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Published in IET Generation, Transmission & Distribution

Received on 11th October 2007
Revised on 10th September 2008
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd:20080456

ISSN 1751-8687

New principle for transmission line protection

using phase portrait plane
M.M. Eissa*
Department of Electrical Engineering, Helwan University, Helwan, Cairo, Egypt
*Projects Department, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, P.O. Box 80200, The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
E-mail: mmmeissa@yahoo.com

Abstract: Phase portraits are a powerful mathematical model for describing oriented textures. An isotangent-
based approach in a phase portrait is introduced to discriminate between internal and external faults. The
scheme described is new and is a different approach to the problem of relaying ground faults on transmission
lines. The geometrical theory of differential equations is used to drive a symbol set on the basis of the visual
appearance of phase portraits. The ‘phase portrait’ of the instantaneous rate of change of current against
voltage gives valuable information on the transient and stability characteristics of system configuration with
high fault resistance and shunt susceptance of the transmission lines. Hundred percent of the protected zone
is successfully discriminated rather than the external zone. An additional parameter that is considered, which
is sometimes neglected in protection studies, is the shunt susceptance of the transmission lines.

1 Introduction techniques are based on the voltage and current at one

Transmission line protection is generally regarded as the
most complex of all relaying applications. This is because of
the distances involved and the variety of possibilities that
exist in system configuration and opportunities for both
correct and incorrect operations. A distance relay is
designed to only operate for faults occurring between the
relay location and the selected reach point, and remains
stable for all faults outside this region or zone [1].
In developing distance relay equations, the fault under
consideration is assumed to be ideal (i.e. zero resistance)
[2–10]. In reality, the fault resistance will be between two
high-voltage conductors, whereas for ground faults, the fault
path may consist of an electrical arc between the high-voltage
conductor and a grounded object. The fault resistance
introduces an error in the fault distance estimate and, hence,
may create an unreliable operation of a distance relay [11].
The impedance seen by the relay is not proportional to the
distance between the relay and the fault, in general, because
of the presence of resistance at the fault location.
Some techniques for arcing faults detection and fault
distance estimation are introduced in [12, 13]. The
terminal in the time domain. The overhead line parameters
and arc voltage amplitude during fault are given. The
techniques have optimal application in the medium-voltage
networks and symmetrical faults. Some techniques [14 – 19]
are suggested for enhancing the high fault resistance
problem. These techniques accommodate this problem by
shaping the trip zone of the distance relay, to ensure that
the apparent impedance is included inside the trip zone.
New techniques using high-frequency components of the
fault-generated transient signals are also studied in [20 – 22].
Distance-based techniques are applied using the current
and voltage at the relaying point by differential equations.
The fundamental assumption used in this approach is that
the transmission line can be represented by either a lumped-
series impedance or a single PI-section. An additional
parameter that is sometimes neglected in protection studies
is the shunt susceptance of the transmission lines. For
the EHV lines, the shunt susceptance is rather large. If the
susceptance is omitted from the study, the results are
considered to be errors.
In this paper, a new isotangent-based approach in a phase
portrait to discriminate between an internal and external fault
is introduced. Phase portrait analysis is done to obtain full

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insight into the fault trajectory during the steady state and
transients concerning the effect of high fault resistance and
shunt susceptance. The geometrical theory of differential
equations to describe the transmission line during fault
is obtained. The instantaneous rate of change of current
against voltage in a phase portrait is given. Hundred percent
of the protected zone is successfully discriminated.
2 Phase portraits
Phase portraits provide an analytical tool to study systems of
first-order differential equations [23]. The method has
proved to be useful in characterising oriented texture [24,
25]. Let x_ and y_ denote two differentiable functions of
time t, related by a system of first-order differential
equations as
x_ ¼ F (x, y) ¼ cx þ dy þ f (1)
y_ ¼ G(x, y) ¼ ax þ by þ e (2)
to describe a set of oriented textures comprising saddles,
star-nodes, nodes, improper nodes, centres and spirals
(Fig. 1). Equations (1) and (2) can be represented in matrix
notation as
X~_ ¼ A
~ X~ þ B
~ (3)
information about the flow pattern. The critical points of a
system with differential equations (1) and (2) are the
intersection points of the following equations
F (x, y) ¼ cx þ dy þ f ¼ 0 (4)
G(x, y) ¼ ax þ by þ e ¼ 0 (5)
The purpose of the phase portrait analysis is to obtain full
insight for the fault trajectory during the steady state and
transients concerning the effect of high fault resistance and
shunt susceptance.
3 Phase portrait classification
The elements of the characteristic matrix are used to
determine six flow patterns if the characteristic matrix is
non-singular. The two classifications may be added for
singular characteristic matrices. The eight classifications
derived from the characteristic matrix are no-flow, constant
flow, star-node, node, improper node, saddle, centre and
spiral. Some of these shapes are shown in Fig. 1 and can
be obtained as follows:
Node: the components x(t) and y(t) are exponentials that
either simultaneously converge to, or diverge from, the
fixed point coordinates x0 and y0 .

where Saddle: the components x(t) and y(t) are exponentials,

      whereas one of the components [either x(t) or y(t)]
~ x ~ ¼ c d ~ f converges to the fixed point, and the other diverges from it.
X ¼ , A and B ¼
y ab e
Spiral: the components x(t) and y(t) are exponentially
~ is the characteristic matrix of the system.
A modulated sinusoidal functions – the resulting streamline
forms a spiral curve.
A point at which both x_ and y_ are zero is said to be a critical
point (xo , yo). It means that there is no flow orientation at this Throughout the paper, a set of differential equations, which
point. If there is only one critical point, it carries the position describe the transmission line during the fault, is given. The
different events of fault condition can be described by
the phase trajectory, which passes through the phase
portraits. The transition between different phase portraits
is determined since phase trajectories are continuous lines.
The isotangent-based approach in the phase portrait will
successfully discriminate between the internal and external
faults, as will be explained in Section 7.

4 Conventional problems
Fig. 2 shows the tripping quadrilateral characteristic in the
case of high fault resistance. It will be noted that the
resistance of the fault arc takes the fault impedance outside
the relay’s tripping characteristic and, hence, it does not
detect this condition. Alternatively, it is only picked up
either by zone 2 or zone 3 in which case tripping will be
unacceptably delayed.

The infeed effect can be seen from Fig. 3, where there are
Figure 1 Phase portraits for a system of linear first-order other lines and sources feeding current to a fault at F from bus
differential equations R. The relays at bus S are set beyond this fault point to F 0. As

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Figure 4 Protection equivalent for an EHV line (n ¼ fault

location on protected line as portion of the total)

Figure 2 Under reach of the distance relays (R F, fault

impedance; RS , Z1, quadrilateral characteristics and ZL line
impedance)
the infeed increases in proportional to IS , the apparent impedance
increases. Since this impedance, as ‘measured’ by the distance
relay, is larger than the actual, the reach of the relay decreases;
that is, the relay protects less of the line as infeed increases.
The following equation proves that the voltage at bus S
is related to the current at bus S by the equation ES ¼ ZL IS þ
ZR (IS þ IR ) and the apparent impedance seen by the relay at S
is Zapp ¼ ES =IS ¼ ZL þ ZR (IS þ IR )=IS the current IR , the
contribution to the fault from the tap, is known as the infeed
current and causes error in measurements.
The paper introduces a new approach on the basis of the
instantaneous rate of change of current against voltage using
the phase portrait. The relay uses one end transmission line
data taking in consideration all fault events such as high
fault resistance and remote-end infeed. The new approach
discriminates precisely between internal and external faults on
the basis of the isotangent lines.
Fig. 4 shows the protection equivalent for an EHV
line. The length of the transmission and the effect of the
line susceptance will be variables in this case. The
transmission line is divided into two sections, separated at
the point of fault application. Both segments of the
transmission line are represented as a long line equivalent
PI-section.
6 Development of the algorithm
As explained above, a set of differential equations to describe
the transmission line with the susceptance effect during the
fault will be given. Fig. 4 shows the transmission line
configuration with the shunt capacitance and the fault
resistance. It is assumed that the magnitude of any arc
resistance Rf is small and that the effect of the branched
capacitance can be neglected. Therefore the circuit equation
can be described as follows
d(is  ic )
v ¼ nR(is  ic ) þ nL þ Rf (is  ic þ ir ) (6)
dt

5 Transmission line model Rearranging (6)

The technique takes a more fundamental approach with
regard to the inclusion of high-frequency oscillations that  
d(is  ic ) v R Rf R
can occur during faults. This can be achieved by including ¼  þ (is  ic )  f (ir ) (7)
dt nL L nL nL
the effect of capacitance of the transmission line using a
single PI-section transmission model.
The current ic is the capacitive current flowing through the
lumped equivalent capacitance at relay location (S), and it
is related simply to the voltage at the relaying point by
noting that

C dv
ic ¼ (8)
n dt

Rearranging (8)

Figure 3 Effect of the infeed on impedance measured by dv n n

¼ (i  ic ) þ (is ) (9)
distance relays dt C s C

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From (7) and (9) in the matrix form

0 1 0   10 1
d(is  ic ) R Rf 1 (is  ic )
 þ
B dt C B L nL nL C B C
@ dv A¼@ A@ A
n
dt 0 v
C
0 R 1 (10)
f
i
B nL r C
þ@B C
A
n
is
C

Equation (10) describes the characteristic of the transmission

line. To study the dynamics of the transmission line, Rf , L, R
and n are changed. For every given Rf , the corresponding
phase portrait is  ic  v is shown in Fig. 5. Also, for every
given n, the corresponding phase portrait is  ic  v is
shown in Fig. 6. The phase portrait of the external and
internal faults is seen in Fig. 7. Figure 6 Phase portrait of i s – ic  v for different fault
location and SLG fault on phase-A
As shown in Figs. 5 – 7, the instantaneous current against
voltage of (10) gives valuable information on the transient 7 Isotangent-based approach
and stability characteristics at different fault conditions. A
focus on the transient part is circled to show that valuable An isotangent curve is the locus of points in a flow field,
information and features can be obtained from the phase which share the same flow orientation [26, 27]. All curves
portrait. are always straight lines for non-singular, two-dimensional
first-order phase portraits. Also, the relationship between
the flow orientation and the slope of the isotangent lines is
From the recognisable shapes in the portrait, some fault
unique for every fault condition along the transmission
events can be easily identified. However, other fault events
lines. The following section can prove these facts.
have valuable information, but the phase portrait is not easily
identified. For this reason, another phase portrait produced
from is  ic  v is used to assist the discrimination between Since the systems of (9) and (7) corresponding to (2) and
different fault events, specifically the internal and external (1), respectively, are linear in the parameter space, parameter
faults. The isotangent-based approach in a phase portrait asset is unique for any given flow pattern. For a
to discriminate between the internal and external faults is
used.

Figure 5 Phase portrait of is – ic  v for different R (R ¼ 0 Figure 7 Phase portrait illustration between internal and
and R ¼ 100) and SLG fault on phase-A external faults and SLG fault on phase-A

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two-dimensional first-order system, the tangent is given by
y_ v_
tan(w(x, y)) ¼ tan(w(is  ic , v)) ¼ ¼
x_ _i s  _i c
(11)
G(x, y) ax þ by þ e
¼ ¼
F (x, y) cx þ dy þ f
if tan w ¼ b (11) becomes
(a  c b)x þ (b  db)y þ (e  f b) ¼ 0 (12)
which is a straight line for any given w. Since the line
equation is a function of b, every straight line is unique for
~ Rt (n(1  n)R2  X 0 X 00 ) þ Xt (2n(1  n)RX þ X 000 )
a given point set in a given flow pattern. For the matrix A
given in (10), there is a unique straight line with a unique
isotangent, which depends on the system parameters.
The paper presents a phase portrait on the basis of the
instantaneous rate of change of current against voltage, that
is, (d(is  ic ))=dt  dv=dt rather than the instantaneous
current and voltage (is  ic  v). The phase portrait gives
recognisable different isotangents for different cases of
internal faults.
The X/R ratio of the transmission line is fixed. The
(d(is  ic ))=dt  dv=dt portrait can be considered as a locus
of the instantaneous Z._ The portrait gives more visualisation
of the instantaneous part of the Z. _ The portrait in such a
case is concerned with the rate of change of the impedance
P Equation (15) has the
in thePtransient part, which is highly affected by the X
and R of the transmission line configuration at a point
(i.e. equivalent of X/equivalent of R at the point of fault).
This ratio can be calculated from the input impedance at the
fault point as will be explained later.
In case of external faults, the phase portrait gives an almost
fixed isotangent. Thus, the process of discrimination between
internal and external faults can be easily identified.
P P
The isotangent given in (11) depends on the X= R
ratio (i.e. equivalent of X/equivalent of R at the point of
fault) of system configuration. This can be easily calculated
as the input
P impedance
P at the fault point. The isotangent
or the X = R ratio is changed during internal faults
based on the fault P location.
P During external faults, the
isotangent or the X = R ratio seen at the fault point is
almost fixed. Consequently, the isotangent in the phase
portrait during internal faults is different from the
isotangent in case of external faults.
To prove this fact, a simplified configuration given in
Fig. 8 is considered. For a three-phase transmission line
operating at a certain voltage and having an impedance
connected to the generating station busbar, for a certain
fault at Fi , the input impedance is calculated using
Thevenin’s as
ZinFi ¼ (n(R þ jX ) þ jXg1 )==((1  n)(R þ jX ) þ jXg2 ) (13)
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Figure 8 Input impedance seen at fault point for internal
and external faults
P P
Equation (13) has the X= R ratio determined as
Xt (n(1  n)R2  X 0 X 00 ) þ Rt (2n(1  n)RX þ X 000 )
(14)
where Rt ¼ nR þ (1  n)R,
00
Xt ¼ nX þ Xg1 þ (1  n)X000
þ
Xg2 , X 0 ¼ (nX þ Xg1 ), X ¼ ((1  n)X þ Xg2 ) P and XP¼
2n(1  n)RX þ (1  n)RXg1 þ (1  n)RXg2 . The X = R
ratio given above becomes totally different if the fault
location is changed along the transmission line, and that
can be easily recognised using the phase portrait based on
the rate of change of the current against voltage.
Similarly, the input impedance Zin for an external fault at
Fe can be calculated as follows
ZinF e ¼ (R þ jX ) þ jXg1 )==( jXg2 ) (15)
P P
X= R ratio determined as
R2 þ (X þ Xg1 )(X þ Xg1 þ Xg2 )
(16)
RXg2
P P
The
P PX = R ratio given in (16) is different from the
X = R ratio given in (14). For extra and ultra high-
voltage transmission lines, the installed source capacities
located at the sending and receiving ends of the TL are
almost constant. For an internal fault along the transmission
line, the value of the (14) changes according to the fault
location and, consequently, the isotangent is also changed.
However, for an external fault along the transmission line,
the source capacity at the far end (Fig. 8) will have very high
source capacity compared with the transmission line
parameters. The rate of change of the impedance in the
phase portrait during the transient part depends on the
P P
X = R ratio given in (16), which is totally different
from that in (14) and almost with a fixed value.
Consequently, the isotangent in the phase portrait is also
different and fixed for external faults.
Figs. 9–11 show the instantaneous rate of change of
current against voltage using a phase portrait for the same
fault conditions as shown in Figs. 5 – 7. As shown in these
figures, the isotangent for different cases of fault events is
different, and the process of discrimination is easy to be
identified.
53
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Figure 11 Phase portrait illustration between internal and

Figure 9 Phase portrait based on rate of change for
external faults in case of rate of change-based portrait
different fault resistances (R ¼ 0 and R ¼ 100)

8 Power system configuration

The criterion for the protection relay to initiate a trip signal The power system used for testing the proposed new method
is set. For the studied configuration system given in Fig. 8, (16) is a part of 500 kV power systems shown in Fig. 13. The
is used to set up the relay. Thus, the isotangents in the case of system includes two generating stations. A relay is located
internal faults respond up or down away from the threshold at Bus S as shown in Fig. 13. The voltage and current
boundary THR. In this respect, the isotangent for external
faults has a unique value equal to THR. This criterion
successfully recognises the internal and external faults, and
100% of the transmission line is protected. THR can be
easily calculated as given in (11) from the slop of the line
after fault inception.

Fig. 12 shows the difference between the conventional

distance relay with three zones and the new technique
based on the phase portrait principle.

Figure 12 Zone of operation between the distance relay

and rate of change using phase portrait
a Distance relay
b The rate of change using phase portrait

Figure 10 Phase portrait based on rate of change for Figure 13 Studied configuration system and different
different fault locations events of faults

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Table 1 Different cases of fault conditions Fig. 14 shows the phase portrait of the rate of change of the
current against voltage for different cases of fault conditions
Case Fault resistance, V Fault location, km mentioned in (Table 1). The isotangent in the case of an
F1 (SLG) 200 50 external fault is almost fixed. The suggested technique gives
the solutions for the symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults
F2 (SLG) 0 150 with solid and fault resistances. The threshold boundary
F3 (SLG) 100 150 THR for 100% of the transmission line is set. As shown in
the figure, all internal faults rather than the external faults
F4 (SLG) 0 240 have different isotangents (i.e. the isotangent in the case of
F5 (SLG) 0 10 (external) internal faults lies up and down away from the THR
boundary). This indicates that the relay is able to distinguish
F6 (SLG) 50 10 (external) successfully between internal and external faults.
F7 (2LG) 0 50 (external)
F8 (SLG) 200 50 (external) 9 Conclusions
The paper presented a technique for discrimination between
internal and external faults using a phase portrait. The paper
signals are the inputs to the relays, and 250 km is the line
used the geometrical theory of differential equations to drive a
length. The results are described on a phase portrait using
symbol set on the basis of the visual appearance of the phase
the (d(is  ic ))=dt  dv=dt diagram. The relay is set to
portraits. The ‘phase portrait’ of the instantaneous rate of
protect 100% of the line (250 km); it forms the first zone
change of current against voltage gives valuable information
of the relay. The power system is modelled and different
on the transient and stability characteristics of the system
symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults with solid and fault
configuration with high fault resistance. The paper showed
resistance are simulated using the ATP-EMTP.
that for non-singular, two-dimensional first-order phase
portraits, every isotangent curve is a unique straight line. The
The performance of the proposed technique was evaluated results showed the flow patterns for different internal faults
for different types of internal and external faults, fault with different isotangent lines. In case of external faults, a
location and fault resistance. Results showed faults are unique isotangent line is given. The discrimination between
taken with a fault resistance ranged from 0 to 300 V. internal and external faults can be identified. Furthermore, the
Table 1 shows the different cases of the fault conditions. impact of high fault resistance and remote-end feed is
The THR is adjusted using (16). The parameters of the assessed. The results indicated different events with types of
studied configuration system is given in the Appendix. fault condition, fault resistance and fault location using the
phase trajectory which passes through the phase portrait.
Hundred percent of the protected zone is successfully
discriminated rather than the external zone.

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11 Appendix
The parameters of the three-phase 500 kV transmission line
R0 ¼ 0:1896 V=km
R1 ¼ 0:018 V=km
L0 ¼ 3:456 mH=km
L1 ¼ 0:936 mH=km
C0 ¼ 0:00828 mF=km
C1 ¼ 0:01134 mF=km
The source capacity rating is
GVA ¼ 10 (sending end)
GVA ¼ 6 (receiving end)
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2009, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 49– 56
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd:20080456