the sound for
(10)……. moment.
(11)……. CD players contain (12)……. electronics which perform “error correction”, filling
or bridging gaps when pulses are missing or miss-read.
Exercise 2
Fill in an article where necessary
1. Smoothing signal is equivalent to decomposing signal into several signals.

2. Ken Hyland is Associate Professor at University of Hong Kong. He has PhD degree from
University of Queensland, Australia, in English for Computer Science.
3. We are at threshold of new age of communication, and many observers appear to be
feeling optimistic about it.
4. Article is focused on development of radio-amateur short-wave transceiver.
References:
Exercise 3
Use the, a/an or nothing
Do you know how to operate …. device?
.... English people drink a lot of tea.
…. English people I know drink a lot of tea.
.... research has shown that the intended treatment will not be possible.
At university she studied .... law. (science)
Their activities are fully in accordance with …. law. (a particular act)
We carried out …. experiment.
…. first/the last experiment was carried out in 2000.
…. best results were achieved by our research group in 2008.
They use …. shock-proof material.
I like working with …. students.
I like …. students I work with.
Exercise 4
The healing power of electricity
Scientists have discovered how …. body uses ….electricity to heal …. cuts. When …. person’s
skin is cut, …. electrical signal forms …. edge of the wound and it remains there until the
wound heals. This electrical signal stimulate …. special skin cells to move to …. wound. These
cells then heal …. damage at …. cut.
…. effects of the electrical charge are very slow. …. skin cells move at …. speed of fifty
micrometers …. hour, which is approximately one millimetre …. day. However, ….
experiments have shown that …. mechanism can be speeded up by fifty per cent. As ….
result, …. healing process is accelerated.
Exercise 5
Ferrari
…. Enzo Ferrari’ death in 1988 was …. sad occasion. However, it did release …. Ferrari from
…. grip of his idiosyncratic ways and enabled …. firm to move into…. new era. ….appointment
of Luca di Montezemolo in December 1991 was …. beginning of …. series of …. changes. His
aim was to invest in …. research and …. development and to bridge …. gap between …. racing
and production car businesses. He also introduced …. sponsorship, although …. constructor
still has fewer names on its cars than …. other teams. …. CEO is steering …. narrow course
between modernising …. company while trying to avoid diluting …. mystique that makes ….
marque so great.
Sources:
Philpot, S., Curnick, L.: New Headway Academic Skills, OUP 2007
Strutt, P.: Market Leader, Business and Grammar Usage, Pearson Education Ltd. 2000
Writing Professional English, Leonardo da Vinci project, VUT 2005

1.2.1 THE PASSIVE
be + past participle (third form of a verb)
• The laboratory is cleaned every day.

• The laboratory was cleaned on Monday.
• The laboratory has been cleaned already.
• The laboratory will be cleaned tomorrow.
• Wait a minute, the laboratory is just being cleaned.
• The laboratory had been cleaned before they arrived.
Only transitive verbs can be used in the passive.
Transitive verbs have objects.
Intransitive verbs don´t have objects.
• The operator has repaired the device.

• The device has been repaired.
x
• We arrived early.
Examples of verbs with two objects

direct and indirect
ask, give, hand, lend, offer, pass, sell, send, show, teach, tell, throw, write
• He gave us valuable information.

• We were given valuable information
• Valuable information was given to us.
But
demonstrate, describe, mention, present,
report, suggest
• They reported their conclusions to him.

• Their conclusions were reported to him.
Not
• They reported him their solutions.

• He was reported their solutions.
Passive verbs - to say what happens to the subject
• A new university campus has been built

• The device has been repaired (by the operator).
Active verbs - to say what the subject does
• They have built a new university campus.

• The operator has repaired the device.
Objectivity
We use the passive to achieve
• Objectivity and neutral approach

• Impersonal style
Action more important than agent
Information and facts more important than personal opinions
The passive is commonly used in technical and scientific writing.
• It can be concluded that our results are

very satisfactory.
• It cannot be assumed that the first results will be decisive.

• It was decided that the research should be continued.
Overuse of the passive should be avoided.
• Some researchers are determined to continue with such experiments, while generally
it is believed that interesting results cannot be yielded.
• Some researchers are determined to continue with such experiments, while others say
that they cannot yield interesting
results.
References:
Glendinning, E.: Information Technology, OUP 2002
Jones, L., Alexander, R.: New International Business English, CUP 1998
Mc Carthy, M, O´Dell, F.: Academic Vocabulary in Use, CUP 2008

1.2.2 PASSIVE VOICE - EXERCISES
Exercise 1
Change the following sentences into passive
1 I include the simulation example to demonstrate …

……………………………………………………………………………………………….
2 We have recently observed that we can improve the speed of the constant modulus
algorithm.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
3 We can distinguish limits to other technical systems by …
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
4 … and as a result we selected the superior variants….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
5 I assume that …
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
6 The authors consider these results to be highly interesting.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
Exercise 2
Complete the sentences using the correct past tense form (active or passive) of the verb in the
brackets
1 The results ……………………. little insight into the causes of the problem. (give)
2 Later on, the same techniques ……………………. to a new set of data. (apply)
3 The research ……………………. .in the identification of several key factors. (result)
4 The correlation between these two sets of figure ……………………. . (investigate)
5 Over 1,000 results ……………………. , although not all of the were used in the analysis.
(record)
6 When the figures were analysed, the results ……………………. that the scientists'
previous conclusions were mistaken. (suggest)
7 The findings ……………………. conclusive evidence that the original theory was
correct. (provide)
8 For several weeks, the researchers ……………………. through the data looking for any
significant patterns. (sift)
9 The importance of the discoveries ……………………. by the amount of media attention
that they received. (reflect)
Exercise 3
Change the following sentences into the passive voice structures. Then make the sentences
negative and make questions
1. They started the production of these machines in 2010.
2. We are going to introduce new technology to our customers.
3. The head of the department will lead the project.
4. You don’t have to find the solution to the problem right now.
5. We will have to give them more details on the project.
6. Employees have discussed the changes in the structure of the company.
7. The production line uses a camera to record the position of the component.
8. In their presentation they haven’t described the difference between the two methods.
9. Using these processes we will reach high–level health and safety standards.
10. We have to certify the compliance of all components.
11. We use two different models for analysing the effects of static load.
12. You cannot accelerate the charging process beyond the limit.
13. The systems must incorporate large heat spreaders.
14. This software offers a high level of flexibility.

1.3.1 Relative Clauses - Explanation

Introduced by who / which / that
often used in technical descriptions
• A network is a number of computers and peripherals which are linked together.
sometimes relative clauses with participles (active or passive) are used to compress the provided
information
• Data line linking client to server.

• The technology needed to set up a laboratory.
1. The relative clause essential to the meaning of the sentence is a defining relative clause.
Commas are not used to separate it from the rest of the sentence.
• The book that I recommended to you is out of print.
2.If it gives some additional information and is not essential to the meaning of the sentence, it is a
non-defining relative clause. Commas are used to separate it from the rest of the sentence.
• The laboratory of diagnostic systems, which is on the second floor, is very well equipped.
That is often used instead of who and which (especially in speech)
after superlatives
after all, only, any(thing), every(thing), some(thing), no(thing), none, little, few, much, many
• There´s something that I ought to tell you.

• This is the best printer that we have ever had.
If the relative pronoun is the object of the clause, it can be omitted
• That´s the bus which goes to the station (subject-pronoun)

• The bus (which) I caught didn´t go to the station (object-pronoun)
Whose – possessive relative pronoun.
It is used for people and things.
• That´s the car whose engine blew up.

• Here comes Professor White whose lectures we attend.
Exercise 1
Use correct relative pronouns and commas where necessary:
1.My office ….. is on the second floor is very small.
2.The man ….. was supposed to meet me didn´t turn up.
3.The reason ….. I´m phoning you is to ask your advice.
4.This is a statement ….. no one has proved or disapproved.
5.We have visited the US Naval Research Laboratory ….. provides the time standard used by the US
military.
6.The machine ….. broke down is working again now.
7.John ….. speaks French works as a tourist guide.
8.The office ….. I´m using at the moment is next to yours.
9.The boy ..... sits next to me is always cheating in tests.
10. I´ve just read his latest paper ….. is very good.
References:
Glendinning, E., Mc Ewan, J. : Information Technology, OUP 2002

1.3.2 Relative Clauses - Exercises

Exercise 1
Use the correct relative pronoun where necessary
1.The majority of complaints are from people ........ have chosen the wrong sort of holiday.
2.We stayed in our usual hotel ......... has just been redecorated.
3.My mother ........... is 60 has just come back from London.
4.1976 was the hottest summer ............. we have ever had.
5.There´s something ............. I ought to tell you.
6.My neighbour is a man .............. hobby is playing drums.
7. All the people ............ have met him say he´s awful.
8. A corkscrew is a device ............. removes corks from bottles.
9.They gave their car ............ was very old to their son.
10. The book ........... I recommended to you is out of print.
11.I bought my watch in a local shop ............. name I can´t remember.
12.The boy ........... sits next to me is always cheating in tests.
Based on:
Murphy, R.: English Grammar in Use, CUP 2004
Exercise 2
Supply the suitable relative pronouns and commas where necessary.
1. Scientists ______ study volcanic activity are known as volcanologists.

2. Volcanologists ______ study volcanic activity are often able to warn of possible
volcanic eruption.
3. Planes _____ have flown through clouds of ash have crashed.
4. Have you seen the assembly line _____ they introduced at the trade fair?
5. They have designed a device _____ can detect movement.
6. He wanted to see the house _____ he was born.
7. The number _____ you are dialling is engaged.
8. Great Britain _____ climate is so rainy lies in the Atlantic Ocean.
9. The examination _____ you are going to take consists of three parts.
10. Mr. Smith _____ is the financial manager will explain the problem.
11. The article _____ I am reading just now is very interesting.
12. The number of problems _____ we can find in your presentation is too large.
13. English grammar _____ we have to study is very easy.
14. Current market trends seem to favour the well-established smaller supplier _____ is
able to cope with changed market conditions.
15. This creates steps in the stencil _____ determine the finally printed solder paste
volume.
16. For these reasons we have decided to adjust the strategy _____ we have applied until
now.
Adapted from the following sources:
• Haines,S and Stewart, B. (2004) First Certificate Masterclass. Student’s Book. Oxford:
Oxford University Press, pp. 116-117
• Tryml, S. and Gottheinerová, T. (1994) Moderní učebnice angličtiny. Praha: NS
Svoboda, 1997
• EPP Electronic Production and Test 5/6 2005. Konradin Verlag, Leinfelden-
Echterdingen, Germany
1.4.1 Word Order - Exercises
Exercise 1
Put the following words and phrases in the right order to make sentences:
1) elevator/space/to raise/a/things/space/into/is designed
2) a summary/a client/of our meeting/I attach/with/last Tuesday/
3) should not/in the event/water extinguishers/be used/on this machine/of a fire/
4) as man develops and modifies/which people do/the type of work/is constantly changing/his
way of living
5) renewable energy/challenge/as a/is widely seen/the need to develop/futuristic

technological/
6) battery stacks/the associated traction motor/to drive/required/electric vehicles/that

provide/must have/of all kinds/the power
7) fully hybrid/intends/vehicle/at the end of this year/the automotive supplier Siemens VDO
/its first/demonstration/to unveil
8) by/saving measures/implemented/energy/carmakers/is one of the/electric power steering

(EPS)/
9) that produce/and/the desired/losses/have adjusted ratios/compensate for/many voltage

transformers/output voltage/
10) applying a battery/on the specific battery/power management/in the system/that

depends/employed/requires/to an electronic system/
Adapted from the following sources:
Ibbotson, M. (2008) Cambridge English for Engineering. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press
www.powerelectronics.com
1.5.1 Word Formation - Prefixes
PREFIX USUAL MEANING EXAMPLES
a- not, without amoral

ante- before antedate, antechamber,
antecedent
anti- against antisocial, anti-bacterial,
anticathode, anticreeper,
antipathy
arch- supreme, most archbishop, arch-enemy,
archduke
auto- self automatic, autobiography,
auto-dial, autotransformer,
autosuggestion
bi- two bilingual, bicycle, bi-cable,
bicarbonate
centi- hundredth centimetre, centilitre
circum- round circumnavigate,
circumpolar, circumvent
co- together, with cooperate, co-pilot
counter- against counteract, countermeasure,
countercurrent
cyber- computer, internet cybercrime, cyberculture
de- reversing action defrost, deregulate,
decomposition
dia- across diameter, diagonal,
diagnostic
dis- not, opposite, reversing disappear, disorder,
action disconnect, disintegration,

dissection, dissolving,
dismantle
dys- abnormal dyslexia, dysgraphia,
dysfunctional
e- electronic, internet email,e-commerce, e-book, e-
learning
eco- environment eco-tourism
equi- equal equidistant, equilateral,
equipotential, equinox
ex- former ex-husband, ex-president
extra- exceptional, outside extra-special, extra-
terrestrial
geo- earth geothermal, geophysics
hyper- extreme, too much hypertension, hypersonic,
hyperstatic, hyperfragment
il-(before l) not, opposite illegible, illegal
ill- badly ill-expressed
im-(before p) not, opposite impossible, imperfection,
implasticity, impermeability
in- movement towards inside input, intake
in- not, opposite incomplete, insensitive
inter- between, among international, intersection
intra- within intra-atomic, intramuscular,
intranuclear, intravenous
ir-(before r) not, opposite irregular, irrotational
kilo- thousand kilometre, kilogram
macro- large macro-scale, macromolecular
mal- badly maltreat, malfunction
mega- million megabyte

micro- small microelectronics, microchip,
microsection
mid- in the middle of mid-afternoon
milli- thousandth millisecond
mis- wrong(ly) misunderstand,
misalignment, misclosure
mono- one monorail, monotonous
multi- many multilingual, multi-purpose,
multicultural
neo- based on something older neo-classical
non- not non-returnable,
non-cohesive
out- do/be more than outrun, outnumber
over- too much over-confident, overload,
overproduction, overdose
post- after postwar, postsynchronization
pre- before prewar, prechlorination,
precleaning, prehistoric
pro- in favour of pro-liberal
pseudo- false pseudo-science
re- again, back rebuild, reconstruction,
rebound, recharge
retro- backwards retrospective
semi- half semicircle, semiconductor
socio- society socio-economic
sub- below sub-standard, subzero,
substructure
super- more than, special supernatural, supersonic,
supervision
tele- distant telescope, television,
telemetry,
telecommunication
thermo- heat thermo-electric, thermostat,
thermostable
trans- across transatlantic, transmission,
transversal
tri- three triangle
ultra- extreme, beyond ultrasound, ultrasonic,
ultralinear
uni- one unicycle, unidirectional,
uniflow
vice- deputy vice-chairman, vice-president
well- useful, successful well-designed
Sources:
McCarthy,M. and O´Dell, F. (2009) Academic Vocabulary in Use. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. pp.128-130
Fronek, J. (2006) Velký anglicko-český slovník. Praha: Leda
Kolektiv autorů (1992) Anglicko-český technický slovník. Praha: SNTL Nakladatelství technické
literatury
Swan, M. (2005) Practical English Usage. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 419-421

1.5.2 Word Formation -‐ Suffixes

suffix meaning examples

-able, -ible can be predictable, compatible,
acceptable, detectable,
adjustable, variable
-age instance of breakage, usage
-al instance of refusal
-al related to accidental, oriental, global, bi-

directional, elemental,
commercial
-ant having an effect coolant, accelerant
-ate causative chlorinate
-ation process, state of exploration, explanation,

translation, integration
-centric centred on Eurocentric, endocentric,

exocentric
-cy state of quality accuracy, urgency
-ee person affected by something trainee
-en make, become harden, soften
-ence, -ency process, state of independence, conductance
-er, -or person/thing that does driver, generator,

something microcontroller, transducer,
starter
-fold multiplication twofold, manifold
-free without pain-free, lead-free, hands-


free
-ful full of, providing useful, powerful
-gram recording diagram
-graph recording device oscilograph, chronograph
-hood state, condition, period childhood
-ic connected with electric, photographic,

economic
-ical related to logical, optical
-ics study of electronics, mathematics,

physics
-ify give something a quality electrify, solidify, purify
-ion activity attraction, implementation,

miniaturization
-ish rather like greenish
-ist a person with specific beliefs optimist

or behaviour
-ity quality of conductivity, elasticity,

reliability, stability,
complexity
-ive can do, does protective, selective,

automotive, inductive
-ize, -ise bring about a state or modernize, modernise,

condition colonise, colonize, minimize
-less without contactless, meaningless,

wireless
-ment process, result, state establishment, arrangement,

development
-ness quality or state effectiveness, hardness


-logy study of biology, geology
-proof protected against, safe from waterproof, fireproof
-ship state of or having a specific leadership, internship

position
-ward towards backward
-wise method or direction otherwise, anticlockwise
-y like, characterised by creamy
Sources:
Kolektiv autorů (1992) Anglicko-‐český technický slovník. Praha: SNTL Nakladatelství technické
literatury
McCarthy, Michael and O´Dell, Felicity (2008) Academic Vocabulary in Use. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, p.131
Swan, Michael (2005) Practical English Usage. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 421-‐422
www.powerelectronics.com

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1.5.3 WORD FORMATION - COMPOUNDS

Compound nouns
In compound nouns, the main noun comes at the end, and any others describe it (e.g. a silicon
chip, a company credit card).
Compound nouns are written in different ways:
! as two separate words, e.g. control panel

! as two words joined with a hyphen, e.g. self-test
! as one word, e.g. bandwidth.
Unfortunately, there are no rules. For example, you may see clip art, clip-art and clipart.
Some compounds change over time, for example two words, web site, become hyphenated
after a time, web-site, and then eventually end up as one word – website.
Compound adjectives
An adjective can come at the beginning. Compound adjectives are made up of two words,
normally with hyphen between them.
a long-lasting printer cartridge
a high-quality water treatment system
The second part of compound adjectives is often a past participle.
battery-powered systems
a voice-activated program
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Exercise 1
Make three-word noun combinations by putting the words in the correct order.
1 product team design …………………………………………

2 ray cathode tube …………………………………………
3 development strategy staff …………………………………………
4 engineer computer software …………………………………………
5 feedback program customer …………………………………………
6 construction bridge project …………………………………………
Exercise 2
Put the words in the noun combinations (in bold) in the correct order.
As new technologies arrive on an increasingly globalized market, companies are facing (1)
development product cycles ever-shorter. What's more, as products become more
sophisticated, manufacturers have to work with (2) support increasingly requirements
complex technical. One of the new tools available to help cope with such difficulties are (3)
programs web-based feedback customer, which enable firms to work with (4) real-world
product pre-market feedback.
1 …………………………………………
2 …………………………………………
3 …………………………………………
4 …………………………………………
References:
Esteras, S.R., Fabré, E.M.: Professional English in Use ICT, CUP 2007.
Allison, J., Emmerson, P.: The Business Intermediate, MACMILLAN 2007.
Swan, M., Walter, C.: How English Works, A grammar practice book, OUP 1997.
1.5.4 Word Formation - Exercises
Exercise 1
Use appropriate nouns
accurate I’m afraid the report is full of …….………………. .
acquire The course is focused on data ………………………, processing and interpretation.
admit Now there are a lot more …………………..….. to the Bachelor programme than last year.
apply All ………………… must be received before June 15.
consistent The professor found many ……………………… in his essay.
consume The fuel ………….….…… of this car is rather high.
imply The failure of this scheme would have serious ………….……..……
reveal What do you say to their latest ………………..?
understand I’m sure that the whole problem is a simple ……….………..…….
work The ……………………….. on advanced batteries will be held next month.

Exercise 2
Use appropriate adjectives
access I’m afraid that the system collapsed and our data is …………..………....
benefit I think that the course will be …………………………… for our students.
confidence I’m ………………………. there you will pass all examinations.
confidence These documents are strictly ………………………
courage Our preliminary results are ……………………………
convince The results were very ……………………………
experience He can’t be the project leader, he is an …………………….. researcher.
economy It is much more …………………………… to teach large groups of students.

Exercise 3
Use verbs
benefit I’m sure that you will ……………………… from the business experience.
commerce I suppose that the project will be …………………………..
distinction The student needs to be able to ………………………. between the different meanings.
effect The recent crisis ………………………… all European countries.
emphasis The speaker………………………… the importance of testing.
excess Average values …………………….. 150 V.
final Today we have to ………………………… the text of the report.
qualification I believe he will ………………………… for the job.
success You can’t ……………………………….. in this experiment.
Based on:
Mc Carthy, M., O’Dell, F.: Academic Vocabulary in Use, CUP 2008

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ento projekt je spolufinancován Evropským sociálním fondem a státním rozpočtem České republiky
2. LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS
2.1. Comparing and Contrasting
2.1.1. Comparing and Contrasting – Explanation
Comparison
One-syllable adjectives normally have comparatives and superlatives ending in -er, -est.
Some adjectives have irregular comparisons, e.g. little, less, least, much / many, more, most.
Adjectives of three or more syllables have more and most.
cheaper, more reliable

the cheapest, the most reliable + in, of
• He’s the youngest of them all.

• He’s the best student in the class.
Before comparatives you can use a bit /a little, slightly, somewhat, almost as, far/much / a lot
• The problem is a lot more serious than we thought.

• This box is slightly heavier than the other one.
To say that something is the same or equal we use as … as, and we use not as … as to show
that something is not the same or equal.
• Petrol is as expensive as it was two years ago.
Twice as … as, as many as, as much as
• Petrol is twice as expensive as it was a few years ago.

• As many as three times more students have enrolled.
• Did it cost £100? Not as much as that.
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The … the
• The more specimens you use, the more reliable results you get.
• The younger you are, the easier it is to learn.
More
• It costs £50 more.

• It weighs three times more.
• Compared with the first device we bought from them, this one was 40% more.
Contrasting
Contrasting is a specific kind of comparison, you aim to identify differences.
common to distinguish
It is useful to differentiate between A and B
valuable to make distinction
differs
A is different from B in a certain respect .
can be distinguished in most respects.
Unlike
B, A is cheap.
In contrast to
• Unlike the digital camera, the conventional camera uses film.

• The conventional camera requires chemical processing while/ whereas the digital
camera does not.
• The conventional camera requires chemical processing. On the other hand, the digital
camera does not.
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Similarity
similar to
A is equal to B
like
no different from
are identical
A and B the same in every respect
alike in most respects
similar in that they …
• Like the conventional camera, the digital camera has a viewfinder.

• She is good at scientific subjects, like mathematics.
• These two cars are identical in every respect.
References
Glendinning, E.H., McEwan, J.: Information Technology, OUP 2002
Mc Carthy, M., O´Dell, F.: Academic Vocabulary in Use, CUP 2008
Writing Professional English, Leonardo da Vinci Project, 2005
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2.1.2. Comparing and Contrasting – Exercises
Exercise 1
Translate the following sentences
1.Bylo to prodáno za dvacetinásobek původní ceny.

2.Déle už nečekám.
3.Není to o nic dražší.
4.Ta laboratoř je třikrát větší než ta naproti.
5.Můžete mluvit trochu pomaleji?
6.Cena je poněkud vyšší než jsme čekali.
Exercise 2
1.Ten monitor je ze všech nejlevnější.

2.Ten problém je mnohem vážnější než jsme mysleli.
3. Přihlásilo se třikrát více studentů než vloni.
4. Dnes není autobus tak plný jako obvykle.
5. Nevypadá o nic starší než její dcera.
Exercise 3
Find the mistakes in these sentences
1.He’s no expert on cars. To him a Mercedes and a BMW are like.

2.Who’s the less popular politician of the world?
3.My country is quite different than Britain.
4.Don’t you think that the more something is difficult, the less
enjoyable?
5.Less people watched the last Olympics on TV than watched
the Soccer World Cup.
References
Lebauer,R.S.: Learn to Listen, Listen to Learn, Addison Wesley
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2.2. Emphasising
2.2.1. Emphasising - Explanation
We emphasise a word or expression to give them more importance, to show

contrast or to focus on particular parts of a sentence.
Visually
We can emphasise our statements or ideas visually by using
• Graphs, tables, charts, figures

• Headings, separated from the body of writing
• Paragraphs or sentences shorter than the norm
or by
• Breaking paragraphs
• Putting the main idea at the start or at the end of the paragraph
Language
Passive constructions
Passive constructions emphasise the agent.
• Thompson discovered the electron.
• The electron was discovered by Thompson.
Inversion – changing the normal word order

We can give words or expressions more importance by moving them to an unusual
position.
One, the only … is/was
• The only advantage is the low cost.

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Negative expressions
Never..., Seldom..., Rarely..., Under no circumstances..., At no time..., In no way... ,
Only
• Under no circumstances should you do it alone.
May clause introduced by although

(highly formal)
• Although it may be/seem difficult, it can be done.
Question words ending in – ever

Whatever, however
• However hard you try, you cannot succeed.

• Whatever you say, you can’t change my decision.
Balancing or parallel structures

e.g. not only ... but (also) ..., just as ... so ...
• Not only this technology may provide a safe, clean source of power for all electricity
consumers, but it will help to create energy from nuclear vision.
Cleft sentences – a kind of relative clause

It was ...who / that ...
Cleft sentences with it was … who/that can be used to focus on particular parts of a
sentence and give them extra importance.
• Bill Gates introduced the Windows NT operating system in 1993.

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• It was Bill Gates that introduced the Windows NT operating system in 1993.(emphasis
on the person)
• It was the Windows NT operating system that Bill Gates introduced in 1993.
(emphasis on the object)
Other cleft sentence structures
What ... is /was ..., The reason why … is that …
• What the Research Centre plans is to test the newly developed apparatus
References
Glendinning, E.H, McEwan, J.: Information Technology, OUP 2002
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2.2.2. Emphasizing – Exercises
Exercise 1
Use emphatic forms
1.John kept a computer in this room.

2.The company in charge of the power lines has never experienced a tragedy like this.
3.A strike by workers at electricity generating plants has recently caused power cuts.
4.It is most important to avoid errors.
5.We cannot succeed in this experiment.
6.We will know the next steps to take when the report has been carefully analysed.
7.As one light bulb in a series circuit burns out, it opens the circuit and all the other bulbs
also go out.
8.We don’t have much opportunity to use the new equipment.
9. We couldn’t complete the report before the deadline.
References
Glendinning, E.H, McEwan, J.: Information Technology, OUP 2002
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2.3. DEFINING
2.3.1. Defining - Explanation
When we describe things, we sometimes need to define them as well, especially in academic
writing, so that it is perfectly clear what we mean.
Defining an object
We define an object by describing its function and properties. For example, we can define a
„web browser“ or „transistors“ like this:
A web browser is a program used to display web pages.

Transistors are the key devices used to control the flow of electric current.
There are other ways of describing the function of an object.

for + ing (for displaying)
relative pronoun + verb (which/that displays)
relative pronoun + is used + to + infinitive (which/that is used to display)
An object can also be defined like this:

A is equal to/equals /is equivalent to B
corresponds to B
is said to be/may be said to be B
is referred to as B
is defined as/may be defined as B
By A is meant B
we mean B
Example sentences:
Diodes may be said to be components of an electric circuit.
By electric energy we mean the result of the movement through material of free electronics
passing from atom to atom.
Defining people and places
We can define people and places with a defining clause.

The teacher who is responsible for the computer centre has just arrived.
An address bar is the area in your browser display where the web address is displayed
Defining- using relative clauses

In a defining clause,
we use which or that to refer to things;
we use who or that to refer to people;
we use where (= at which) to refer to places.
A botanist is a person …. studies plants.

Bronze is an alloy …. is produced from copper and tin.
A college is an institution ….. students receive higher or professional education.
In academic definitions, which/who can be omitted. A definition written in this way uses a
reduced relative clause.
Compare:
Plastics are compounds which are made with long chains of carbon atoms.
Plastics are compounds made with long chains of carbon atoms.
Extended defining
A definition may be extended in order to be more precise and/or to give more information
about the subject. Traditionally, a definition first places the item or concept to be defined into
a broad category or class and then specifies the special features that distinguish that item from
other members of the same class.
Look carefully at the following example.
Econometrics may be defined as the branch of economics which applies mathematical and
statistical techniques to economic problems. It is concerned with/deals with/ relates to/
involves testing the validity of economic theories and providing the means of making
quantitative predictions.
Write a definition of your subject in a similar way to the above.
References
Fabré, E.M., Esteras, S.R.: Professional English in Use ICT, CUP 2007.
Jordan, R.R.: Academic Writing Course, Collins ELT 1990.
Leki, I.: Academic Writing. Exploring Processes and Strategies, CUP 1998.
2.3.2. Defining – Exercises
Exercise 1
Match each item in Column A with its function in Column B. Then describe its function
in two ways
A Item B Function
processor transmits data between two computers or networks
clock inputs data through keys like a typewriter
keyboard controls all the operations in a computer
router controls the timing of signals in the computer
Exercise 2
Correct the errors in these definitions. Use “who, that, which or where”
1. Mobile TV Broadcasting is a system who lets you watch TV on a PDA or mobile

phone.
2. A computer geek is someone which is an enthusiastic user of computers, sometimes to
an obsessive degree.
3. The Recycle Bin is the folder that deleted files are stored until you decide to delete
them completely.
4. The microprocessor is a chip where processes the information provided by the
software.
Exercise 2
Write out the following definitions in full, putting the “who/which” word in the correct
place
1. Plastics are substances moulded into shape when they are heated.
2. The computer we saw at the exhibition runs at 2.5 GHz.
Exercise 3
Write out the following definitions omitting the “who/which” word so that a reduced
relative clause is used
1. The teacher who is responsible for the computer centre has just arrived.
2. A megahertz is a unit of frequency which is used to measure processor speed.
Exercise 3
Extended definitions
Make a list of 4 terms from your field that you think would be useful for the general
public to understand. Define each one in a sentence. Select one or two to define more
fully
References
Fabré, E.M., Esteras, S.R.: Professional English in Use ICT, CUP 2007.
Jordan, R.R.: Academic Writing Course, Collins ELT 1990.
Leki, I.: Academic Writing. Exploring Processes and Strategies, CUP 1998.
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2.4. Describing a Process
2.4.1 Describing a Process – Explanation
When you describe a process, you describe how something is done, explaining the purpose
and the steps involved in the process.
Sequence of steps/stages involved in the process
• First, second, third

• Then, next, after that, subsequently
• The next step/stage in the process is …
• Simultaneously, at the same time, having done, before that, while
• Finally, lastly, in the end, eventually
Formal
In mainly written (technical) discourse, the passive is often used to describe the steps
in a process where the action is more important than the agent and where the agent
is already known to the recipient.
• The sensors are used to position the components.

• The output is recorded on a multitrack
• A beam of radio waves is sent out by the radar.
Informal
Generally, in spoken discourse, active verb forms are used.
• We use sensors to position the components.
• We use the ohmmeter to measure resistivity.
In technical/scientific writing both voices are used.

Te
Useful word combinations
Make x do
Make is used if the action is creative.
Do is used if the action is a job or a task.
• He made an attractive design.

• The team did their work very well.
We
• do research, processing, tests
• make measurements observations
• use / employ (more formally) a method / research methodology, an approach /
a technique, an instrument /a device
• carry out/conduct a procedure /an experiment, a pilot (preliminary) study
• manufacture/assemble/check a device/ an instrument/apparatus
!(apparatus is an uncountable noun)
• We bought a new piece of apparatus.
Example
Firstly, a blank perspex disc is ground and polished to optical flatness. Next, it is washed and
spin-dried. It is then coated with a thin layer of photoresist and cured in an oven. After that, as
the disc is revolved, a laser beam is used to mark the audio information pattern on its surface.
This process is known as ‘cutting’ the disc. The photoresist is then developed and etched to
produce pits in the disc’s surface. These pits represent the digital audio pattern.
Then the disc is given a thin silver coat to make it electrically conductive. Next, electroplating
is used to make a series of positive and negative copies of the master disc. The final negative
copy is used to press/produce a large number of identical CDs. The surface of the CD
containing the pit marks is then covered/coated with a 10 mm layer of aluminium followed by
a protective layer of plastic. After punching the centre hole, a label is applied and the CD is
packaged.
Te
References
Glendinning, E., McEwan, J.: Electronics, OUP 1993(2001)
Glendinning, E., McEwan, J.: Information Technology, OUP 2002
McCarthy, M., O’Dell,F.: Academic Vocabulary in Use, CUP 2008
Jones, L., Alexander, R.:New International Business English, CUP 1998
Te
2.4.2.Instructions
Giving instructions, basically imperative is used - do/don’t, or, if you want to sound
more polite and friendly - you do, you should do
• First of all you open the box.

• Then you should switch the overhead projector off.
To explain the order in which certain things are done, you say
• First of all … / The next thing you have to do is … /… and then finally …
To add a further point you can start with
• Make sure you ...

• Oh, and by the way, don’t forget to ...
• Be careful not to ...
To check that the other person is following you, or has understood, you ask
• So is that clear?
• Does that seem to make sense?
• So there we are. Do you have any questions?
If you haven’t understood the explanation, can’t follow the instructions or want to check if
you understood, you say
• I’m sorry, I didn’t quite follow you there.

• I’m sorry, what did you say that part was called?
If you want to ask someone to explain something to you, you can say
• Excuse me, could you show me how to …

• I wonder if you could tell me how this works.
Te
When you think you understood, you can remark
• If I’ve understood right …

• So is the basic idea that …?
• You mean …
Verbs used when giving instructions
Unpack, open, close

Switch on/off, turn on/off, turn up/down
Press/push, hold, release
Place, remove - take off/out, replace – put back
Insert – put in
Slide on, line up with
Select, set, reset
There are synonymous expressions differently used in written language and in spoken
language. In informal English phrasal verbs are preferred.
Examples
• Remove - take off/out

• Replace - put back
• Insert - put in
Giving advice
When giving advice, you mostly use the auxiliary verb should, the verb recommend,
expressions had better, it´s a good idea.
• Your navigation system should be based on text links.

• You had better close the compartment before you start. (close to warning)
• I recommend their latest book.
• It is a good idea to start as soon as possible.
Te
Warnings - basic instructions NOT to do something
• Never give out your password.

• Always use the device at room temperature.
• Use an extraction tool rather than a screwdriver.
• No smoking in this room.
• You must not use your own software on these machines.
• Avoid touching the specimens.
References
Cotton, D., Falvey, D., Kent, S.: Market Leader, Pearson Education Limited, 2005
Glendinning, E.: Information Technology, OUP 2002
Glendinning, E., McEwan, J.: Electronics, OUP 1993 (2001)
Jones, L., Alexander, R.: New International Business English, CUP 1998
3.NUMBERS
3.1.Numbers – Explanation
The word figure is often used to refer to the symbol used for a number.
• Write the total in words and in figures.
Types of numbers
A whole number
An approximate number is roughly correct, not precise or exact.
2,4,6 Even Numbers
3, 5, 7 Odd Numbers
1,3,7 Prime Numbers
5.341 Decimal Number
A discrete number (unit) is something which is separate, cannot be divided into smaller
numbers (units).
The opposite is continuous.
A constant number (quantity) does not change.
A random number is one chosen by chance, is not predictable.
Verbs used with the word number – calculate/work out, estimate, round up/down,
deduct/take away/subtract, total/add up, tally
• My figures do not seem to tally with yours.
Values and variables
Values are individual numbers in a set of data.
• The graph shows the temperature values for different months of the year.
Variables are characteristics that can take on different values for different members of a set.
Magnitude refers to the size of something.
• Write down the numbers in order of magnitude.
Incidence refers to how frequently it occurs.
When using numbers in sentences note the following points

For numbers below ten, words are preferable to numerals.
Not There were 4 students missing in the class.

Use There were five students missing from the class.
Use numerals for page numbers, dates, figures, addresses and with %:
Not twenty-third July , Fig. Six, Two Eastwood Rd., three %

Use 23 July, Fig.6, 2 Eastwood Rd., 3%
Do not use numerals for ordinate numbers.
Not This is our 7th project in the last two years.

Use This is our seventh project in the last two years.
Do not use two numerals in succession.
Not 3 4 man teams

Use Three four-man teams
Do not use numerals at the beginning of a sentence.
Not 10 students failed in the examination.

Use Ten students failed at the examination.
Do not use numerals for round number estimates.
Not We have done roughly 20 exercises this week.

Use We have done roughly twenty exercises this week.
How to read 0
In telephone numbers oh five four six oh seven two one three eight, also zero
1:0 one to nil

Decimal numbers nought point four two six
0°C zero degrees Celsius
Dates
1989 nineteen eighty nine
1700 seventeen hundred
1805 eighteen oh five
2001 two thousand and one
2010 two thousand and ten
E-mail address: novak@fit.vutbr.cz

novak at fit dot vutbr dot cz
Dot
1. Part of an e-mail and website address
• anna. (dot) com
2. Used for serial and catalogue numbers, no fixed rules
120/AC-345.305
• one two zero slash A C dash three four five dot three zero five
or
• one two oh slash AC dash three four five dot three oh five
Point
If it is a decimal point in calculations
3 x 1.5 = 4.5
• three times one point five is fourpoint five
Full stop (USA – Period)

A punctuation mark at the end of a sentence
Fractions
1/2 a half
1/3 a third
1/4 a quarter
1/5 one fifth
1/8 an eighth
5/4 five quarters
3/19 three nineteenths or three over nineteen
1 2/3 one and two thirds
20% twenty per cent/percent
10° C ten degrees centigrade/celsius or fahrenheit

1 ° C = 32° F
-25° C minus twenty-five degrees Celsius
Powers and roots
x squared
x cubed
x to the power of n OR x to the n
square root of x
cube root of x
nth root of x
Mathematical processes
addition to add +
subtraction to subtract -
multiplication to multiply x
division to divide :
4 + 6 = 10 four plus six equals (is) ten

6–4=2 six minus four equals two
4 x 6 = 24 four multiplied by six equals twenty-four
or four times six is twenty-four
24 : 6 = 4 twenty-four divided by six equals four
Basic formulas (formulae)

( ) brackets [ ] square brackets
A, B, C capital letters
a,b,c small letters
(a-b) (a+b) = y
a minus b in brackets times a plus b in brackets equals y
a(6 – b) = x
a open brackets six – b close brackets equals x
10 + (a+b)
ten plus a minus b in brackets all over 6a equals b
x[(a-b) (a+b)-7]=0
x open square brackets a minus b in brackets times a plus b in brackets minus 7 close square
brackets equals nought
References
Jones, L.: Working in English, CUP 2001
McCarthy,M., O’Dell, F.: Academic Vocabulary in Use, CUP 2008
McCarthy,M., O’Dell, F.: English Vocabulary in Use, Upper Intermediate, CUP 1994
3.2.Numbers – Exercises
Exercise 1
Read and write in words
1.1,966
2.65,000
3.103,689
3.6,507,893
4.4,185
5.229,402
6.567/CD-321.56G
7.223/AA-4453.128
8.018/AF-45.30Q
Exercise 2
Write
1.the first six even numbers

2.the four first odd numbers
3.the first four prime numbers
4.three point one six two
5.twenty three degrees Celsius
6.one over sixteen
7.two and three eights
8.eight point four nine six two
Exercise 3
How do we read ... ?
1.a + b + c = x
2.7y – 8b + c = 12
3.
4. - = (x + a) x (x – a)
5. =4
6. =8
7. =2
8. + + = 1
Exercise 4
Answer these questions
1.What is five squared ?

2.What is the next even number after 8 ?
3.How is this sequence of numbers created ? 3, 9, 27, 81
4.If you round up 7.77, what number do you have ?
5. and 4 – which is a whole number and which is a fraction ?
6.What are the nouns for the following verbs: add, subtract, multiply, divide ?
7.a.b.c.d. etc are small letters. A.B.C.D. etc are ….. letters.
References
Glendinning, E., Mc Ewan, J. : Information Technology, OUP 2002
Leki, I,: Academic Writing, Exploring Processes and Strategies, CUP 1998
Lebauer Roni S.: Learn to Listen, Listen to Learn, Addison Wesley
Longman, Inc., USA, 2000
Mc Carthy, M., O´Dell, F.:Academic Vocabulary in Use, CUP 2008
Writing Professional English,Leonardo da Vinci Project, 2005
4. DESCRIBING TRENDS
4.1 Describing Trends – Explanation
Graphs and charts
segments
scale
solid line
broken line
axis
pie chart line graph
bar chart flow chart

columns
rows
table organigram
vertical axis
a smooth
curve
a solid line
a broken line
e a dotted line
t lin
a i gh an
a str irregular
curve
horizontal axis
Graphs are drawn by plotting points and then drawing a line to join adjacent points.
adjacent = next to each other
lines run parallel X lines cross/intersect
correlation
curves run parallel
4.1 Describing Change - Explanation
Upward movement Downward movement

go up go down
increase decrease
rise fall
climb drop
Degree of change
slightly / moderately considerably sharply dramatically
Speed of change
slowly x rapidly
gradually x suddenly
steadily
Be careful to distinguish between these two verbs:
Rise (rose/risen) x raise(raised/raised)
• Prices of energy rose last month.

• All shops raised prices last month.
You can also say
• We have reduced/cut costs.

• Numbers of students doubled /tripled in five years.
End of movement - to flatten out/to level off
No change - to remain constant/stable, to stay the same/at the same level
to reach
to level out
a peak
to reach a plateau to remain

steady
to collapse
to form
to reach a trough
a low point
Prepositions
• The number of students increased by 20%.

• Costs remained stable at Ł350 per unit.
• Numbers of first-year and second-year students dropped to 2,000 and 3,000, resp.
• Funding from EU has fallen considerably.
• There has been a considerable fall in EU funding.
• They have decreased costs by 30%.
• There was a decrease of 30% in costs.
Comparison - while/whereas, on the other hand
At the start of the year prices went up while in the summer they started going down.
Last year numbers of Bachelor students went up. On the other hand, numbers of Master
students dropped.
References
Comfort, J,: Effective Presentations, OUP 1995
Hollett, V., Carter, R., Lyon, L., Tanner, E.: Business Objectives, OUP 1989(93)
Jones, L., Alexander, R.:New International Business English, CUP 1998
Sweeney, S.: English for Business Communication, CUP 2003
4.2 Describing Trends - Exercises
Exercise 1
Underline the verb or verb phrase in each of the following sentences. Then match each
sentence to a graph. You can us a graph more than once.
Example: Sales started at $3 million in 1990. ..a..
1. From 1997 to 2000, sales fluctuated. ......

2. Sales reached a peak of 3 million in 2001. ......
3. Sales increased for nearly two years then levelled off. ......
4. Sales declined between 1999 and 2003. ......
5. Sales dipped briefly in 2002, then recovered. ......
6. In 1990, sales stood at $24 million. ......
7. Sales overtook costs in 2003. ......
Exercise 2
Look at the chart. Complete the commentary with suitable words.
The chart ………….………. the number of cars entering the downtown area of West City
each day over an eight-year period (years 1-8). The totals are listed on the
……………………… axis, while the years are listed on the ……………………... axis. The
number of cars varied over the period. The total rose in the first few years and
……………….. a ………………….. in year 5, after which the numbers started to
…………………………. This can be …………………… by the …………………………..
that a new mass transit railway was opened in year 6, which is a graphic illustration of how
good public transport can dramatically affect car use.
References
Mc Carthy, M., O’Dell F.: Academic Vocabulary in Use, CUP 2009
Terry, M., Wilson, J.: Focus on Academic Skills for IELTS, PEARSON Longman 2006
5. DIFFICULT WORDS
5.1. Difficult Words - Explanation
There are certain words that seem to be easy to use in English as, apparently, there are quite
obvious equivalents in the Czech language. However, this apparent similarity in some words
may be the cause of common errors.
The following review deals with the usage of such words.
Absolvent, absolvovat
The English words absolvent and absolve can be used in sentences such as
• The plant he manages develops various chemicals including absolvents.

• The court absolved the accused woman.
To express the Czech words absolvent and absolvovat in English, we have to use words
such as school-leaver, graduate, finish, complete, get through, pass through
• Our son graduated from Brno University of Technology.

This firm requires that all employees complete/get through advanced courses
of English and computing.
Aktuální - Actual
While the English word actual means skutečný, vlastní, the Czech aktuální can be
expressed by current, up-to-date, pressing, topical
• The actual cost was much higher than we expected.

• The decreasing numbers of students are a pressing problem.
Administrativa, administrativní
Administer, administration
• We have to find someone who would take care of all the paperwork.
• Our department employs administrative staff of two.

• The courts administer the law (put into operation).
• The war was started by the Bush Administration.
Asistent - assistant lecturer, lecturer Br, instructor, assistant professor Am

Asistovat- to assist
• He stays at university as a senior lecturer. (an assistant lecturer, Am. instructor,

assistant professor).
• He became assistant director recently.
Akce - action (event, meeting, campaign, search, scheme)

• Always in spring our firm launches a big advertizing campaign.
• I´m sure that the competition last week was a thoroughly successful event.
Ekonomika, ekonomický - economy, economics, economize, economic,

economical
• The topic of the paper was Third World economics.

• We should be economical in the use of resources.
Eventuální, eventuálně, eventualita (possibility, contingency, eventuality -

nepříjemná, possible, contingent, if need be, possibly, perhaps)
Eventual, eventually means final, finally.
• She will probably be late, but she will come evenually.

• There may be possible losses.
Funkce (position, office, capacity, mít funkci - have an official position, sit on
committeee)
Fungovat (work)
Functioning - chod něčeho
• He was there in his capacity as the rector.
• The printer is not working.
Funds, funding (peněžní fondy, financování)

Fundovaný (founded / grounded / researched)
• The project is funded by the EU.

• His argument is well founded/ well-grounded.
Koncept – concept (draft)

• He can’t understand the basic concepts of mathematics.
• Write a draft of your speech first.
Manipulace, manipulovat, manipulační - manipulation, manipulate (i

zmanipulovat), handle, handling
• He used his charm to manipulate public opinion.
• You have to be careful when handling fragile goods.
Metodika, metodologie - methods, methodics, methodology
• Zabývá se metodikou. (nauka) He’s involved in methodics.

• Používají nejnovější metodiku. They are using the latest methods. (postup)
Normy - norms (standards)
• There’s a production norm for each worker to fulfil.

• European standards will be introduced.
Odstavec – paragraph
Paragraph – section
• Přečtěte odstavec 3. Read paragraph 3, please.

• Čtěte paragraph 3. Read section 3, please.
Perspektiva, perspektivní - perspective ( prospect, prospective)

• Nemá v tom zaměstnání žádnou perspektivu (postup).

• There are no prospects of promotion. There is no future in his job.
Resumé - summary
Resume(am) - životopis
• Do not forget to add the summary of the paper.

• He has to supply his resume (CV).
Rigorózní - rigorous
• He passed his doctoral examination on 8 October.

• The boarding school was famous for its rigorous discipline.
Rubrika - rubric (blank, column)
• Fill all the blanks carefully.

• He likes reading the sports column best.
• Read the rubric carefully before you start answering the exam questions, Be sure to
read …
Rutina, rutinovaný - routine (skilled, experienced)

• I hate the routine work.
• He is a skilled/experienced/skilful worker.
Řešit - solve
You can solve problems, equations, crises, puzzles, riddles, enigmas.

You cannot solve questions, difficulties, situations.
Instead you have to use: to be concerned with, deal with, be focused on, handle, tackle,
resolve
• I have solved the problem.

• Our research project deals with methodological problems.
Situace ( situation, position, things, state of affairs)

• At the present state of affairs it is necessary to negotiate.
Speciální, specializace (speciální, specific, specialization)
• The are many specializations in engineering.
Subvence, dotace (subsidy)
• This project received state subsidies.
References
Hladký, J.: Zrádná slova v angličtině, SPN Praha 1990
McCarthy, M., O´Dell,F.: Academic Vocabulary in Use, CUP 2008
Sparling, D.:English or Czenglish, Státní pedagogické nakladatelství
Praha, 1989
5.2. Difficult Words – Exercises
Exercise 1
Use solve, to be concerned with, deal with, be focused on, handle, tackle, resolve
1.The paper ………………. acoustic methods.

2.It won’t be easy ……..……. the crisis.
3.Head Office ……………... all applications.
4.We cannot ……..…. the difficulty in any other way.
5.We didn’t know how to ……….. the question.
Exercise 2
Use actual, pressing, topical, up-to-date
1.We were told to come at 8.30, but the ……………….. exam began at 9.00.
2.The news on your websites should be more …………..
3.You should be interested in ………………… problems such as the financial crisis.
Exercise 3
Translate
1.Dodržujte termíny odevzdání diplomových prací.

2.Nezapomeňte přiložit resumé v angličtině.
3.Vypracoval teze své práce.
4.Zkoušku dělal 20 listopadu.
5.Manipulační poplatek je 100 korun.
6.Budeme muset odložit datum zkoušky.
7.Ta chemikálie má specifický zápach.
Exercise 4
Translate
1.Včera jsem absolvoval dvě schůze.

2.Bylo nám řečeno, abychom přišli v 8 hodin.
3.Nezapomeňte si přečíst pokyny.

4.Přečtěte si dobře záhlaví než začnete odpovídat na otázky.
5.Nebyli schopni vyřešit rovnice v testu.
6.Doktorskou zkoušku udělal 25. května.
7.Vojenská situace v Iráku není dobrá.
Exercise 5
Translate
1.Potřebujeme speciální nástroje.

2.Toto zboží je dotované.
3.Dostali nás do složité situace.
4.Naše firma spravuje 24 investičních fondů.
5.Kromě běžných povinností, má mnoho zvláštních úkolů.
6.Potřebujeme činy, ne slova.
7.Měli bychom být šetrní ve využívání zdrojů.
8.Tématem příspěvku bylo hospodářství zemí třetího světa.
Exercise 6
Translate
1.Jsem si jist, že nakonec můžeme očekávat úspěch.

2.Vyniká ve své specializaci.
3.Tím se jen zhoršuje situace.
4.Buďte připraveni na všechny eventuality.
5.Ta zpráva je fundovaná.
6.Ten přístroj nebude fungovat, když ho nebudeme udržovat.
7.Nesmíme zapomínat na působení světla na film.
8.Jejich manažer cestuje turistickou třídou.
Exercise 7
Translate
1.Není možné ho najít. Je stále v permanenci.

2.Všichni kolegové jsou s ním solidární.
3.Myslím, že to bylo šalomounské řešení.
4.Výuku provádíme formou cvičení, semináře, přednášek.

5.Je taktní.
6.Je v tom jemný rozdíl.
7.Musíme dát auto do servisu.
Exercise 8
Translate
1.Bude jednat se svým protějškem z univerzity v Oxfordu.

2.Státní agentura koordinuje žádosti o financování projektů.
3.Předmětem našeho semináře jsou evropské zákony.
4.Měl na mysli právě tento odstavec.
5.Náš projekt řeší metodické problémy.
6.Tento obor nemá žádnou perspektivu.
7.Jakmile byla oznámeno zmizení té dívky, byla zahájena pátrací akce.
Exercise 9
Translate
1.Budou zavedeny evropské normy.

2.Náš projekt je financován evropskou komisí.
3.Dotace ze státního rozpočtu na výzkum se snižují.
4.V tabulce vidíte nejnovější statistické údaje.
5.Zabývá se metodikou výuky fyziky.
6.Suploval za nepřítomného kolegu.
7.Používají nejnovější metodiku.
Exercise 10
Use mutual where necessary
1.The ………………. exchange of ideas was fruitful for both sides.

2.The Council for …………. Economic Assistance was an organization of socialist countries.
3.Brno University and the University of Leeds have carried out …………… exchange of
students for years.
4.The two countries agreed on ……………. cooperation in the field of radioelectronics.
Exercise 11
Use scientific where necessary
1.He had a good ……………….. education, specializing in biomedical engineering

and biology.
2.The thermometer and the microscope are …………………. instruments.
3.Are you attending that ………………. conference on the use of lasers in surgery?
4.It’s no longer possible to embrace all ………………. knowledge nowadays.
Exercise 12
Choose the correct word
1.Could you please remind/remember me to your brother?

2.We feel that you have been negligent/negligible and that you are to blame.
3.Can you tell me what the charge is for excess/excessive baggage?
4.The team gave a totally inapt/inept performance and lost heavily.
5.Children over 10 are illegible/inelligible for the competition.
6.The sensitive/sensible thing to do would be to invest the money.
7.I’m sorry, but this is an inapt/inept question.
8.He studied the possible affects/effects of electromagnetic field.
9.The system configuration can affect/effect current and voltage values.
References
McCarthy, M., O’Dell,F.: Academic Vocabulary in Use, CUP 2008
6. ACADEMIC VOCABULARY
6.1. Academic Vocabulary – Explanation
1.Academic vocabulary
Many words in academic English are the same as everyday vocabulary, but they are often
used with a slightly different mening.
Compare the following sentences
• Underline your name on the form. (draw a line)

• The report underlines the importance of interdisciplinary research
(give emphasis to)
• Standards of discipline in schools have declined.
• Nanotechnology is a relatively new discipline. (area of study)
In writing, academic English uses expressions which are neutral, but also rather formal
expressions are used, not common in everyday English. Informal vocabulary may be used in
spoken academic style, in classes and in lectures. It cannot be used in esssays and written
assignments.
Examples
neutral more formal
in short, briefly basically in sum, to sum up

only solely
almost , more or less virtually
try attempt
mainly/mostly primarily
typical of characteristic of
Common in academic English are noun phrases.
Compare
• Radiation was accidentally released over a 24-hour period, damaging a wide area
over a long time.
• The accidental release of radiation over a 24-hour period caused widespread long-
term damage.
2.Key nouns
Study the examples. Note the use of key nouns and their prepositions.
General nouns referring to ideas
• She wrote an article on the subject of electron microscopy.

• The students were given a list of examination topics.
• The theme of the lecture is renewable energy.
• There was a lively debate on the issue of globalisation in the seminar yesterday.
• Einstein’ theory of gravitation has been questioned recently.
• The model of climate change presented in the Stern Review seems to be becoming
• a reality.
• The book is called The Nature of Intelligence.
• Human behaviour is based on the principle of least effort.
More specific nouns connected with ideas and phenomena
• Automatic backup is a feature of the new software.

• I’m afraid that this issue is beyond the scope of our research.
• The study revealed a pattern of results which could be interpreted
in either of two ways.
• The research focuses on one particular aspect of modern society.
Nouns referring to ways of thinking, processes and activities
• Until recently there was little awareness of the problem.

• The author takes an original approach to the theme.
• His paper offers a critical view on their research.
• His experiments are of great significance to our research.
• In her recent work she focused on the assessment of language skills.
Groups of related nouns sharing prepositions
book, article, essay, lecture, dissertation, project, assignment - ABOUT, ON
• She wrote a dissertation on effects of electromagnetic field.
Nouns commonly associated with particular prepositions
look, attempt, point – AT
• In is lecture, he pointed at the possible side effects of the process.
changes, differences, increase, decrease - IN
insight, inquiry, research, investigation – INTO
• The team carried out an investigation into the characteristics of electromagnetic

• signals.
work, research, influence, emphasis, effect – ON
• The speaker put emphasis on the stage of results evaluation.
basis, idea, part, lack, exploration, means – OF
need, reason, basis, case, preference – FOR
relation, response, approach, attention – TO

• He introduced an interesting approach to intercultural communication.
attitude, tendency, move, progress – TO/TOWARDS
• They published an article on progress towards sustainable development.
principle, rationale, assumptions, logic – BEHIND
• The assumptions behind our strategy criticisms can be questioned
relationship, difference, distinction – BETWEEN
• We will have to pay more attention to the relationship between educational

technology and student achievement in physics.
3.Key verbs
Some important verbs used in academic English
Account for - explain
Affect - to influence
Assume - accept something to be true
Attempt - try
Calculate - judge the number or amount of something
Challenge - question whether it is true
Carry out – fulfil, complete
Conduct - organize and do
Effect - make something happen / bring about
Examine - look at or consider carefully and in detail
Identify - recognize something and say or prove what they are
Investigate - to examine the reasons, the character
Provide – give
!Note the diference between the verbs affect and effect
• The burning of fossil has negatively affected the global climate.

• The procedure was successful and effected a change in the functioning of the engine.
Verbs which combine with noun forms of key verbs
Explain – provide an explanation

Explore – carry out an exploration
Emphasise – place/put emphasis on
Describe – give/provide a description of
• The model provides an explanation for the differences between the two sets of data.
• Our team carried out exploration of the behaviour of electric field.
• Our school puts a lot of emphasis on practical training.
4.Key adjectives
Apparent – seeming to exist or be true
• There was an apparent discrepancy between the two sets of data.
Appropriate to – suitable or right for a particular sistuation
• We need technologies appropriate to the needs of our operators
Common to – shared by more people or things
• Some responses were common to all participants.
Potential – possible when the necessary conditions exist
• We noted a potential problem with the experimental model.
Principal – first in order of importance
• The principal cause of the failure was a sudden drop of pressure.

Relevant to – connected with
• Please ask questions relevant to the topic of the lecture.
Relative to – true to a certain degree
• The encountered difficulties are relative to the complexity of the task.
Significant – important or noticeable
• We are convinced that the new team will achieve significant research results.
Specific to – only found in
• Some problems are specific to scientific studies while others are common to all
students.
5.Key adverbs
Adverbs that compare
Comparatively, relatively – a comparison with something else
• Our sample was relatively/comparatively big.
Especially, particularly – more than usual
• The calculations were not especially/particularly difficult.
Somewhat (opposite considerably, slightly formal) – a little, slightly
• When we evaluated the second set of data,we obtained somewhat/considerably

different results.
•
Mostly/largerly – almost completely
• The research was largerly/mostly successful
Adverbs that relate to numbers or time

Approximately – roughly, about
• There are approximately 30 varieties of such materials.
Precisely – exactly
• The are precisely 40 laboratories at the universities.
Frequently – often
• The liquids used for our experiment have to be frequently checked.
Eventually – in the end, after some time
• We eventually completed the measurement and obtained the data we were hoping for.
Ultimately – finally, after other things have been completed
• Ultimately we plan to repeat the measurement.
Adverbs that relate to how things are stated
Essentially – referring to its main characteristics, also basically
• His latest results essentially differ from his earlier conclusions.
Generally – usually, also on the whole
• Generally, they disapproved of our hypothesis.
Explicitly – openly
• It is obvious that he is explicitly critical of our approach to the problem.
Implicitly – not directly, suggested rather than stated
• I think that in this case his disapproval was only conveyed implicitly in his recent
paper.
Adverbs that restrict or limit
Merely – exactly and nothing more

• This kind of solution will merely make the process faster, it will not secure
better results.
Simply – plainly, easily, absolutely, without doubt
• To put it simply, the quality of the product will outweigh production cost.
• The article presents the idea simply enough for everyone to understand.
• The results of the research were simply disappointing.
References
6. ACADEMIC VOCABULARY
6.2. Academic Vocabulary – Exercises
Exercise 1
Each offered word can be used in everyday English and in academic English. Complete
the pairs of sentences using
generate, turn, confirm, underline, pose, focus
1.She loves to ………. for photographs in her garden.

The event ………. a threat to stability in the region.
2.It was difficult to ………. the camera on the component as it was too small.
We should ………. our attention on more important issues.
3.The data ………. my hypothesis.
I called the hotel and ………. my reservation.
4.Let us now ………. to the next point of our presentation.
Now ………. to the left and we are there.
5.The study ………. the fact that very little research exists.
She always ………. every new word in the text.
6.The power plant ………. electricity for the whole region.
This issue always ………. discussion among academics.
Exercise 2
Use more formal alternatives to the words in bold
1.The report is mainly concerned with the new information system.

2.Almost every school in the country reported problems with the recently introduced system
of examinations.
3.We tried to find a new way of understanding the data.
4.Basically, we believe we have demonstrated a link between the two stages of processing.
5.The research is not only devoted to magnetism.
Exercise 3
Match the nouns and prepositions
attitude
difference
effect behind
emphasis between
insight for
preference into
principle on
reason to/towards
relationship
tendency
Exercise 4
Fill in the missing prepositions
1.He did a study ………. the problem ……… a computerised clinical support system.
2.One difficulty ………. this approach is that a set of results may allow different
interpretations.
3.The reason ……… his unwillingness to take part in the project was fear of taking on too
much work.
4.His dissertation produced some interesting insights ……….speech recognition research.
5.The government’s negative attitude ………. to social science research led to the
cancellation of the project.
6.His recent article puts great emphasis ………. the need of more research.
Exercise 5
Match each verb from A with its synonym in B
A B
affect compute
attempt distinguish
calculate give
challenge influence
demonstrate involve
identify question
include show
investigate study
provide try
Exercise 6
Choose from the offered verbs to complete the sentences
challenge develop examine present prove
1.His article ………. Park’s theory.

2.It is often most effective ………. your data in a chart or table.
3.The aim of the research is ………. a new software application which will help
engineers design more sophisticated device.
4.She ………. four sets of experiments.
5.Our outcomes ………. that the data were reliable.
Exercise 7
Match the adjectives on the left with the nouns on the right
1 apparent role
2 principal discrepancy
3 potential cause
4 significant problem
Exercise 8
Use the combinations in Exercise 7 to complete the following sentences
1.There’ s an ……………….. in your results.

2.Our research group played a ………………..in the project.
3.As we spotted a ……………….., we made some changes in the processing method.
4.The ……………….. of the failure was soon discovered.
Exercise 9
Use the correct preposision
1.The lengthy discussion was not relevant ………. the topics dealt with in the session.
2.This methodology is not appropriate ………. the work we are planning.
3.These features are common ………. all types of products we offer.
4.Relative ………. his previous attempts, this design is very impressive.
5.Insufficient support of educational projects is characteristic ………. the approach
to education in this country.
Exercise 10
Choose the appropriate adverb
1.What you are saying is merely/essentially true.

2.The temperature was precisely /exactly two degrees lower than the average.
3.Their problems are directly/frequently linked to neglectful maintenance of the machines.
4.There is specifically/basically no difference between the presented theories.
5. Initially/eventually we found the errors in calculations.
Exercise 11
Explain the differences between the sentences in each pair
1Our experiments were most successful.

Our experiments were mostly successful.
2 Their results were somewhat surprising.

Their results were especially surprising.
3 The team eventually obtained excellent results.

The team frequently obtained excellent results.
4 First-year students are directly affected by the new examination rules.

First-year students are particularly affected by the new examination rules.
References
7. RESEARCH PAPER
7.1 Research Paper
7.1.1 Research Paper - Explanation
Research papers usually appear in specialist journals and conference proceedings. Therefore
the readership is limited, specializing in a particular field. The papers have a closely defined
structure.
The structure of a research paper
• Title - must precisely describe the paper’s content

• Abstract - gives a brief overview of the paper
• Introduction - states the purpose for the research and the hypothesis, gives the
background information and reviews relevant literature
• Materials and methods - gives a description of materials, equipment and methods
used
• Results - states the results of the research and includes visual materials
• Discussion - includes evaluation and interpretation of results
• Conclusion - offers conclusions to be drawn from the results, conclusions about the
hypothesis, implications of the results and proposals for further research
• Acknowledgments - acknowledges support from individuals and institutions
• References - gives a list of cited works
Titles
In scientific and technical writing information must be presented clearly and concisely
to be easily underwood.
• Detection Systems
• Application Service Providers
Elements in a title
The title is a precise description of the contents. It should indicate

• The topic – the main subject of the piece of writing
• The focus – the particular, limited area of research
• You may also indicate the purpose of your writing and include a word such as
An Analysis of …
An Assessment of …
An Outline of …
A Comparison of …
An Evaluation of …
An Explanation of …
Example
• A Description of (purpose) Ultrasonic Parking Assistance (topic) on Short Range

Applications (focus)
Use lower case rather than capital letters.

Use capital letters for the first letter of all the main words.
Use capital letters for short words (a/an, at, in, but, and) only when they are the first word of
the title.
• The Near Side of the Moon
Titles should be clear and concise, using key words from the paper.
Compare
• Most life on earth draws its energy from the sun, we are looking to the sun for
practical solutions.
• Solar energy solutions
References
Lebauer Roni S.: Learn to Listen, Listen to Learn, Addison Wesley Longman, Inc., USA, 2000
Leki, I.: Academic Writing, Exploring Processes and Strategies, CUP 1998
7.2 Abstract
7.2.1 Abstract – Explanation
Abstract is a shortened version of a paper. The purpose is to inform readers as consisely as

possible what is in the article. There´s no fixed length. A typical length is between 110 and
250 words, 5 – 10 % of the original. Abstracts need to be self-explanatory as they are often
published separately from the paper. A summary, on the contrary, is written for people who
have read the whole paper and restates the main results and conclusions.
An abstract should contain an expansion or explanation of the title.
1.The topic/background - what the topic is and what has been done so far in the field of
science concerned. Usually used are present simple, present simple passive and present
perfect.
• This paper deals with …
• Little is known about …
• It has been observed that …
2. Purpose - why the research was done. Present simple is used.

• Here we investigate …
3. Methods - how it was done - past simple passive

• The signal was drawn from …
4. Results - what the main findings are - past simple, present simple
• We found out …
• A standard version is achieved …
5. Conclusion - recommendations for further research - present simple

• Results indicate …
• This suggests …
You would not include in an abstract

Any information that is not in the paper itself
Tables and diagrams
Citations
Style
The style of an abstract should be formal and impersonal. We use
1. passive structures
• It was found,
2. an inanimate subject plus an active verb

• This paper reports, The results indicate …
3. ´empty it´
• It is shown …)
Language use
To condense the text, we use:
1. Reduced relative clauses, participles

• An algorithm is shown compared with …
2. Appositional clauses
• Here we show that …
3. Compound nouns
• subsurface objects detection
4. Gerunds
• The paper summarises the major developments focusing on …
Keywords
Use simple, specific noun phrases.
• Data analysis
Avoid plurals and possessives, unnecessary prepositions, mathematical symbols.

• Maxwell equations
References
Leki, I.: Academic Writing, Exploring Processes and Strategies, CUP 1998
7.2.2 Abstract - Exercises
Exercise 1
Find the examples of a formal style in the following abstract. See the revision of
language use of an abstract given below the exercise.
Abstract – It has recently been observed that with appropriate stepsize normalization, the
convergence speed of the constant modulus (CM) algorithm can be dramatically improved. In
this correspondence, it is shown that if a different normalization strategy is used, one that
takes into account the finite alphabet structure of the signals, a standard normalized version of
the decision directed equalizer (DDE) is achieved. A simulation example is included to
demonstrate the faster convergence of the normalized DDE compared with its constant
stepsize implementation and the normalized CM.
IEEE SIGNAL PROCESSING LETTERS, VOL. 5, NO. 1, JANUARY 2000.
Revision of language use of an abstract
Formal/ impersonal/ condensed style

1 No verb abbreviations
2 Passive structures
1. Inanimate subject (The same techniques were applied to a new set of data.)
2. Empty “it” (It was found...)
3 Inanimate subject + active verb (The results indicate…)
4 Reduced relative clauses (Plastics are compounds made with long chains of carbon
atoms.)
5 Using gerunds (signal defining)
6 Using participles (obtained results)
7 Using compounds (flow compression systems)
Phrases
These problems have received great attention in recent years.
The objectives of our research are to analyze ….. to suggest ….., and to ….. .
The paper presents/ deals with/ discusses/focuses on results …
The proposed method handles multi-value logic where …..
Exercise 2
Reorganize the sentences below so that they are in the same order as the original
abstract. Label each sentence according to its function.
1. The findings are consistent in showing no increase in drug use related to legal access and
decreases in AIDS risk behaviour related to legal-access programmes.
2. Legal access to sterile injection equipment has been a primary strategy for preventing
AIDS among people who inject drugs in almost all developed countries. This strategy has
remained highly controversial in the United States, with only a small number of localities
adopting it.
3. The design of legal-access programmes for maximum impact, and the effect of the
decreases in AIDS risk behaviour on transmission of HIV, remain to be determined.
4. This article reviews different techniques of providing legal access-over-the-counter sales
and syringe exchanges and the findings from the large number of studies conducted to
date.
Labelling sentences according to their function.
1. Background ………………………
2. Scope of research ………………………
3. Results/findings ………………………
4. Recommendation to the future/conclusion ………………………
7. 3 Introduction
7.3.1 Introduction - Explanation
What is an introduction?
The first paragraph of a research article is called the introduction. The introduction…
is usually five-to ten sentences.
gives the general topic of the article.
gives background information about the topic.
states the thesis statement of the article.
How to write a strong introduction?

A strong introduction …
introduces the topic clearly.
gives several sentences of information about the topic.
states the thesis (the main idea) of the article / essay.
Any of the following will make an introduction weak:

It does not give enough information about the topic or gives too much
information about it.
It talks about too many different topics.
It does not state a clear thesis.
A thesis statement
A thesis statement is the sentence that tells the main idea of the whole article. It usually comes
at or near the end of the introductory paragraph.
A thesis statement gives the author’s opinion or states an important idea about the topic. It
should give an idea that can be discussed and explained with supporting ideas.
These are strong thesis statements because they can be discussed or argued about.
The qualifications for getting into university in my country are unreasonable.
When studying a foreign language, there are several ways to improve your use of the
language.
This is a weak thesis statement. It cannot be discussed or argued about, it only gives a fact
about the topic.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the summer months are warmer than the winter months.
A thesis statement should not state two sides of an argument equally:
There are advantages and disadvantages to using nuclear power.
It could be a topic sentence, which gives the main idea of a paragraph, but it is not a thesis
statement. It gives two sides of an argument without giving a clear opinion of support or
disagreement.
It could be revised like this:

Although there are some advantages, using nuclear power has many disadvantages and
should not be a part of our country’s energy plan.
This is a strong thesis statement. It clearly gives the writer’s opinion about nuclear power.
References
Zemach D., Rumisek L.: Academic Writing from Paragraph to Essay, Macmillan 2009
7.3.2 Introduction - Exercises
Sample phrases you can use in introductions
Relating your paper to current work/ background information

In recent years, .... has become a topic of lively debate.
The issue of ... has become controversial recently.
The question of ... has been thoroughly researched over the last few years.
In the years after ...
Based on our research ...
Stating your purpose

In this paper, it will be shown that ...
In this paper, ... will be discussed/are considered.
The paper examines/presents ...
In this article, we report on ...
Our/My intention here is to highlight ...
In the following pages, we shall propose ...
This article will concentrate/focus on the arguments ...
The key question that this article will address is whether ...
The main focus here is on ...
Indicating the structure of your paper

This article presents first ... and then it describes ...
The article has six main sections.
Firstly, we shall examine the question of ...
In the previous section, ....
The next section briefly outlines ...
After a short discussion of ..., an overview of ... will be given.
This will be followed by ...
The final section will present ...
Exercise 1
Read these thesis statements below. Write “S” for a strong thesis statement, “F” for fact
only (a weak thesis statement) and “N” for no clear opinion (a weak thesis statement).
a. ........ The top government official in my country is the prime minister.

b. ........ Some people prefer digital cameras, while others like traditional cameras.
c. ........ India became an independent country in 1947.
d. ........ To be a successful student, good study habits are more important than intelligence.
e. ........ There are several advantages of owning a car, but there are also many
disadvantages.
f. ........ Half of the families in my country own a house.
g. ........ Using public transport would be one of the best ways to solve the traffic and
pollution problems in cities around the world.
h. ........ While travelling, staying in a hotel offers more comfort, but sleeping in a tent is less
expensive.
i. ........ Classical music concerts are very popular in my country.
j. ........ In order to create a successful advertisement, it is necessary to consider three issues:
who should be targeted, where the advert should be placed, and what type of advert should
be made.
References
Writing Professional English, A Reference Handbook for Electrical Engineering. Leonardo
da Vinci Language Competences Project, VUT Brno 2005
Zemach D., Rumisek L.: Academic Writing from Paragraph to Essay. MACMILLAN 2009
7.4 Paragraph Writing
7.4.1 Paragraph Writing – Explanation
A paragraph is
• a group of sentences about a single topic,
• an essential building block of your writing,
• there is no ideal length, often between five and ten sentences.
You would use a short paragraph when you want to give a special emphasis to an idea or
statement.
You would use a long paragraph when a detailed elaboration of a point is needed.
Too many short paragraphs or two many long ones should be avoided (the text is bitty or
difficult to follow).
Paragraph organisation
The topic sentence

• the main idea of the paragraph
• usually the first sentence of the paragraph
• the most general one
The supporting - body sentence

• more detailed ideas
• clarifying or re-stating the main idea
• explaining the idea
• qualifying the main point in some way
• providing examples
• giving supporting evidence
• commenting on the main idea
The concluding sentence
• may be the last sentence of a paragraph

• summarizes the main idea (using different words or a different word order)
• or gives a final comment about the topic
• leads on to the next paragraph
Example 1
The topic sentence
Scientists have discovered how the body uses electricity to heal cuts.
The supporting sentences

When a person’s skin is cut, an electrical signal forms at the edge of the wound and it
remains there until the wound heals.This electrical signal stimulates special skin cells to move
to the wound.
The concluding sentence

These cells then heal the damage at the cut.
Example 2
The highlighted information develops the topic sentence in the following paragraph.
Music has long been used to treat patients suffering from different problems. In 400 BCE, its
healing properties were documented by ancient Greeks. More recently, in both world wars in
the last century, medical workers used music therapy with people suffering from trauma.
Currently, it is used as a treatment for many diseases, such as cancer and Alzheimer´s
disease, and it has also been used with patients with long-term pain and learning disabilities.
Text cohesion
In academic texts, ideas and arguments have continuity from one paragraph to another. This is
done by
• rephrasing key words or expressions

• repeating key words or expressions
• ending a paragraph with a question which is answered in the next
• using phrases which refer back to a previous paragraph or forward to the next
Examples
Endings and beginnings of paragraphs:
As stated in the introduction, Curitiba is a fine example of how urban planning can work. …
How, then, did Curitiba address these problems?
They employed a French architect …

to find an overall solution.
He studied all aspects of the problem ….

The result as described below, was that his scheme …
It is clear that the plan …

to integrate all aspects of city planning.
This integrated approach …

However, good transportation remained central to the planning.
Good transportation still remains a priority …

… are continually searching for solutions to the problems.
References
Leki, I,: Academic Writing, Exploring Processes and Strategies, CUP 1998, Paragraph
Writing
Philpot,S., Curnick,L.: Academic Skills Level3, OUP 2007
7.5 Conclusion
7.5.1 Conclusion - Explanation
A conclusion should not simply be a repetition of the introduction but should take account of
all that has been developed in the main body. Nor it is just a summary of your main points.
A conclusion is the ending, so you should add something extra, something “to complete” the
work.
In a research paper, “Conclusion/Conclusions” is a separate section, as is the Introduction. It

follows after the sections Methods and Materials, Results, and Discussion.
Points to include in a conclusion

1. A summary of your main points, but written in a different way, so that the
reader can get a different perspective on them.
2. Your evaluation of the topic – this may be a restatement of your introduction
including your thesis statement modified in the light of the evidence.
3. Your proposed solution to the problem you have discussed.
4. Reconciliation between two opposing points of view.
5. Suggestions for further investigations into the topic or issue.
Points not to include in a conclusion

1. Completely new evidence or points in support of your thesis statement.
2. The start of a new topic.
3. An opposing argument which puts into question your own.
References
Zemach D., Rumisek L.: Academic Writing from Paragraph to Essay, Macmillan 2009
7.5.2 Conclusion – Exercises
Sample phrases you can use in conclusions
Summarising what you have done

In conclusion, we can say that...
In this paper, we have seen that
The research paper has clearly shown that
The discussion in this article has given an overview of ...
This paper has provided a systematic study of ...
From the research that has been carried out, we can conclude that ...
The aim of the present paper was to examine whether ... and this has now been achieved.
Finally, it is worth pointing out that that ...
Indicating the limitations of your own work

This article has only been able to touch on the most general features of ...
Even a preliminary study, such as the one reported here, has highlighted the need for ...
Looking to the future and further research

Clearly, further studies are needed to understand / prove ...
In order to validate the work we have carried out, a more in-depth investigation into ... is
needed.
The results of this research could assist to ....
Exercise 1
Match each of these introduction statements with its rewritten version for a conclusion.
a. ...... Supermarkets are the best places 1. People can learn many things by
to buy food because of their travelling to other countries.
convenience and lower prices.
b. …… Travelling abroad is a valuable 2. Despite the challenges, being an

learning experience. entrepreneur can offer more benefits
than other types of employment.
c. …… Learning to play a musical 3. The fact that larger supermarkets

instrument is very beneficial for offer cheap prices and large selection
children. of products makes them the best
place for shoppers.
d. ...... Creating and owning a business 4. The World Wide Web gives access
offers more advantages than to a huge amount of knowledge
working as an employee in a but users should not believe
company. everything they read there.
e. ...... More houses should be adapted 5. When children are exposed to

to use solar energy because it is music and are taught to play
clean and renewable. instruments such as the piano
or the violin, there are many
positive effects.
f. ..... The World Wide Web can be very 6. The sun gives a constant, free
useful for research but it also supply of clean energy, which
contains a lot of incorrect more homes should take
information. advantage of.
References
Zemach D., Rumisek L.: Academic Writing from Paragraph to Essay. MACMILLAN 2009
7.6 Summary Writing
7.6.1 Summary Writing - Explanation
A summary is a condensation of the main ideas in an article or in a section of someone else’s

writing. It involves picking up key ideas and linking them up in your own words. A summary
restates the main findings and conclusions of a paper and is written for people who have
already read the whole thing.
Guidelines for summary writing

1. Read the text quickly to gain an impression of its content.
2. Highlight the main points.
3. Make notes of your own on these points.
1. 4.Rewrite your notes in your own words in complete sentences.
4. Begin with a statement of the main idea.
5. Write your supporting points in coherent,well-connected sentences.
6. Re-read your work to check you have included all that you need.
The information can be compressed by

• Cutting out less important information
• Reducing a whole clause or sentence to a phrase
• Using more subordinate clauses
• Linking ideas by simple use of commas
Sample Summary
A group of US researchers has carried out trials of a new vaccine effective against lung
cancer. Although limited to fewer than fifty people, the study yielded very promising results.
Some of the patients at an advanced stage of the disease were cured. Each patient in the
trial had their own vaccine which activated the body´s immune system, thus enabling it to
fight the cancer. It is hoped that other forms of cancer can be cured in a similar way.
Promising results from cancer study (original text)

A new experimental vaccine has shown promising results in the fight against lung cancer.
In a small Texas-based study, a vaccine developed by scientists at Baylor University Medical
Centre in Dallas, USA cured lung cancer in some patients and slowed the progress of the
disease in others.
Researchers have reported encouraging findings from this small study. Forty-three patients
suffering from lung cancer were involved in these trials. Ten of these patients were in the
early stage and thirty-three in the advanced stages of the disease. They were injected with the
vaccine every two weeks for three months, and were carefully monitored for three years.
Inthfree of the patients in the advanced stages of cancer, the disease disappeared and in the
others, in did not spread for five to twenty-four months. However, no great difference was
seen in the patients in the early stages of the illness.
This new vaccine uses the patient´s own imuine system. It is made specifically for each
patient and is injected into the arm or leg. It stimulates the body´s immune system, which then
recognizes that the cancer cells are harmful, and attacks and destroys them.
The vaccine could be effective against other forms of cancer. It offers great hope for the
treatment of cancer in general, although further studies are needed before such treatment can
be widely used.
Deakin, F.P.: (2007). Promising resultss from cancer study. New Medical Journal, 32
References
Writing Professional English, Leonardo da Vinci Project,VUT v Brně 2005
7.6.2 Summary Writing - Exercises
Successful summary writing depends upon two separate skills: the ability to read with
understanding and focus and the ability to write down what one has read in a shorter form
without destroying the sense of the original. Since the writing of summary depends upon a
clear understanding of the original text there is a need for accurate note-taking. Language
employed by summaries depends on language of the original.
Sample summary
1. It is about one third of the length of the original (74 words, compared to 256 in the
original).
2. The number of sentences has been reduced from 13 to 4.
3. The information has been compressed into these four sentences by
cutting out less important information, e.g. examples;
reducing a whole clause or sentence to a phrase;
linking ideas by simple use of commas.
Original text
Amplifiers increase the voltage, current, or power of a signal. They are used, for
example, to strengthen the weak electric current from the antenna of a radio receiver or the
weak output of a photoelectric cell. A single amplifier is often not enough to raise the
output to the desired level and so multistage amplification (called a cascade) is used. The
output of the first amplifier is fed into a second, whose output is fed to a third, and so on,
until the output level is satisfactory. In a tape recorder, for example, one amplifier boosts
the weak signal from a microphone while a second amplifier stage provides the current
required by the recording head. The overall amplification of a multistage amplifier is the
combination of all gains of the individual stages.
In many applications it is important that the output signal should resemble as closely as
possible the input. However, when the signals are amplified they can easily become
distorted. A common technique to avoid such distortion is called “negative feedback”. Part
of the signal coming out of the amplifier is fed back and compared with the input signal. In
this way distortions introduced by the amplifier can be pre-corrected and, to a large extent,
eliminated.
The quality and usefulness of an amplifier depend on several factors. In addition to its
freedom from distortion, these include its frequency response (the range of frequencies for
which the output signal is an accurate copy of the input) and its maximum output, measured
in volts or in watts.
from K. O. Malley, Gateway to Electronics, Lang, 2001

Sample summary
The writer explains the uses of amplifiers aimed to strengthen the weak electric current
produced by a radio-receiver or the weak output of a photoelectric cell. If one amplifier is
not enough to reach a satisfactory output level, a multistage amplification called “cascade
is used. Amplifiers can sometimes affect the quality of the sound; in this case a technique
called „negative feedback“ is adopted. Such a technique can eliminate distortions to a large
extent.
Language
Summary should be in a present/present perfect tense.
Begin by mentioning the original source. Here are possible ways to include the source:
In his article entitled “Gateway to Electronics” Keith Malley informs us/states/claims/shows

us that...
Or:
In “Gateway to Electronics” Keith Malley indicates/discusses/explores the problems ....
Or:
The article “Gateway to Electronics ” by Keith Malley examines .....
If the original text is longer, at least once in your summary, remind your readers that you are
summarizing by using a phrase like the following:
The author goes on to say ....

Or:
Malley also reports that ...
Or:
The article further states that
Exercise 1
Read the following text and summarize it in 70-80 words
Garlic cure supported

German researchers have a solution to cholesterol clogged blood vessels. It is garlic.
Old wives have for centuries claimed that garlic cures many ills – from snake bites to
toothache. Now, according to Professor Hans Reuter, of Cologne, there is proof that garlic
helps to clear the fat accumulating in the blood vessels of those who eat rich food, so
reducing the danger of heart attacks.
Tests showed that volunteers fed on butter containing 50 grams of garlic oil had a
cholesterol level considerably lower than that of a control group fed on butter without garlic.
In another experiment, patients ate three grams of raw garlic a day. After four weeks their
cholesterol level fell markedly.
According to Professor Reuter, garlic not only drives out unwanted fats in blood,
Tests indicated that the herb also kills other bacteria, among them those causing diphtheria
and tuberculosis. Professor Reuter said garlic was in some cases more effective than
penicillin.
To get the full benefit, you must use fresh garlic. Garlic powder will not work any
medicinal miracles, since the plant loses its healing properties when processed.
from UPI in Bonn
Exercise 2
Read the following text and summarize it in 90-100 words
Solar power is energy generated from the sun. Many electronic devices, such as
watches and calculators, can use the sun’s energy directly to provide the power they need.
Light energy from the sun changes the electrical conducting properties of the silicon
crystals, and a tiny electric current starts to flow. This system is called a solar cell. Although
solar cells used on earth do not provide much power, satellites in space run on the same
principle. They get many times more energy because they are closer to the sun. In the
future, workers in space may build huge power stations from solar cells many kilometres
wide. The electricity generated could be beamed down as microwaves and then converted
back into electricity.
Most of the solar power that we use today is based on a much simplex principle than
the silicon solar cell. Solar panels on the roofs of houses heat water directly for bathing and
central heating systems. The industrial version of the solar panel is the solar furnace, in
which huge, curved solar panels, together with a system of mirrors, concentrate a large
amount of solar energy onto a small area, The heat energy makes steam for generating
electricity.
Solar power is clean, renewable, non-polluting and does not damage the
environment. It is potentially one of the most important sources of energy in the world. A
major disadvantage of solar energy is that the amount of energy generated depends on the
season, the part of the world and the weather on a particular day. Another disadvantage is
that the raw materials for solar panels, such as glass and aluminium, are quite expensive.
From Dr Trisha Greenhalgh, Environment Today, Harlow, Longman, 1994
References
Leki, I.: Academic Writing. Exploring Processes and Strategies, CUP 1998
Jolly, D.: Writing Tasks, CUP 1991
7.7 Objectivity and Formality
7.7.1 Objectivity and Formality - Explanation
In academic English, in technical and scientific writing, you should deal with your topic
in a responsible and objective manner. Objectivity and a neutral approach (impersonal
style) may be achieved by using passive voice. In technical and scientific writing
information and facts are more important than personal opinions and attitudes.
• The sensors are used to position the components.

• The output is recorded on a multitrack.
• It can be concluded that our results are very satisfactory.
• It was decided that the research should be continued.
You have to follow certain rules of formality. Used in formal / impersonal style is
• the passive
• impersonal subjects
• there is/there are
• condensation
Examples
• Some inspiring conclusions have been arrived at.

• When choosing the research method there were several factors to be considered.
• It can be said that the project has yielded the expected results.
In academic written discourse neutral expressions are used, but also more formal
expressions
• try x attempt
• only x solely
Synonymous verbs
Phrasal verbs are common in informal,spoken discourse.
• work out x determine

• put in x insert
• hand in x submit
Contracted verb forms
should be avoided in academic writing. Contractions can be occasionally found in

scientific publications to produce informality and create communication with the
readers. In principle, they are not acceptable in technical-scientific papers.
Contractions
Noun/pronoun + (auxiliary) verb

(auxiliary) verb + not
• He´d like to talk to you. (would)

• They aren´t ready yet. (are not)
Not with double subjects
• Tom and I have decided to continue the measurements
Alternative contractions, e.g. he won´t / he´ll not are preferred in AmE.

Contractions do not come at the ends of clauses.
• It might be expected that these results are final. No, they are not.
First person pronoun

The personal pronoun ´I´ is avoided in scientific articles. ´We´ or ´the team´ are
preferred.
To make the reader more involved, the writer may switch between the different forms.
References
Glendinning, E., Mc Ewan, J.: Information Technology, OUP 2002
Krhutová, M.: Parameters of Professional Discourse/English for Electrical Engineering,
Tribun Eu, 2009
Leki, I,: Academic Writing, Exploring Processes and Strategies, CUP 1998
Mc Carthy, M., O´Dell, F.:Academic Vocabulary in Use, CUP 2008
Writing Professional English,Leonardo da Vinci Project, 2005
7.7.2 Objectivity and Formality - Exercises
When publishing in English, you need to take account of the general rules which have become
accepted as the norm in academic communication. In writing technical and scientific papers in
particular, you should aim to achieve objectivity, clarity and precision.
Objectivity
Objectivity and a neutral approach (impersonal style) may be achieved by using the passive
voice and words with precise meaning. A writer should avoid using ambiguous statements or
confusing metaphoric elements. Precise references to data in tables, graphs and diagrams also
lead to greater objectivity in research findings.
Exercise 1
Change personal expressions into impersonal expressions by using the passive voice
1 I include the simulation example to demonstrate …

……………………………………………………………………………………………….
2 We have recently observed that we can improve the speed of the constant modulus
algorithm.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
3 We can distinguish limits to other technical systems by …
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
4 … and as a result we selected the superior variants….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
5 I assume that …
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
6 The authors consider these results to be highly interesting.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Exercise 2
Complete the sentences using the correct past tense form (active or passive) of the verb
in the brackets
1 The results ……………………. little insight into the causes of the problem. (give)
2 Later on, the same techniques ……………………. to a new set of data. (apply)
3 The research ……………………. .in the identification of several key factors. (result)
4 The correlation between these two sets of figure ……………………. . (investigate)
5 Over 1,000 results ……………………. , although not all of the were used in the analysis.
(record)
6 When the figures were analysed, the results ……………………. that the scientists'
previous conclusions were mistaken. (suggest)
7 The findings ……………………. conclusive evidence that the original theory was
correct. (provide)
8 For several weeks, the researchers ……………………. through the data looking for any
significant patterns. (sift)
9 The importance of the discoveries ……………………. by the amount of media attention
that they received. (reflect)
Clarity
The text should be written in a plain and clear manner. Overlong sentences or groups of words
prevent the reader from understanding. As a rule, there should not be more than 2 to 3 clauses
to form one sentence. Using linking devices, pronoun references and repetition of key ideas
are useful ways of achieving clarity and readability.
A. Sample paragraphs
1. The following overlong sentence is badly understandable:

The components which make up electronic circuits can be divided into two categories – active
components which can act as amplifiers (especially transistors), and passive components
which are resistors and do not have this amplifying effect, are used to regulate the amount of
current flowing to a circuit, capacitors and inductors.
2. This can be re-written, as below, in order to make the meaning clearer. The text is divided
into three shorter sentences and linking words and phrases are added.
Active and passive components are two categories which make up electronic circuits. The
former act as amplifiers (especially transistors) while the latter, resistors, are used to
regulate the amount of current flowing through a circuit, capacitors and inductors.
B. Expressing your ideas concisely
Express your ideas in as few words as possible. This involves cutting out irrelevant details,
avoiding the use of unnecessary words. If your sentences are too “wordy”, they are difficult
for the reader to understand.
1. A “wordy” sentence
We chose four relatively new low-cost cameras spanning a range of capabilities to see if
entry-level video delivers everything it seems to promise.
2. A more concise statement

We chose four new low-cost cameras with good capabilities to check their performance.
C. Linking /cohesive devices
Linking/cohesive devices are words and phrases that connect sentences together or relate
ideas to one another.
Chronology Comparison Contrast

before likewise however
after compared to on the other hand
next similarly in fact/actually
since as ..... as in spite of
first, second and in contrast
while although/even if
when instead/instead of
Examples Cause and effect Additional information

for example/for instance therefore and
in general/generally so also
specifically thus in addition
in particular/especially as a result furthermore
since morevoer
because/because of another
Concluding ideas Reason

in conclusion/to conclude therefore
in summary/to summarise as a result
finally
therefore
Exercise 3
Link the ideas in these sentences according to hints given in the brackets. Use linking
devices from the list above, or others that you know.
Example: We have invested too much money in this project. (Express result)
………….., we are in finance difficulties.
Therefore / As a result / Consequently …….
a We are unable to go by train (express cause) ………..the rail strike.

b .......... (express contrast) of focusing on a patient’s health problem, Chinese medicine

tries to make the patient’s whole body well again.
c ………….. (express contrast) the car is old, it is still reliable.
d The yen dropped against dollar; ....... (express reason) we made considerable profits
on the exchange rate.
e Buying a house is expensive. It is, ……….. (express contrast), a good investment.
Exercise 4
Number the sentences below to make a connected paragraph
o On the other hand, they might find that it was difficult to readapt to life as a student
when the time came for them to return to their studies.
o Even though they would have relatively few qualifications, they would gain valuable
work experience.
o However, for some of them it might be better to take a break from education for a year
or two, and get a job instead.
o They might even decide not to do a university course at all, despite the problem that
lack of qualifications might cause them later on.
o Most people go to study at university immediately after leaving school.
Exercise 5
Choose the correct linking expression
Well, in my country the government spends a lot of money supporting things like opera
and classical music, 1 and yet / what's more only a minority of people actually enjoy that
sort of thing. 2 In fact / However, there is hardly any money spent supporting the arts in
schools, even though lots of children would like to have the chance to learn to paint or to
play an instrument. So I think more should be spent on this – 3 after all / what's more
these children are the artists of the future, aren't they?
Exercise 6
Fill in linking words and phrases to establish good flow of ideas
Lasers have found widespread application in medicine.

They play an important role in the treatment of eye disease and the prevention of
blindness.
The eye is ideally suited for laser surgery.
Most of the eye tissue is transparent.
This transparency, the frequency and focus of the laser beam can be adjusted according to
the absorption of the tissue.
The beam "cuts" inside the eye with minimal damage to the surrounding tissue.
The interaction between the laser light and eye tissue is not fully understood.
D. Pronoun Reference
Two sentences can be connected by the use of a pronoun (he, she, it, they etc.).
American Sign Language developed from the mixture of signs used by deaf Americans and
French Sign Language. Today, it is used by more than 500,000 deaf people in the United
States and Canada.
E. Repetition of key nouns or ideas
Another way to connect ideas is by repeating important words and phrases. This will help the
reader remember the main ideas in the text.
Modern medicine focuses on illness. If a patient with a cough visits a modern doctor, then the
doctor will give the patient a medicine to stop the cough. If the patient also has a fever, the
doctor may give a different medicine to stop the fever.
Based on Writing Professional English, A Reference Handbook for Electrical Engineering.

Leonardo da Vinci Language Competences Project, Brno 2005
Zemach D., Rumisek L., Academic Writing from Paragraph to Essay. Macmillan 2009
7.8 Hedging
7.8.1 Hedging - Explanation
In English texts there is a tendency to be tentative, express possibility, probability, vagueness,

modesty.
Avoid over-strong claims, categorical statements, overgeneralisations, show your personal
attitude.
Hedged statements
soften the strength of your point, might give an impression of uncertainty in contexts where
conclusions are clear. They are mainly used in introductions and conclusions. Otherwise,
direct statements are preferable.
Hedging techniques
1. Use of verbs
indicating the degree of certainty you have about your conclusion
Strong - prove, demonstrate, justify, show, indicate, point to, reveal
Weak - suggest, imply
2. First person pronouns

Avoid using them when describing your findings.
I/ me/ my (personal) are normally used by famous and important researchers.
Structures with we/ us (semi-personal, impersonal) are generally preferred.
Rhetorical function - the inclusion of the author as a co-member of a group
3. Verbs useful for hedging - seem to … / appear to … / tend to …

• Our data seem to demonstrate …
• Our results do not appear to support the hypothesis …
• The latest measurements tend to confirm …
4. Modal verbs
Modals indicate tentativeness or lack of certainty.
Particularly useful modals for hedging are can /could / may / might / would
Direct statement
• Our data are expected to show …
Indirect statement
• Our data would be expected to show …
5. Adverbs
Certain adverbs of degree and attitudinal adverbs and modifying expressions are used:
a little, rather, somewhat, almost, nearly, quite, approximately, about, relatively, slightly
• The recent interpretations are somewhat different from what we anticipated.
References
Krhutová, M.: Parameters of Professional Discourse/English for Electrical Engineering,
Tribun Eu, 2009
Mc Carthy, M., O´Dell,F.: Academic Vocabulary in Use, CUP 2008
8. PRESENTATIONS
8.1 Presentations - Explanation
Preparation
Decide on the objective and organize the information in a logical way. Use powerpoint
presentation, but do not include too many effects which may distract your audience from the
content of your talk. Use one or two slides per minute of your presentation. Do not present
information in sentences and paragraphs, divide it up into individual points, no more than six
on one slide. Use graphs and visuals wherever possible. Make sure it is large enough for the
audience to read.
Delivery
Style
1. Consider the audience.
2. Decide appropriate level of formality, and dress accordingly.
3. Show enthusiasm.
Voice
1. Change the pitch of voice and speed.
2. Make pauses.
Language
1. Have a simple clear structure.
2. Make short sentences.
3. Use structure signals.
Body language
1. Keep an eye contact.
2. Use gesture.
3. Move around.
The introduction to a presentation
Greeting
• Good morning/afternoon ladies and gentlemen.

• Ladies and gentlemen. It’s an honour to have opportunity to address this audience.
• Good morning, let me start by saying a few words about …
• Welcome to …
Subject
• I’m going to talk about/present/inform you about …

• The subject of my talk is …
• The focus of my presentation is …
• The topic of my paper is …
• I’d like to say a few words about …
Reference to questions
• After my talk there will be time for questions and discussion.

• Please interrupt if you have any questions.
The main body
Signalling different parts in a presentation
Ending the introduction
• So that concludes the presentation. That’s all for the introduction.
Beginning the main body
• Now let’s move to the first part of my talk, which is about …

• To begin with …
Listing
• There are three things to consider. First … Second… Third …

• There are two kinds of … The first is … The second is …
Linking: Ending parts within the main body
• That completes/concludes the first part of …

• That’s all (I want to say for now) on …
Linking: Beginning a new part
• Let’s move to (the next part which is) …

• So now we come to …
• Now I want to describe …
Sequencing
• First/then/next/after that/ finally

• At the beginning/later/then/finally
• There are two steps involved. The first step is … The second step is …
Introducing a visual
• I’d like to show you …

• Have a look at this …
• This (graph) shows/represents …
• Here we can see …
• Let’s look at this …
Ending the main body of the presentation
• Right, that ends (the third part of) my talk.

• That’s all I want to say.
The end of the presentation
Summary or conclusion
• I’d like to finish with a summary of the main points/ some conclusions /
recommendations.
Concluding
• There are two conclusions/recommendations.

• What we need is …
• I think we have to …
• I think we have seen that we should …
• Thank you for listening.
Handling questions
1. Be polite.
2. Listen very carefully.
3. Keep calm.
4. Ask for repetition or clarification.
5. Check understanding.
Inviting questions
• Now we have (15 minutes) for questions and discussion.

• Right. Now, any questions or comments?
• So, now I’d be very interested to hear your comments.
Understood but difficult to answer
• In my experience …/ I would say …/ I take your point but …

• I’m afraid it’s outside the scope of my talk.
• I don’t think I’m the right person to answer that. Perhaps (Mr Shaw) can help.
Not understood
• Sorry I’m not sure I’ve understood. Could you repeat?

• Are you asking if … / Do you mean … ?
• If I have understood you correctly, you mean … / Is that right?
Checking that your answer is sufficient
• Does that answer your question?

• Is that okay?
References
Comfort, J.: Effective Presentations, OUP 1995
Sweeney, S.: English for Business Communication, CUP 2003
Cotton, D., Falvey, D., Kent, S.: Market Leader, Pearson Education Limited 2005
8.2 Making a Start – Exercises
Making a Start: Communication Skills
Exercise 1
Which of the items on the checklist below would you include in the introduction to your
presentation?
• your name and position

• the purpose/subject of your presentation
• the length of time you will take
• the main parts or points you will cover
• any visual aids you will use
• when the audience may ask questions
• a reference to the audience: a human touch
Exercise 2
When introducing yourself at the beginning of a presentation, you should include:
• First name/surname
• Position/job title
I'm a first-year post-gradual student / I'm a student in/of Doctoral Study Programme
• Department, Faculty, University
at the Department of …… at the Faculty of Electrical Engineering and
Communication of Brno University of Technology
Practise putting these parts together to produce a fluent introduction of yourself.
Exercise 3
Make sentences from these words.
1 like / brief presentation / company

…………………………………………………………………………………
2 talk / 15 minutes
………………………………………………………………………………….
3 I'd be grateful if you / hold / questions / end / talk

………………………………………………………………………………….
4 I / divided up / presentation / three parts

………………………………………………………………………………….
5 I / use / the flip chart

…………………………………………………………………………………..
Exercise 4
When talking about the schedule for the presentation, the future continuous (I'll be …
ing) is often used. You do not have to use it, but it is quite common. Rewrite these
extracts in the future continuous.
1 … and then I'm going to show you some examples of …..

…………………………………………………………….
2 … secondly, I'd like to talk about the problems ……
……………………………………………………………..
3 … finally, I want to look at the possible commercial applications of this product
………………………………………………………………………………………
Exercise 5
The Good and the Bad. In the exercise below, there are four good and six bad
beginnings. Put a tick, if you think the beginning is good, or a cross, if you think it is
bad.
1 I'd like to begin my presentation with quite a lot of statistics, so please pay attention as it
is quite a complex subject as well.
2 I heard a great joke on the radio this morning. There was an Englishman, a Frenchman
and a German, or was it an Italian? Anyway …
3 If you have any questions, or you don't follow anything I say, please feel free to interrupt
me at any time.
4 Ladies and gentlemen, it is an enormous pleasure and an immense honour for me to be
here with you today. I am overwhelmed by the occasion and I know I speak not only for
myself, but for my whole department when I say those simple words which express our
gratitude – thank you so very much.
5 I don't know whether you've heard about the reorganisation, or how much you may know,
so I'll start at the beginning. In 1965 …
6 My presentation will last for about one hour and I hope we'll have time for questions at
the end.
7 Good morning, everyone. I am here today to explain how the reorganisation of the
company will affect you.
8 First of all, I'd like to apologise as I haven't had a lot of time to prepare this presentation.
9 Can you raise your hands if you can hear at the back? Thank you, and as I have a quiet
voice raise your hands during my presentation if my voice drops too much.
10 I'm not a native speaker of English so if you don't understand anything I say, please feel
free to interrupt me at any time.
Exercise 2 is taken from Malcolm Goodale, Professional Presentations, CUP 2006, p. 37.
References
Comfort, J. Effective Presentations, OUP 1995
Freitag-Lawrence, A. Business Presentations, Longman 2006
Goodale, M. Professional Presentations, CUP 2006
8.2.1 Making a Start - Language Phrases
Introducing yourself and your talk
These are useful language phrases. You are not expected to use them all in every presentation
you give. You don't have to learn them all either. What you should do is to check that you can
use at least one phrase from each section.
Greeting, name, position

Good morning, ladies and gentlemen. My name's ….. . I'm a ….. .
Good afternoon, everyone.
Expressing purpose/objective
My purpose/objective/aim today is to present/ to explain/to inform you about/ to describe…
What I want to do this morning is …
I'm here today to ….
I'd like to talk about …
Length
My presentation/talk/lecture will take/last about 20 minutes.
I plan to be brief, I shall only take 10 minutes of your time.
Outline/Main parts
I have divided my presentation into 4 parts/This talk is divided into 4 main parts:
Firstly, I'd like to look at/Let me begin with/To start with …
Secondly/Then I'll be talking about …
Thirdly, …
My fourth point will be about …
Finally, I'll be looking at …
The subject can be looked at under the following headings: …
Visual aids
I'll be using the flip chart/overhead projector/computer projector …
Inviting questions
If anyone has any questions, please feel free to interrupt at any time.
If you have any questions, please stop me at any time, and I will be happy to answer them.
Discouraging questions
I will be happy to answer any questions you have at the end of my presentation.
At the end of my talk, there will be time for discussion. I would appreciate it/I would be
grateful if you could keep your questions until then.
8.3 Language – Exercises
When people write out their presentation, they tend to use formal language. This distances
them from the audience and is easily avoided if they use keywords as notes.
Think of your presentation as a conversation and avoid being too formal. In normal
conversation, we tend to use simple words. Avoid using complex phrases in spoken language
as well as long and complicated sentences. If your sentences have a large number of words in
them, there is a reasonable chance that the audience will have forgotten the beginning by the
time you reach the end.
Using jargon is fine if the audience are specialists and understand the words you are using. If
not, avoid jargon or explain in simple terms.
Exercise 1
Match the more formal words on the left with the more informal words on the right. In
your presentations try to use more informal words.
1 additional A make
2 approximately B meet
3 assistance C enough
4 encounter D get
5 immediately E need
6 manufacture F extra
7 obtain G about
8 purchase H help
9 require I now
10 sufficient J buy
Exercise 2
Here is a list of phrases which are quite formal and often appear in written English.
They should be avoided in spoken English. Which one word can replace all these
phrases?
due to the fact that

in view of
for the reason that
in consequence of …………………………….
owing to the fact that
on account of
on the grounds that
Exercise 3
Match the following two lists of linking words. In your presentation try to avoid the
more formal words in the first list and use those in the second list.
1 in addition
2 moreover
3 nevertheless A so
4 thus B and
5 for this reason C also
6 consequently D but
7 therefore
8 however
9 furthermore
Exercise 4
If you use the passive voice too much, you can sound too formal. Change the beginning
of these sentences in the active voice.
1. It was thought that the result …

We ………………………………………………………………………….
2. It is hoped that you will find …
We …………………………………………………………………………..
3. Our company cannot be held responsible for what people do with our …
We …………………………………………………………………………..
References
Goodale, M.:, Professional Presentations, CUP 2006, pp. 40 – 45
8.4 Linking Ideas - Exercises
Exercise 1
Link the ideas in these sentences by adding an appropriate word or phrase.
Example: That was a good meeting. (By the way … )

Did I tell you about the match last night?
a. There are some important factors to consider. The risk of losing market share.
b. We have had a difficult year. We have still made a healthy profit.
c. We expected to lose money in the Far East. This was our most profitable market.
d. The yen dropped against dollar. We made considerable profits on the exchange rate.
e. Our competitors are becoming stronger. One of them, Falcon, has a joint venture with a
Japanese firm.
Exercise 2
Link the ideas in these sentences according to hints given in the brackets.
Example: We have invested too much money in this project. (Express result)
………….., we are in finance difficulties.
Therefore / As a result / Consequently …….
a. We are unable to go by train (express reason) ………..the rail strike.

b. We came to the countryside (express purpose) …….. find some peace and quiet.
c. ………….. (express contrast) the car is old, it is still reliable.
d. ………….. (express contrast) of the rain, I went for a walk.
e. Buying a house is expensive. It is, ……….. (express contrast), a good investment.
f. .……. (express time) I was driving along the road, I saw a terrible accident.
Exercise 3
Number the sentences below to make a connected paragraph.
o On the other hand, they might find that it was difficult to readapt to life as a student
when the time came for them to return to their studies.
o Even though they would have relatively few qualifications, they would gain valuable
work experience.
o However, for some of them it might be better to take a break from education for a year
or two, and get a job instead.
o They might even decide not to do a university course at all, despite the problem that
lack of qualifications might cause them later on.
o Most people go to study at university immediately after leaving school.
Exercise 4
Choose the correct linking expression.
Well, in my country the government spends a lot of money supporting things like opera and
classical music, 1 and yet / what's more only a minority of people actually enjoy that sort of
thing. 2 In fact / However, there is hardly any money spent supporting the arts in schools,
even though lots of children would like to have the chance to learn to paint or to play an
instrument. So I think more should be spent on this – 3 after all / what's more these children
are the artists of the future, aren't they?
Exercise 5
Fill in linking words and phrases to establish good flow of ideas.
Lasers have found widespread application in medicine.

They play an important role in the treatment of eye disease and the prevention of blindness.
The eye is ideally suited for laser surgery.
Most of the eye tissue is transparent.
This transparency, the frequency and focus of the laser beam can be adjusted according to the
absorption of the tissue.
The beam "cuts" inside the eye with minimal damage to the surrounding tissue.
The interaction between the laser light and eye tissue is not fully understood.
References
8.4.1 Linking Ideas – Language Phrases

Moving on
Let's start with …
I'd now like to move on to / turn to …
That brings us to …
Let's leave that …
That covers …
So far we have looked at … Now I'd like to …
Let's get back to …
Giving reasons/causes
therefore
that's why
so
as a result
Comparing
It's like …
It's as if …
similarly
in the same way
Summarizing
What I'm trying to say is …
Let me sum that up before we move on to …
in brief /in short
Highlighting
in particular
especially
Digressing
by the way
in passing
Contradicting
in fact
actually
Giving examples
Let me give you an example.
such as …
for instance …
Asking check-up questions

Are you with me so far?
Is everyone with me?
Is that clear to everyone?
Before I go on, are there any questions about …?
References
8.5 Visuals – Exercises
Visuals support a presentation and should not replace it – the presenter is the main visual.
Visuals should be simple; most are too complex and too busy.
Exercise 1
Discussion: which of these presentation tools would you use in your presentation?
A video/slide/computer projector; a DVD player and TV; a laser pointer; a flip chart and
pens; a whiteboard; an overhead projector and overhead transparencies; handouts;
presentation software.
Exercise 2
Reading and analysis: read the three presentation slides. Which is the best way of presenting
the information, and why?
Guidelines for slides
You shouldn't use more slides than necessary: one or two per minute of your presentation is enough. Don't
present information in sentences and paragraphs, divide it up into individual points. Try not to present more
than six points on one slide. You should reduce text to keywords and phrases: try to have no more than six
words per line. Don't forget, a graph or chart is much easier to understand than a text.
• 1-2 slides per minute of presentation

• Information in points, not complete sentences
• Maximum six points per slide
• Reduce to key words and phrases
• Maximum six words for each point
• Graphs and visuals wherever possible
• 1-2 slides / minute

• info in points
• max 6 / slide
• keywords only
• max 6 words
• visuals best
Exercise 3
Redesigning: look at the overhead transparency and redesign it.
THE FOURTEEN WORST HUMAN FEARS – A SURVEY OF 3000 U.S. INHABITANTS
• 1 SPEAKING BEFORE A GROUP – 41%

• 2 HEIGHTS – 32%
• 3 INSECTS AND BUGS – 22%
• 4 FINANCIAL PROBLEMS – 22%
• 5 DEEP WATER – 22%
• 6 SICKNESS – 19%
• 7 DEATH – 19%
• 8 FLYING – 18%
• 9 LONELINESS – 14%
• 10 DOGS – 11%
• 11 DRIVING / RIDING IN A CAR – 9%
• 12 DARKNESS – 8%
• 13 LIFTS – 8%
• 14 ESCALATORS – 5%
References
Malcolm Goodale, Professional Presentations, CUP 2006, p. 49
Visuals – Language Phrases
Using Visual Aids

I'd like you to look at this …
Let me show you …
As you can see …
Let's have a look at … / Let's look at …
If you look at the screen, you'll see …
This table/diagram/chart/slide shows …
On the right/left you can see...
8.6 Finishing Off - Exercises
Exercise 1
The sentences 1-5 below are the end of a presentation, but they are in the wrong order.
Put them into the right order.
1 So, I'd now be glad to answer any questions.

2 I sincerely hope you'll all go away with a more complete picture of the principal activities
of UNEXCO.
3 Very briefly, there are three. Firstly, fund-raising; secondly, publicity; and thirdly,
political lobbying.
4 So, that brings me to the end of this presentation.
5 Finally, I'd like to leave you with something which I heard recently. “You can't please all
the people all the time, but we should certainly be able to feed all people all the time.”
The right order: …………………………………………………………………………………
Exercise 2
The Good and the Bad. In the exercise below, there are four good and six bad endings.
Put a tick, if you think the ending is good, or a cross, if you think it's bad.
1 I seem I have overrun my time and I must apologise, to those of you who are left, for
keeping you an extra 45 minutes. Thank you for staying.
2 Thank you for your attention and if you have any more questions, I'll be happy to answer
them.
3 Well, I think I've said everything I have to say … Let me see if I've forgotten anything.
4 So, in conclusion, I would like to recommend that we go ahead with the project. Thank
you for listening.
5 If you look at this transparency … and this one … and this one …sorry to rush you
through it, but unfortunately, we've run out of time.
6 I'm sorry but there doesn't seem to be any time left for questions.
7 If there's anything else you'd like to know about our products, I'll be happy to try and
answer your questions.
8 As I said at the beginning, I'm sorry I didn't have more time to prepare this presentation,
but I hope it wasn't too bad.
9 So, thank you for your time and we'd be very happy to hear any suggestions you may have
to solve this problem.
10 Oh dear, is that the time? I've only got through half of what I wanted to say.
Exercise 2 is taken from Malcolm Goodale, Professional Presentations, CUP 2006, p. 59.
8.6.1 Finishing Off – Language Phrases
Signalling the end

That brings me to the end of my presentation.
That completes my presentation.
That covers all I wanted to say today.
Summarising
Let me just run over the key points again.
I'll briefly summarise the main issues.
So, to sum up/to summarise, …
Concluding
Let me end by saying …
I'd like to finish by emphasising …
In conclusion, I'd like to say …
Recommending
So, what I would suggest is that we …
So, I would recommend/suggest that …
You can find more information at www. …..
Handouts
Copies of my transparencies/slides are on the table by the door.
I'll be distributing the handouts in a few moments.
Closing
Thank you for your attention.
Thank you for listening.
Inviting questions
If you have any questions, I'll be happy to answer them.
If there are any questions, I'll do my best to answer them. Are there any questions?
Getting the questioner to rephrase

Sorry, I'm not quite with you. Could you repeat that?
I'm afraid I don't quite see what you mean.
Answering questions – by admitting ignorance

I'm afraid I don't know the answer to that one. Perhaps someone here can help us out?
I'm afraid that's not my field, but I'm sure Mr/Mrs … will be able to answer it.
It is an interesting question but I'm afraid I don't have that information. However, I can ask …
8.7 Feedback Grid

System
A clear structure (beginning, middle, end)?
The relevant and interesting content?
The timing considered?
Beginning
Introduced himself/herself?
Purpose /subject of the presentation?
Main points?
The length of time?
When may the audience ask questions?
Any visual aids?
A human touch?
Clear beginning?
Language
Main points of the presentation expressed simply and briefly?
Proper use of linking ideas (using language phrases for moving on, giving reasons,
comparing, contrasting, highlighting, giving examples etc.)?
Informal/neutral language?
Jargon: understandable?
Using examples?
Visual aids
Right number?
Helpful?
Not too many words?
Big enough?
Using colour?
Using drawings/pictures/graphs/tables …?
Waiting for audience to read when necessary?
Body language
Maintaining eye content with the audience?
Using his/her body to emphasise meaning (moving towards audience, helpful gestures …)?
Being confident and positive?
Delivery
Clear speaking?
Speaking at the right speed?
No hesitations, e.g. err, erms, no verbal mannerisms, e.g. You know.
Ending
Interesting ending?
Summary / conclusion?
Inviting questions?
Finishing on time?
Message clear?
Answering questions
Remains in control when answering questions?
References
Comfort, J.: Effective Presentations, OUP 1995
Freitag-Lawrence, A.: Business Presentations, Longman 2006
Goodale, M.: Professional Presentations, CUP 2006
9. UNIVERSITY
9.1 University - Explanation
University
• College
• Faculty
• Campus
• Department
• Institute
• At university
• At/in faculty
• At/in department
• Rector’ Office, Dean’s Office, Study Office, Office for International Studies
• Library, Archives
• Halls of residence and canteens
• Dormitories and refectories
Brno University of Technology, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and

Communication
• Department of Control and Instrumentation
• Department of Biomedical Engineering
• Department of Electrical Power Engineering
• Department of Electrical and Electronic Technology
• Department of Physics
• Department of Languages
• Department of Mathematics
• Department of Microelectronics
• Department of Radioelectronics
• Department of Telecommunications
• Department of Theoretical and Experimental Electrical Engineering
• Department of Power Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Staff
• University - Rector, Vice-Rector

• Chancellor, Bursar
• Faculty - Dean, Vice-Dean
• Secretary (Registrar)
• Head of department
• Professor – Associate Professor – Assistant Professor – (Senior) Lecturer /Tutor
Technical and administrative staff

• Secretary
• Economist
• Librarian
• Technician
• Artificer (a skilled workman)
Addressing people
• Professor Brown
• Mr. Black – John Black, associate professor
• Mr.President
• Mr.Chairman
• Sir, Madam
Students
• Full-time students
• Part-time students
• Undergraduate students
• Postgraduate students
• Bachelor Programme
• Master Programme
• Doctoral (PhD) programme
Finance
• Scholarship – to be eligible for …

to be entitled to …
• Tuition fees
• Award
• Grant
• Student loan
References
Lebauer,R.S.: Learn to Listen, Listen to Learn, Addison Wesley
Longman, Inc., 2000
McCarthy, M., O´Dell,F.: Academic Vocabulary in Use, CUP 2008
Praha, 1989
9.2 University - Exercises
Exercise 1
Discuss postgradual obligations
• To supervise students’ projects

• To supervise students Bachelor/Master theses
• To run / supervise lab exercises (teaching load)
• To publish / attend conferences
• To study for a Ph.D. Degree (lectures, seminars, workshops…)
• To do research into/on ...
Exercise 2
Answer the following questions
1. Which department do you study at ?

2. What levels of study does your department offer ?
3. What types of labs are there at your department?
teaching labs, research labs;
special instrumentation or equipment (Unc); instrument; device (C) …..
4. What do you know about the co-operation between your department and research
institutes, enterprises, factories etc. in the Czech Republic or abroad?
Exercise 3
1. Náš syn je absolventem VUT.

2. Absolvoval jsem elektrotechnickou průmyslovku s vyznamenáním.
3. Firma požaduje, aby všichni zaměstnanci absolvovali pokročilé kurzy angličtiny.
4. Zůstává na škole jako odborný asistent.
5. Obvykle asistuje panu profesorovi.
6. Nevím, jak ho mám titulovat.
7. Suploval za nepřítomného kolegu.
10. EMPLOYMENT
10.1 Curriculum Vitae - Explanation
There are various models for writing a CV accessible at the Internet. Choose a model
suitable for you and write your own CV using pieces of information given below which
are appropriate for your CV.
Personal Information:
Name:
Date of Birth: 10 January 1986 / January 10th, 1986 / 10. 01. 1986
Address:
Nationality:
Telephone:
E-mail:
Education:
2001 – 2005 Technical School of Electrical Engineering, Ostrava
OR
Grammar School oriented to mathematics, Kyjov
2005 – 2008 Brno University of Technology (BUT), Faculty of Electrical
Engineering and Communication / Faculty of Information Technology,
three-year Bachelor Study Programme in Microelectronics / in
Information Technology
2008 – 2010 Brno University of Technology, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and
Communication / Faculty of Information Technology, two-year Master
Study Programme in Electrical Power Systems / in IT- Computer
Graphics and Multimedia
2010 – 2014 Brno University of Technology, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and
Communication / Faculty of Information Technology, four-year
Doctoral Study Programme in Power Electrical Engineering –
incomplete
Qualifications:
School-leaving exams (corresponding to GCE “A” level examinations) (June 2005): Czech
Language, English Language, Mathematics, Physics, …
B.Sc. / BSc Degree / Diploma from FEEC BUT (June 2008).
M.Sc. /MSc Degree /Diploma in Electrical Engineering (2010).
Thesis / Dissertation: ………
Ph.D. / PhD Degree from ….. in ….. .
Thesis / Dissertation: ………. - incomplete
Related Courses:
Bachelor Programme: Mathematical Logic I, II
Electromagnetic Waves and Transmission Lines
Master Programme: Design of Electronic Devices
Electronic Circuits Theory
Intelligent Systems
Doctoral Programme:
Other Skills and Achievements

Languages: English – fluent OR fluent in speaking and writing OR completely
fluent
German – knowledgeable
Some Russian (French, Spanish, Polish…)
Computer Skills: full knowledge / expert knowledge / advanced knowledge of …..
Driving Licence: category B
Work Experience
2005 – 2006 Part-time work as a programmer, Moravia Translations, Brno
2007 Summer work in UK (agriculture, catering)
2008 - 2009 Localization Engineer, Moravia IT, Brno
2010 - 2011 Supervisor of students’ lab work; supervisor of students’ Bachelor
theses, FEEC Brno, Department of …..
Interests & Activities

Swimming, driving cars, travelling
Personal
Single
One brother, two sisters
References
Available upon request
You may wish to add other sections:
Publications: Journal Articles

Book
Research Experience: Member of team of scientists who evaluated/investigated/…..

Results will be used in design of …..
Volunteer Work:
Personal Qualities
Strong analytical, conceptual and organizational skills
Flexible, reliable, responsible, creative, with sense of humour
High value placed on teamwork / ready to work in a team
Good communication skills
Positions of Responsibility
In my final year of school, I helped organise ….
Affiliations (Associations)
Mensa CZ
10.2 A Letter of Job Application - Exercises
INTRODUCTION
The following parts should be included in a letter of job application (a cover letter):
1. Purpose / Reference – why are you writing ? / where did you see the job offer ?
2. Enclosing CV – just mention it.
3. Qualifications – what qualifications do you have for the job ?
4. Experience – what job experience do you have ?
5. Present situation – what are you doing at the moment ?
6. Availability – when will you be able to start the job ?
7. Expectations / Further contact – what do you expect from the company ?
Exercise 1
Study the jumbled text in exercise 2 and label each part according to its function
Exercise 2
Put the sentences in order
1. As my contract expires in September, I will be free to take up the job from October onwards.
2. As you can see from my CV
3. I look forward to hearing from you.
4. I am currently working for the Aranco Oil Company in Saudi Arabia.
5. I have the Diploma in Teaching English as a Foreign Language and have been teaching English
for Specific Purposes since 1998.
6. I am writing in reply to your advertisement for an English for Specific Purposes teacher in the
Guardian of June 15, 2009.
7. I would be grateful if you could send me further details of the post.
Exercise 3
Complete the sentences with one of these words: as, at, for, from, in, of, on, to.
1 With reference ……. your advertisement ……. the JobFinders.com website, I am interested ……
applying ……. the post of digital design engineer.
2 I have attached my CV ……. a Word document.
3 I am available ……. interview …….. Vienna.
4 I am working ……. a sales representative at the moment.
5 You can email me or telephone me ...…. the number given ……. my CV.
6 I look forward ……. hearing ……. you soon.
7 I have good knowledge ……. business administration. I studied it ……. university.
8 I am unemployed ……. the moment. I have been out ……. work since the summer.
9 I am studying ……. a degree ……. Electrical Engineering.
10 I have been working ……. Telekom for one year.
11 I attach my CV ……. requested.
PHRASES AND EXPRESSIONS USED IN A LETTER OF JOB APPLICATION
1. Purpose/Reference – why are you writing?, where did you see the job offer?
I am writing to inquire about / concerning the possibility of (doing st.)
I would be interested in learning whether …
I am writing in reply to your advertisement for …… (a job) in the ……. (newspaper) of …….
(date)
With reference to your advertisement in ….. for …..
I would like to apply (I am applying) for the post of …. as advertised in ……
2. Enclosing CV
I enclose my CV (“personal data sheet” in US) with the names and addresses of referees.
As you can see from my CV
I have enclosed a copy of my CV.
As you will notice on my enclosed CV, the job you are offering matches my personal and
professional interests.
3. Qualifications – what qualifications do you have for the job?

I consider I am well qualified for this post.
I feel that my qualifications match your requirements.
My qualifications are as follows:
I am a(an)…… (job) with an additional qualification in ……
I am studying for the Ph.D. degree at …
I have the B.Sc. degree (diploma, certificate) in … and the M.Sc. degree in …
4. Experience – what job experience do you have?

I have been (doing something) since …
I have experience of (doing something)
I have five-year experience in …
My recent work involved working …….
5. Present situation – what are you doing at the moment?

I am studying the 3rd year of … in Brno at the moment.
I am currently working for …….. (company or institution) as a ……
I have been working with the company … for 2 years.
6. Availability – when will you be able to start the job?

I will be available (to do something) in March …
I will be free to take up other employment from June onwards.
I would be available for employment after ………. (date)
7. Expectations / Further contact – what do you expect from the company (reply etc.)?
I hope you will consider my application.
I am available for an interview at any time which would suit you.
I am contactable at the above address.
I look forward to hearing from you soon.
Exercise 4
Look at these two job ads taken from the server <http:// www.jobs.cz> [ August 28, 2009].
Imagine that you want to apply for one of these jobs. Draft an application letter using
relevant phrases and expressions given on a previous page.
DIGITAL DESIGN ENGINEER
Do you have strong electrical background?

Are you interested in working in R&D field? Would you like to work in multinational environment? If
yes, apply today!
Our client, a prestigious international company, is now looking for a DIGITAL DESIGN
ENGINEER to join their fast growing team.
Your job tasks will cover:
• HW development for avionic (units for pressure control in cabin, aerospace engines,
navigation systems)
• Circuit design with microcontroller and microprocessor (32/64 – bit including dual core)
• Peripheral circuits design, communication boundary lines design, work with CPLD and
FPGA
• Cooperation with product and system engineers, EMI engineers, component engineers and
PCB designers
• Work in international team
Your profile:
• Technical university, specialization in low voltage electrotechnology
• Relevant working experience at least 3 years
• Willingness to learn and expand knowledge and experience
• Excellent organizational skills
• Fluency in English
• Good communication skills
• Team player
Advantage:
• Work experience with circuit design of 32bit microcontrollers and microprocessors
(advantage RISC - Free scale, ARM)
• Experience with circuit design using CPLG and FPGA (Xilinx, Altera, Actel)
• Knowledge of Power PC platform
• Basic knowledge of programming C language and VHDL
• Work with the best experts from aerospace industry
• Long term employment in prestigious, multinational company
• Career development (team leader, manager, project leader)
• Modern technological equipment
• Competitive salary and interesting benefits
• Wide spectrum of employee benefits
If you want to apply for this position, please, send your application and detailed CV in English, with
the reference number 2-10-12583 in subject of your application, to:
SolarWinds, guided by a global community of network engineers, develops simple and powerful
software for managing networks, small or large. SolarWinds’ highly affordable and scalable
products can be downloaded over the web and installed in minutes, immediately providing the
visibility and control network engineers need most. More than 45,000 customers trust our fault and
performance management products, configuration management solutions, and monitoring tools to
manage their networks. Learn more today at www.solarwinds.com.
SYSTEM ADMINISTRATOR / HELPDESK SUPPORT
Duties and Responsibilities:

• Works with Help Desk and Network Operations staff as appropriate to determine and
resolve problems received from staff.
• Provides first level assistance for defined problems and escalates ticket issues as
necessary.
• Trains and orients staff on use of hardware and software.
• Responds to questions received via telephone calls, help desk, and emails in a timely
manner.
• May be called upon to assist senior management and executives where sensitivity to
confidential information and timely problem resolution is critical.
• Will be required to document, track and monitor the problems to ensure a timely
resolution.
• Assists staff with the installation, configuration and ongoing usability of desktop
computers, peripheral equipment and software.
Requirements:
• Education in computer science, bachelor’s degree desirable.
• Fluent Czech and English language.
• 1-3 years of relevant experience .
• Experience supporting Windows XP desktop/laptop PCs.
• Ability to provide help desk support for standard software packages including MS Office
products, virus software, web browsers as well as basic network support.
• Experience troubleshooting hardware issues and replacing hardware on both desktop and
laptop PCs.
Our offering:
• Be part of a successful and rapidly growing US company.
• Career development opportunities.
• Friendly and informal working environment .
• Motivating salaries.
• Language courses.
• Lunch vouchers, pension and health insurance.
Job location: Brno

Type of job: Full-time work
If you want to apply for this position, please, send your application and detailed CV in English, with
the reference number 2-10-12583 in subject of your application, to:
Exercise 5
Sarah Brown is one of the applicants for the job of Senior Programmer. Read the letter
of application and put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense.
19 Stanford Street
London NW7 4HH
2 March 2006
Mr. Scott
Personnel Manager
Digitum
75 Parkhill Street
London SW2 3DE
Dear Mr. Scott,
I am writing to (1) (apply) ………… for the position of Senior Programmer which (2)
(advertise).………. on 28 February in The Times.
I (3) (work) ……….. as a computer programmer for the last three years. After graduation I
(4) (work) ………. for a year with NCR and (5) (be) ………. now ………. with Intelligent
Software for two years. I design systems in COBOL for use in large retail chains. These have
been very successful and we (6) (win) ……….. several new contracts in the UK and Europe
on the strength of my team’s success.
Last year I (7) (spend) ………. three months in Spain testing our programs and also (8)
(make) ………. several short visits to Italy so I have basic knowledge of Spanish and Italian.
I now feel ready for more responsibility and more challenging work and would welcome the
opportunity to learn about a new industry.
I enclose my curriculum vitae and look forward to hearing from you.
Yours sincerely,
Sarah Brown
Sarah Brown
Exercise 5 is taken from Esteras S. R. English for Computer Users,Student’s Book, Third Edition,
Unit 26: Jobs in Computing, p. 120, Cambridge: CUP, 2005.
10.3 Job Interview - Exercises
Exercise 1
Background information
There are different kinds of interviews: traditional one-to-one interviews, panel interviews
where one or more candidates are interviewed by a panel of interviewers and even ‘deep-end’
interviews where applicants have to demonstrate how they can cope in actual business
situations. The atmosphere of an interview may vary from the informal to the formal and
interviewers may take a friendly, neutral or even hostile approach. Different interviewers use
different techniques and the only rules that applicants should be aware of may be ‘Expect the
unexpected’ and ‘Be yourself’!
In different countries, and in different trades and different grades, the salary that goes with a
job may be only part of the package: extra benefits like a company car or cheap housing
loans, bonuses paid in a ‘thirteenth month’, company pension schemes, free canteen meals,
long holidays or flexible working hours may all contribute to the attractiveness of a job.
Taken from L.Jones, R. Alexander, New International Business English, Workbook, Unit 13:
Jobs and careers, CUP, Cambridge, 2000.
Exercise 2
Vocabulary
Qualifications
Education + further skills and knowledge
I attended / finished technical school ……
I passed my school-leaving exams in ……
Then I continued / studied at …….
I graduated from Brno University of Technology where I obtained / did a degree in
Information Technology.
Personality
I’m calm, serious, reliable, flexible, creative, physically fit, willing to take on
responsibility, self-disciplined, efficient, accurate, creative …
I don’t panic
I am able to work under pressure
I have a sense of humour, ability to lead a team, good communication skills ….
Things to stress
I have required knowledge.
I like the idea of more challenges in my life.
Your company has a very good reputation.
I think I will have more scope and opportunity in your company.
My work will be more challenging.
I’m a creative type of a person, I don’t like routine work.
I’m able to work with all types of people / in a team.
I’m ready to continue in my studies.
I am a team-player.
Strengths and weaknesses

Mention a weakness and then stress its positive aspect:
“I don’t like to be supervised because I have a great deal of initiative, and I like to
anticipate problems before they even arise.”
Professional interests
I am interested in programming.
At school I got interested and began to specialize in wireless communication.
I am good at …..
I concentrate on problems connected with ….
I took part in ….. / studied ….. / investigated …..
I’m ready to re-qualify myself for the demanded specialization.
Extra benefits
Company car, housing loans, bonuses, company pension schemes, free canteen meals, long
holidays, flexible working hours ….
Exercise 3
Pre-Interview Preparation
Imagine that a friend of yours is about to attend his or her first interview. Give him/her some
more advice:
- Find out some information about the company.
- Prepare some questions to ask about what the job includes.
- Wear smart, formal clothes.
- Look straight at the interviewer.
- ……………………
- Expect the unexpected.
- Be yourself.
Exercise 4
Useful expressions for answering job interview questions
Asking for clarification / reformulating

I’m sorry, could you expand on what you mean by…
Playing for time
That‘s a very interesting question. I would say …
Structuring your answer
I’d like to answer that in two ways: firstly, .… secondly, ….
Giving concrete examples
Let me give an example of what I mean.
Validating your answer
Is that what you wanted to know?
Exercise 5
Discussion: How would you answer the following job interview questions?
1. Tell me a bit about your education.

2. What are your strengths and weaknesses?
3. We have a lot of applicants for this job, why should we appoint you?
4. Which is more important to you: status or money?
5. Why do you want to leave your present job?
6. Where do you see yourself in five years’ time?
7. What are you most proud of having done recently?
8. Can you give an example of a situation you found stressful, and how you coped with the
stress?
11. 1 ETHICS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
The world faces great challenges, most of them indirectly or directly related to science.
Technological disasters, environmental degradation and growing social and economic imbalance
between rich and poor have led to an increasing mistrust in science, often directed against the
development and application of new technologies.
Scientists face ethical problems in their choice of education and research field; in their choice
of research projects; in how they carry out their research and in how they deal with publication and
media. How can we make sure that the scientist maintains high standards of scientific integrity and
quality control when the relationship between the researcher and other actors such as universities,
the state, corporations and international trade organisations are changing? How can one increase
the young scientist’s ability to distinguish right from wrong and to feel social and environmental
responsibility?
What exactly is ethics? What does it encompass? What is its scope? What are its limits and
characteristics? In order to truly appreciate the role of ethics in the use of future development,
science and technology, it is necessary to possess a certain understanding of what is meant by ethics.
Ethics is the systematic investigation of questions of right and wrong, good and bad.
It reflects different moral principles and evaluates them critically. In many cases our principles
survive this critical scrutiny. However, critical reflection often shows that some principles are
unsatisfactory; they have to be modified or totally rejected. Sometimes we find other, more
satisfactory principles that replace them. The aim of ethics is to find a set of moral principles that
there are good reasons for accepting and that ought to guide us in our lives.
Many of the most important ethical predicaments the world community is facing today arise
in connection with science, in scientific research and in the development and applications of new
technologies, notably biotechnology. The applications of science and technology have consequences
for almost all aspects of our lives: travel, communication, internationalisation, immigration, cultural
pluralism, development of new weapons, natural resources management, the environment, etc.
Many of the possibilities opened up by science are destructive and negative. But science also makes
possible better living conditions, more awareness of the needs of people in other parts of the world
and greater possibilities to help them.
The last decades have seen a rapidly growing awareness of such ethical issues and the need
to deal with them. The rising interest in ethics seems to be due mainly to the following factors:
1. Rapidity of change. We might go through more change in a few years than earlier
generations in a whole lifetime.
2. Intercultural contact. Many of our norms and values are culturally conditioned.
3. Transnational communications. The Internet, satellite TV and other media that cross
national boundaries create particular ethical issues e.g. what is forbidden in one country may be legal
in others.
4. Weakening of ethical traditions. During the last generations, upholders of ethical

traditions, such as the family, religious institutions, social groups, etc. have progressively been losing
influence.
5. Magnified potential of science and technology. New developments in science and

technology have immensely increased human capacity for good and bad.
6. Concern for the environment. The increased magnitude of human impact on the
environment and the consequent deterioration of the latter have given rise to a growing concern for
achieving sustainable development.
7. Advances in certain technologies. Notably as concerns gene technology responsible for

the creation of situations that are radically different from any faced by humanity before.
Source:
Ethics of Science & Technology. Connect. UNESCO International Science, Technology & Environmental
Education Newsletter. Vol. XXIX, No. 3-4, 2004, pp. 1-4.
11.2 Radiation and Human Health
Part 1
Radioactivity occurs naturally. The main source comes from natural sources in space, rocks,
soil, water and even the human body itself. This is called background radiation and levels
vary from place to place, though the average dose is fairly constant. The radiation which is of
most concern is artificial radiation which results from human activities. Sources of this
include the medical use of radioactive materials, fallout and contamination from nuclear bomb
tests, discharges from the nuclear industry, and the storage and dumping of radioactive waste.
Part 2
While artificial radiation accounts for a small proportion of the total, its effects can be
disproportionate. Some of the radioactive materials discharged by human activity are not
found in nature, such as plutonium, while others which are found naturally may be discharged
in different physical and chemical forms, allowing them to spread more readily into the
environment, or perhaps accumulate in the food-chain.
Part 3
In general, the effects of radiation can be (6) ………. into those which affect the individuals
exposed and those which (7) ………. their descendants. Somatic effects are those which
appear in the irradiated or exposed individual. These (8) ………. cancer and leukaemia.
Hereditary or genetic effects are those which arise in (9) ………. generations.
Part 4
Our bodies do not know the difference (10) ………. the elements which is radioactive and
one which is not. So radioactive elements can be (11) ……….. into living tissues, bones or
the blood, where they continue to give (12) ………. radiation. Radioactive strontium behaves
(13) ………. calcium – an essential ingredient in our bones – in our bodies. Strontium
deposits (14) ………. the bones. It sends radioactivity into the bone marrow, where the blood
(15) ………. are formed, causing leukaemia.
Part 5
There are three principal (16) ………. which radiation can have (17) ………. cells: firstly the
cell may be killed; secondly the way the cell multiplies may be affected, resulting (18)
………. cancer; and thirdly damage may occur in the cells of the ovaries and testes, leading to
the development of a child with an inherited abnormality.
Part 6
Ionising radiation can damage DNA, the molecule which acts as the cell’s ‘instruction book’.
If that cell later forms a child, all of the child’s cells will carry the same defect. The localised
chemical alteration of DNA in a single cell may be expressed as an inherited abnormality in
one of many future generations.
Part 7
While there is now broad agreement about the effects of high-level radiation, there is
controversy over the long-term effect of low-level doses. This is complicated by the length of
time it takes for effects to show up, the fact that the population being studied (bomb survivors,
people exposed to nuclear tests or workers in the nuclear industry) are small and exact doses
are hard to calculate. Others assume a directly proportionate link between the received dose
and the risk of cancer for all levels of dose, while there are some who claim that at low doses
there is a disproportionately low level of risk.
Adapted from:
Sahanaya, W., Lindeck, J. and Stewart, R.: IELTS Preparation and Practice. Reading and
Writing. Academic Module. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2005, p. 81-82.
Exercise 1
In Parts 1 and 2, find words which mean:
1) dangerous radioactive dust that is in the air after a nuclear explosion
2) to gradually increase in number or quantity over a period of time
3) the quantity of an active agent taken in or absorbed at any one time
4) too large or too small when compared with something else
5) created by people, not naturally
Exercise 2
In Part 3, choose the correct word for each gap:
6) divided
7) affect
8) include
9) subsequent
Exercise 3
In Parts 4 and 5, supply the missing words.
Exercise 4
In Part 7, put the following sentence in the right place:
A growing number of scientists point to evidence that there is a disproportionately high risk
from low doses of radiation.
11.3 Drug could get into the autistic mind

For the first time, drugs are being tested that could address the social difficulties associated
(1) ….. autism and other learning disorders (2) ….. tackling some of the brain chemistry
thought to underlie them. The only drugs currently prescribed (3) ….. people (4) ….. autism
seek to dampen aggression and anxiety. The new drugs, now in the very early stages (5) …..
clinical testing, address some (6) ….. the classic symptoms of autism. People may learn more,
learn to speak better, learn social skills and to be more communicative.
The chief science officer (7) ….. the charity Autism Speaks and a psychiatrist (8) ….. the
University (9) ….. North Carolina (10) ….. Chapel Hill, is enthusiastic (11) ….. the prospect
(12) ….. a new class of drugs that could tackle core autism symptoms.
The trial is aimed (13) ….. a learning disorder called fragile X, which is associated (14) …..
autism. People with fragile X carry a mutation in a gene involved (15) ….. strengthening
brain connections associated (16) ….. salient experiences. Stronger brain connections allow
people to distinguish these events (17) ….. background noise, making this a key process (18)
….. learning.
The scientists are testing a drug which seems to reverse the effect (19) ….. the mutation. (20)
….. the International Meeting (21) ….. Autism Research (22) ….. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
(23) ….. 23rd May, they presented initial results suggesting that the drug may improve the
social skills (24) ….. people (25) ….. fragile X and autism, including improved
communication and general sociability.
The hormone oxytocin helps us connect social contact with feelings of pleasure. A team led
(26) ….. a child neurologist at a research institute (27) ….. Toronto reported that people given
the hormone twice daily (28) ….. six weeks were more likely to be better (29) …..
recognising emotions and the social functioning and had a better quality (30) ….. life than
others given a placebo.
Trying to alter the brain chemistry has never been done before (31) ….. this way. However
the drugs have not yet been shown to work better than behavioural interventions. Most causes
(32) ….. autism are still deeply mysterious.
The scientists point out that behavioural interventions don´t work for everyone, and both
approaches could be useful. If we come up (33) ….. an effective treatment, parents are going
to embrace that.
Adapted from:
Biever, C.: Drug could get into the autistic mind. New Scientist 29th May 2010, p. 12
Exercise 1
Complete the text with correct prepositions.
Exercise 2
Make adjectives from the substantives in italics.
11.4 Changing the World

Exercise 1
Fill each gap with the right word from the following list:
affecting efficiency manner launched in line with operation
covered regional trade vital domestic
level record are not used to centred along revitalization
joint expects establishing workshops consideration entitled
generations resources intended heritage
Changing the World

Efforts in the field of sustainable development started in Belarus in 1992. The first initiatives for
elaborating and implementing sustainable development strategies – Local Agendas -21 – emerged
seven years later. In 2004 the capital city began elaborating the Strategic Plan for the Sustainable
Development of Minsk Until 2020. Other Local Agendas-21 were (1) ………. in 2005. However, this was
just the beginning.
A new (2) ………. project of the European Union and the United nations Development Programme (3)
..........“Support to the Environment and Sustainable Development in Belarus” was presented in
November 2008.
The “Sustainable development at local (4) ..........” project will be in (5) .......... until the end of 2010
and is (6) .......... to help local communities in the regions of Belarus in building their capacity for (7)
.......... and implementing Local Agendas for the 21st century, whilst taking local concerns into (8)
.......... . Local communities will follow the sustainable development principle proclaimed by the
United Nations when elaborating these strategies. This principle is (9) ........... on effective governance
addressing local needs without (10) .......... the environment and the interests of future (11) .......... .
Project activities include information and training (12) .......... , identifying regional capacities and
formulating a sustainable development strategy paper. Due attention is given to exchange of
experience with neighbouring countries with a strong performance (13) .......... in elaborating and
implementing Local Agendas-21. The project (14) .......... to establish so-called “Green Routes” i.e.
tourist routes with natural and cultural (15) .......... which go (16).......... “green corridors” (rivers,
traditional and historic (17) .......... routes, natural sites). Territory (18)........... by Green Routes will
be more attractive for tourists, both from Belarus and abroad. This is one more way of developing
eco-tourism in the Republic of Belarus.
(19) .......... of rural areas is a point of action in the government agenda and it is also addressed in
the project. While the government addresses the problem “from the top down”, the project uses a
“bottom-up” approach. This enables maximum (20)........... Such agendas did not exist before;
planning was done at the (21) .......... level only. These approaches are new and there is a certain
consensus of interests improving the quality of governance.
The specificity of local governance in Belarus means the local communities (22) .......... participating
in self-governance. This project is a good school for self-governance. Local people learn to participate
in (23) .......... decision-making, and the institute of governance changes (24) .......... the international
standards.
Today the development of the economy not only in the centralized (25) .......... but also through
business is particularly relevant for Belarus. And we should make use of the external (26)...........
which perfectly supplement (27) ........... ideas.
Adapted from:
Changing the World Starts from Changing Oneself. UN Bulletin No. 1 – 2010, p. 8-9
11.5. Implants
Exercise 1
Choose the right word for each gap:
approved, consideration, deliver, design, detecting, disorders, effective, electrodes,

inevitable, initially, last, preliminary, response, skull, stimulation, treatments, via
Implants that react to brain signals could help Parkinson’s
Smart implants in the brains of people with neurological 1) ………. could eventually help
develop 2) ………. for people with Parkinson’s disease, depression and obsessive compulsive
disorder.
A team from Medtronic of Minneapolis, Minnesota, reported on their 3) ………. for a

neurostimulator. The devices use 4) ………. to deliver deep stimulation to specific parts of
the brain.
Neurostimulators are already 5) ………. to treat conditions such as Parkinson’s disease,

essential tremor, and dystonia, as well as obsessive compulsive disorder. But existing devices
6) ……….. stimulation on a set schedule, not in 7) ………. to abnormal brain activity. The
researchers think a device that reacts to brain signals could be more 8) ………., plus the
battery would 9) ………. longer, an important 10) ………. for implantable devices.
The neurostimulator will 11) ………. be useful for studying brain signals as patients go about
their day. Eventually, the data collected will show whether the sensors would be useful for 12)
……….and preventing attacks. NeuroPace, a start-up firm in California, is finishing clinical
trials using its smart implant device in 240 people with epilepsy. An earlier feasibility study
provided 13) ………. evidence that the devices did reduce seizures.
The device is implanted within the 14) ………. where it monitors electrical activity 15)
………. electrodes implanted deep in the brain. If it spots the “signature” of a seizure, it will
deliver brief and mild electrical 16) ………. to suppress it. Heart pacemakers developed in a
similar way, as researchers learned to make them detect and react to signals from the heart. It
is absolutely 17) ……….. that we will develop a smarter, more intelligent way to figure out
how and when to stimulate.
Adapted from:
New Scientist, Vol. 203, No. 2725, 12th September 2009, p. 21

11.6 Water For The Future
Freshwater is essential for healthy ecosystems, for sustainable development and for human
survival itself. Yet too often, in too many places, water is wasted, tainted, and taken for granted. All
over the world, pollution, overconsumption and poor water management are decreasing both the
quantity and quality of available water. Agriculture, in particular, is among the most egregious
offenders, commanding the lion’s share of freshwater resources yet often inefficient in many of its
routine water-using practices. Overall demand for water already far outpaces population growth. If
current trends continue, two out of every three people on earth will suffer moderate to severe water
shortages in little more than two decades from now.
Overwhelmingly, it is the poor in developing countries who suffer the most. It is they who
lack access to safe drinking water; they who often pay the highest price for water; they who lack
adequate sanitation; they who have the least to say in water management. And it is the children
among them – more than 2 million – who die each year from water-related diseases. This is a social,
economic, environmental and political crisis that should be among the world community’s highest
priorities.
World leaders recognized the centrality of freshwater to human development, and

committed themselves to a precise and time-bound agenda for addressing the world’s current and
future water resource and sanitation problems. We must move from promises to practice, from
commitments to concrete projects, from intent to implementation.
It is often said that water crises and scarcities will at some point lead to armed conflict. But
this need not be the case. Water problems have also been a catalyst for cooperation among peoples
and nations. Countries with expertise in the management of watersheds and flood plains are sharing
that knowledge and technology with others. Scientists, local authorities, non-governmental
organizations, private businesses and international organizations are pooling their efforts in the
hopes of bringing about a much-needed “blue revolution” and to improve management of this vital
resource. Whatever else divides the human community, whether we live upstream or downstream,
in cities or in rural areas, water issues – the global water cycle itself – should link us in a common
effort to protect and share it equitably, sustainably and peacefully.
The investments, policies and technologies required to rise to this challenge are within our
means. Let us all now work together to secure the world’s water for the future.
Source:
Kofi Annan, UN Secretary-General’s message for the World Day For Water. UN Bulletin, March 2003,
p. 2.
Exercise 1
In each paragraph, find the topic and supporting sentences.
Exercise 2
In each paragraph, find lexical cohesive chains.
Exercise 3
Find examples of linking between the previous and the following paragraphs.

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1.1.1 Articles – Explanation

The definite article the is used

1. to identify people or things already known

2. when speaking about specific things

4. with ordinal numbers

5. in the names of countries with republic, kingdom, states

6. in the names of oceans, seas, rivers, mountains, hotels

7. in specifying groups of people (the + adjective)

8. in names of nationalities (-ch, -sh, -ese)

10. We do not use the before noun+number

The indefinite article a/an is used

1. when people or things are mentioned first

2. to classify people by work or beliefs

Instead we say some/a bit of/an item of

• The box is made of metal. The box is made of a soft metal.

The use of articles in discourse

Basic rules for using articles in technical English

• It refers to an item previously mentioned.

• It is modified by a superlative or ordinal number.

• It refers to an entire type or species.

• There is only one of something or it is fully specified by the context or background

• It is followed by “of + noun phrase”.

1.1.2 ARTICLES - EXERCISES

Fill in an article where necessary

One form of listening to (1)……. music is by using CDs.

(2)……. CD is (3)……. digital system.

Fill in an article where necessary

1. Smoothing signal is equivalent to decomposing signal into several signals.

Writing Professional English, Leonardo da Vinci Project, VUT v Brně 2000

Use the, a/an or nothing

Do you know how to operate …. device?

.... English people drink a lot of tea.

…. English people I know drink a lot of tea.

At university she studied .... law. (science)

Their activities are fully in accordance with …. law. (a particular act)

We carried out …. experiment.

…. first/the last experiment was carried out in 2000.

…. best results were achieved by our research group in 2008.

They use …. shock-proof material.

I like working with …. students.

I like …. students I work with.

The healing power of electricity

Writing Professional English, Leonardo da Vinci project, VUT 2005

1.2.1 THE PASSIVE

be + past participle (third form of a verb)

• The laboratory is cleaned every day.

Only transitive verbs can be used in the passive.

Transitive verbs have objects.

Intransitive verbs don´t have objects.

• The operator has repaired the device.

Examples of verbs with two objects

• He gave us valuable information.

• They reported their conclusions to him.

• They reported him their solutions.

Passive verbs - to say what happens to the subject

• A new university campus has been built

Active verbs - to say what the subject does

• They have built a new university campus.

We use the passive to achieve

• Objectivity and neutral approach

Information and facts more important than personal opinions

The passive is commonly used in technical and scientific writing.