CHEMISTRY

Isotopes of hydrogen

Atoms and Molecules  Tritium has two neutrons.

 The term ‘atom’ was introduced by Ostward,  Isobars are atoms of different elements having
means indivisible. same mass number and different atomic numbers.
 The first atomic theory was postulated by John Eg: Argon - 40 and Calcium 40
Dalton in 1808, a poor English School master.  Isotones : are atoms of different elements having
 The term molecule was introduced by Avogadro. different atomic number, and mass number, but
 The nuclear model of Atom was first introduced they should have same number of neutrons
by J.J. Thomson. eg: 31H and 4 2and 42He, both Contain two
 Mass Number is the sum of number of protons neutrons.
and neutrons present in the nucleous of a of atom.  Nuclear Isomers : Thes are the different types of
 Atomic Number is derived from Nuclear charge atoms of the same element having different
of atom, hence it will be the number of protons. radioactivity constants.
 Electron is the fundamental particle of matter or  The term ‘isotope’ was introduced by body.
nature.  The element Tin (Sn) has largest variety atoms.
 Heaviest sub-atomic particle is Neutron (Isotopes)
 Electrons and positrons have same mass and
opposite charges.
 Neutrinos and Antineutrons have to charge sad Ores & Metals
no mass.
Ore Metal Chemical formula
 The dual natureof electron was proposed byde-Broglie.
 The dual nature of elections was experimentally Iron Pyrites Iron FeS
provided by I.H. Germer. Copper Pyrites Copper CuFeS2
 Nucleons are the sum of protons and Neutrons Litharge Led PbO
presnt in an atom. Pyrolusite Manganese MnO2
 The radius of nucleons of an atom varies in the Pitch blende Uranium U3O8
order 10–13 cm. Monozite Thorium ThO2
 The smallest atom known is Helium. Serusite Lead PbCO3
 The simplest atom is Hydrogen. Gypsum Calcium CaSO4.2H2O
 The most abundant element in the Universe is
Limestone Calcium CaCO3
Hydrogen (2nd Helium)
Dolomite Calcium CaCO3MgCO3
 Isotopes are the different type of atoms of the
Fluorspar Calcium CaF2
same element to having same atomic number and
different mass number. Copper glance Copper Cu2S
 Protium has no neutrons. Malachite Copper CuCO3 Cu(OH)2
 Deuterium has one neutrons. Zinc blende Zinc ZnS

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 Allotropes are the forms of the same element with  Anode rays are discovered by Goldstein.
different physical appearances.  Neutron was discovered by James Chadwick.
eg: Red Phsophorus and white phosphorus  Cathode rays are used in Television.
oxygen and ozone.  The atomic size is about 105 times larger than the
 The most complex atom available from with is nuclear size.
Ursinium - 238  Wavelength violet (VIBGYOR) is 3800 A0 - 4300 A0.
 Valency is the combining capacity of one atom to  Wavelength Red is 6500 A0 –
another. 7600 A0
 Noble element have zero valency.  The most valid atomict heory
 Hydrogen shows univalency. is ‘‘Wave mechanical modelof
 Sodium and Potassium shows Univalency. atom’’ suggested by Max
 The common valency of carbon is four. Planck.
 Hydrogen Producers largest number of  When gaseous atoms or
compounds (2nd - Carbon) moelcules are heated they emit
electromagnetic radiations. Max Planck
 Cathode rays are discovered by Julius Plucker.

Some Important Elements

Some important elements Atomic Number Discoverer Year of discovery
Barium ........................................ 56 ..................... Sir Humphry Davy........................................ 1808
Boron .......................................... 5 ..................... Humphry Davy, J.L Gay Lussac, L.J.Thenard .... 1808
Calcium ...................................... 20 ..................... Sir Humphry Davy........................................ 1808
Carbon ........................................ 6 ..................... Known to ancients
Chlorine ..................................... 17 ..................... Carl Wilhelm Scheele .................................... 1774
Copper ....................................... 29 ..................... Known to ancients
Fluorine ....................................... 9 ..................... Henry Moissan ............................................ 1886
Gold ........................................... 79 ..................... Known to ancients
Helium ......................................... 2 ..................... Sir William, Ramsay, Nils, Langlet, P.T. Clene ... 1895
Hydrogen .................................... 1 ..................... Henry Cavendish ......................................... 1766
Iodine ........................................ 53 ..................... Bernard Courtois .......................................... 1811
Iron ............................................ 26 ..................... Known to ancients
Lead ........................................... 82 ..................... Known to ancients
Magnesium ................................ 12 ..................... Sir Humphry Davy........................................ 1808
Mercury ..................................... 20 ..................... Known to ancients
Nitrogen ...................................... 7 ..................... Daniel Rutherford ......................................... 1772
Oxygen ....................................... 8 ..................... Joseph Priestly ............................................. 1774
Potassium .................................. 19 ..................... Sir Humphry Davy........................................ 1807
Silicon ........................................ 14 ..................... Jons Berzelius .............................................. 1832
Silver .......................................... 47 ..................... Known to ancients
Sodium ....................................... 11 ..................... Sir Humphry Davy........................................ 1807
Sulphur ...................................... 16 ..................... Known to ancients
Tin ............................................. 50 ..................... Known to ancients
Uranium ..................................... 92 ..................... Martin Klaproth ........................................... 1789
Zinc ........................................... 30 .................. Andreas Marggrat .......................................... 1746

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 Spectroscope is an instrument which analyses th
wavelength of emitted radiations.
 The radioactive liquid element is Francium.
 The radioactive gaseous element is Radio.
 In stationery state, the energy associated with
an electron remains constant.
 The atomic number is first calculate by Moseley.
 The most reactive element - Floruned
 The densest element - Osmium
 The lightest element - Hydrogen
 The lightest metal - Lithium
Properties of Compounds
 The common refrigerents are Ammonia and Freon.
 Non stick Kitchenwaves are coated with Teflon.
 Teflon is chemically Tetra flouroethylene
 Photographic films are coated with Silver Bromide.
 Seeding of Cloud is done by using Silver Iodine.
 Phosphine (PH3) has the smell of rother eggs
 Bleaching Powder is chemically calcium chloride
hypo chlorite (CaOCl3)
 Bleaching Powder is a mixed salt.
 Egg shell, Marble, Limestone etc contains Calcium
Carbonate.
 Green house effect is created by Carbodioxide,
methene, watervapour etc.
 Dry kold is Dry ice, which is solid Carbondioxide.
 Zinc Phosphide and Arsenic sulphide are used
as Rat poison (rodenticide)
 Laughing gas is Nitrous Oxide.
 Benzyl chloride era be used as tear gas.
 Sodium peroxide is used as airpurifier in
Submarines.
 Tin Amalgrm (Sn + Hg) is used to coat on mirror.
Bhopal Gas Tragedy was due to the leakage of
MIC (Methyl Isocyanate)
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Euriched Uranium is Uranium - 235
 Paper is cheically cellulose.
 The most abundant carbohydrae (organic
compound) present in nature is cellulose.
 Cellulose is not absorbedby humanbody, due to
the absence of cellulose in body.
 Rust is chemically hydrated ferric oxide. (Fe2O3.
x. H2O)
 Freezing mixture contains Calcium chloride and
sodium chloride.
 Flourosis is due to the excess intake of Fluoride
salts along with drinking water.
 Flourosis is first reported in India in 1938 on
Nelore Distt of AP.
 Calcium oxychloride is used as fungicide in pepper
 Aluminium is used to make CDs.
 Aluminium and its Compounds are amphoteric.
 Amphoteric means shows the properties of Acid
and Base.
 Oxides are binary compound of Oxygen and
metals or non metals.
 Acidic oxides show the properties of Acids.
eg: Carbon dioxide, sulphur dis oxide, phosphorus
Pentoxide etc.
 Basic oxides are generally metallic oxides.
eg: Calcium oxide, Sodium, peroxide, magnesium,
oxide, etc.
 Neutral oxides are neither acidic nor basic.
 eg: 1. Nictrous oxide (N2O)  Antipyretics are the chemicals used to bring down
2. Carbon Monoxide (Co) body temperature.
 Amphoteric oxides are showing both the eg: Paracetsmol, Aspirin
properties of acids and bases.  Disinfectnants : Chemical used to kill micro-
eg: Aluminium organisms.
oxide eg: Phenol
Zinc oxide  Antibirtics : Chemicals extracted from
Berylym oxide microorganisms (fangi, mold, bacteria) and can
 Aspirin is called be used to distroy some other micro-organisms.
Wonder Drug. eg: Streptomycin, Penicillin, Chloroamphenicol.
 Aspirin is  Antiseptics : Chemicals that can be applied to
chemically Acetyl living tissues to destroy micro-organisms.
Salicyclic Acid. Felix Hoffman eg: Dettol
 Ordinary Portland  The element which is used to coat the
cement (OPC) contains the major component photocopying drum of Xerox is selenium.
Calcium oxide.  Silicon, Germanium etc used in the manufacture
 While paints are made by using Titanium dioxide. of transistors and IC chips due to their semi
 The whitest compound ever known is Titsnium conductivity.
dioxide.
 Titanium is referred as Alloys
wondermetal.
Alloys (teml-k-¦-c-w) Components Uses
 Tranquilizers are
chemicals used as Invar Iron, Nickel To make clock pendulam
medicine for mental Nichrome Nickel, Chromium, To make heating
disorderness. Iron elements
 Barbiutric Acid and its
salts are used a Phospher Bronze Copper, Tin (Sn) To make springs and
Tranquilizers. Phosphorus (P) suspension filaments
in electrical instruments
 Sweetest sugar is
Fructose present in Type metal Copper (Cu),
Fruits. Lead (Pb), To make types
 Honey contains Tin (Sn),
glucose and Fructose Antimony (Sb)
 Rocket propellent
Sterling Silver Copper, Silver To make silver coins
contains fuel and
oxidiser. Coinage Silver Copper, Nickel To make coins
 Rocket fuel is liquid
Gun metal Copper, Zinc (Zn), To make barrels of Gun
Hydrogen.
Tin (Sn)
 Fund of the future is
liquid Hydrogen. Constantan Copper (Cu), To make electrical
 Analgesics are the Nickel (Ni) instruments
drugs used for relieving German silver Copper (Cu), To make utensils,
pain. Nickel (Ni), resistance wire etc.
eg: Aspirin Zinc (Zn)

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CFCs are called miracel chemicals, which destroy
ozone layer.
 Watarges is a mixture of Carbon monoxide sad
Hydrogen used as Industrial fuel.
 Producer gas is a mixture of Carbon-monoxide
and Nitrogen used as ‘Industrial Fuel’.
 Coke is the refined form of coal (contains the
element carbon)
 Bathing salt is sodium carbonate used to reduce
the hardness of water.
 Baking Powder is mixture of sodiumbicarbonate
and Paratric Acid salt.
Perodic Table
 There are 118 elements known today, out by
which 90 are naturally existing.
 The first man-made element is Technicium (atomic
no: 43)
 Promethium is also a men made element (atomic
no: 63)
 Modern Periodic Table is based on atomic
numbers of elements.
 Menoeleev’s periodic Table is based on atomic
weights.
 The father of periodic table is mendeleev.
 The most ironic compound is caessium flouride.
 Most electronegative element is Flourine.
 Most electropositive element is Francium or
Caessium.
 The element which shows hights electrons-
affinity is chloride.
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 Noble gas are listed in group 18 of modern
periodic table.
 Enemy of copper is Sulphur.
 Non-ferrous metal is Aluminium.
 The most abundant metal in earths crust is
Aluminium
 The most abundant element present is earth’s
crust’s oxgyen.
 The metal which regulates Blood Pressure in
human beings is sodium.
 The metal related to arthertis is Potassium.
 The metal present in Insulin is zinc.
 Zinc is concentrated on the eyes of human beings.
 The most abundant helide present on earth’s crust
in Flouride.
 Liquid metals at Room Temperature are
Mercury, Gallium, Caessium,
Francium, Eka Mercury
 Liquid non-metal at room-
temperature is Bromine.
 The non-metal, which shows
electric conductivity Graphite
(Carbon) Mendeleev
Some important compounds and
its discoverers
Carbondioxide ............................ Joseph Black
Benzene ................................ Michael Faraday
Morphine ... Friderich Sertumer (Germany, 1805)
Aspirin ........................ Dreser (Germany, 1889)
Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloro Ethane (DDT) ......
Paul Muller (Germany, 1939)
Carbon tetra chloride ............ Michael Faraday
Carbon hexa chloride ............ Michael Faraday
Ozone .... Christian Friedrich Schonbein (1840)
Carbon Monoxide (first prepared) ...................
JMF de Lassone (France, 1778)
Carbon monoxide (first identified the composition)
William Cruikshank (England, 1800)
Nitrous Oxide .......................... Humphry Davy
 The element with highest melting point is Carbon
(diamond) (4000k)
 The metal with highest melting point is Tungston.
(3868K)
 The most harmful metal to humanbeings is Lead.
 Lead has poorest electrical conductivity silver
has highest electrical sad Thermal conductivity.
 Metals kept under kerosene are sodium,
Potassium, Caessium etc.
 Iodine is also kept under kersone.
 Lithium is kept by coverng with paraffin wave.
 Metallurgy is the verious process involved in
the extraction of metal from its ores.
 Ore is the mineral from which the metal is
conveniently and economically extracted
 Ore has definite composition (formula)
 Clay is the mineral of Aluminium.
 Bauxite and cryolite are the main ores of
Aluminium.
 Sulphide ores are purified by Froth-floatation
process.
 Tinstone, Pyrolusite etc are purified by magnetic
separation.
 Calcination is the process of heating the ore
below its melting point in abscence fair to remove
volatile impurities like , Arsenic etc.
 Roasting is the process in which the ore is heated
Branches of Chemistry
 Biochemistry is the study of the substances
and chemical process which occur in living or-
ganisms.
 Histochemistry is a science that provides
information about the distribution and
activities of chemical components in tissues.
 Organic chemistry is the branch of
chemistry which deals with the study of
carbon compounds.
 Inorganic chemistry deals with the
study of compounds other than carbon
compounds.
 Polymer chemistry deals with chain like mol-
ecules formed by linking smaller molecules and
with plastics which consist of chainlink mol-
ecules often combined with other materials.
below its melting point in prescence of air oxidise
the impurities.
eg: Carbon, Sulphur etc removed as their gaseous
oxides.
 Gongue is the impurity present in the ore.
 Generally gangue is silica.
 Flux is the substance used to neutralise and
remove gangue a slag.
 Acidic flux is silica.
 Basic flux is limestone.
 Thomas slag is calcium phosphate.
 Metals extracted from sea-water are magnesium
adn sodium.
 Metals generally accumulated in Living
Organisms -------- Vanedium, Potassium.
 Most abundant metal present in developed
animals ......... Calcium.
 Most abundant element presence in our body
..................... oxygen.
 Most abundant compound present in animals
..................... Water.
 Magnesium is concentrated in chloroplast.
 Major metals present in chloroplast are
magnesium, manganese, copper and Iron.
 Major elements present in sea-water are chlorine,
sodium, magnesium, sulphur, calcium, potassium,
carbon etc.
 Synthetic chemistry involves combining
chemical elements and compounds to dupli-
cate naturally occuring substances or to pro-
duce compounds that do not occur naturally.
 Radio chemistry involves the identification
and production of radioactive elements and
their use in the study of chemical processes.
 Physical chemistry interprets chemical pro-
cesses in terms of pysical properties of matter
such as mass, motion, heat, electricity and ra-
diation.
 Radiation chemistry concerns the chemical
effects of high energy radiation on substances.
 Stereo chemistry studies the arrangement of
atoms in molecules and the properties that fol-
low from such arrangements.
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 The halogens extracted from sea-water are
chlorine and Bromine.
 Metals extracted by self-oxidation and raduction
method.
1. Mercury 2. Copper 3. Lead
 The atmosphere mainly consists of Nitrogen
(78.09%) and oxygen(20.95%)
 Lithosphere is the solid phaseof the earth said
in made of different types of rocks.
 Lithosphere is the major source of metals.
 Most abundant eliments of earth’s crust are
silicon and oxygen - (about 75%)
 Core is the central portion of earth.
 Metallic Core valuable metals like manganese,
Iron, Coballo, Nickel, Copper, Irdium, Platinum,
gold etc.
 Sulphide Layer contains phsophorus, sulphur,
zinc, cadmium, Tin, Antimony, Bismuth, Lead,
Mercury etc.
 High purity metal is prepared by
1. Ven-Arked Process (Titanium)
2. Zone- Refining (Germanium, Silicon)
Zone- Refining (Germanium, Silicon)
Some important minerals and their major places of
occurence in India.
1. Nitre (Potassium) - Bengal & Haryana
2. Magnesite, Dolomite (Megnesium) – Tamil Nadu
3. Gypsum, Limestone (Calcium) – Rajasthan, Tamil
Nadu, J & K, M.P.
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4. Bauxite (Aluminium) – Orissa, Tamil Nadu, J & K
5. Tinstone (Tin) – Bihar, Orissa
6. Chromite (Chromium) – Bihar, Karnataka, Orissa,
Tamil Nadu.
7. Pyrolusite (Manganese) – Bihar, Maharashtra,
Karnataka.
8. Haematite (Iron) – Bihar, Karnataka
9. Cobaltite (Cobalt) – Rajasthan
10. Copper pyrities – Bihar, M.P, Orissa
11. Native Gold (Gold) – Karnataka, A.P
12. Zinc Blende (Zinc) – Rajasthan
Acids
 The acid present in vinegar is acetic acid.
 Oranges and lemons contain citric acid.
 Curd contains lactic acid.
 Old name of hydrochloric acid (HCl) is Muriatic acid.
 Tamarind contains tartaric acid.
 Tea contains tannic acid.
 Urine contains uric acid.
 Ants contain formic acid in their body.
 Sulphuric acid is called the 'King of Chemicals.'
 Sulphuric acid is mainly manufactured by con-
tact process.
 The chemical name of aspirin is acetylsalicylic
acid.
 Oil of Vitriol is sulphuric acid.
 The acid used in lead storage batteries is
sulphuric acid.
 Earliest known acid is acetic acid.
 Aqua fortis is Neitric Acid.
 To purify gold, it should be treated with conc
entrated Nitric acid.
 The acid that can be used as a hypnotic is :
 Vitamin C is chemically ascorbic acid
 Dilute phenol is called Carbolic Acid.
 Strongest inorganic) acid is Perchloric acid.
 Weakest (inorganic) acid is Hydrocysnic Acid.
 The acid functions as digesting agent in our body
is hydrochloric acid.
 Apple contains ascorbic acid and malic acid.
 Pure milk contains no acid but sour milk con-
tains Lactic acid.
 Boric Acid is a mild antiseptic, used a eye-lotion
 Cola contains phosphoric acid.
 Ordinary soda water id chemically Cabonic Acid.
pH values  The domestic cooking gas consists mostly of liq-
 The pH scale is introduced by Sorreenson uefied butane and isobutane.
 pH value generally starts from 0 and ends at 14  RDX and Nitroglycerine are explosives.
 The chemical commonly used for preserving bio-
 Project Neutral solutions are having pH exactly 7. logical specimens is formaldehyde.
 pH value greater 7 and upto 14 isbasic.  Alcoholic beverages contain
 pH value 0 to 6.9 is acidic. ethyl alcohol.
 Human Blood has pH value 7.3 or 7.4 (slight Basic)  Protein is composed of car-
 Generally other human secretions have pH 6.1 to 6.9 bon, hydrogen, nitrogen and
 Acid rain has pH 3.00 to 4.5 oxygen.
 The solution used to detect
 Sea water has pH 8.5
glucose in urine is Benedict
 pH of human stomach is about 3.5 Solution (Alkaline Solution of
Copper Sulphate and sodium
Organic Chemistry citrate). Formaldehyde
 Hydrocarbons and their
derivations are called Alloys
Organic Compounds
Alloys (teml-k-¦-c-w) Components Uses
 Compounds of Carbon
and hydrogen are called Aluminium Bronze Copper (Cu) To make coins, statues
hydrocarbons. Aluminium (Al)
eg: Fuels, Aluminium (Al)
 Compounds of carbon, Alnico Nickel (Ni) To make magnets
Hydrogen and oxygen Cobalt (Co)
(H4 O – 2:1) are called Iron (Fe)
carbohydrates.
Aluminium (Al),
eg: Sucrose, glucose, Duralumin Copper (Cu), To make aircrafts
cellulose Magnesium (Mg),
 LPG means Liquified Manganese (Mn)
petroleum gas, major
component present in its Magnelium Aluminium (Al), To make external parts
Magnesium (Mg) of troller, steamer etc.
Butane.
 Leakage of LPG can be Silumin Aluminium, To make engine parts
identified by mixing its Silicon
with Ethyl Mercaptan.
Nickel Steel Iron (Fe), To make drils, crankshaft
 CNG means Nickel (Ni) bearings
compressed natural Gas,
major component is Chrome Steel Iron (Fe), To make springs,tools etc.
methane Chromium (Cr)
 Bilt, LPG & CNG contain
Chrome vanadium steel Iron (Fe) To make axils of motor cars
traces of propane.
Chromium (Cr)
 CFCs are also known as Vanadium (V)
Ozone Depleting Sub-
stances (ODS) for it Manganese Steel Iron (Fe) To make rock driller,
causes depletion of the Manganese (Mn) plates, rails, protecting
Ozone layer. shields etc.

54 7
 Bio-energy is a renewable source of energy.
 Crude petroleum is converted into petrol through
a process called fractional distillation.
 Lead is added to petrol as an octane booster to
prevent knocking.
 Mercury is generally used as a thermometric fluid
rather than water because it has greater visibility
than water.
 Cooking oil can be converted into vegetable ghee
by the process of hydrogenation.
 To make rubber strong and bounceable, sulphur
is added. This process is called ‘Vulcanisation.’
 Ethanol is also called ‘grain alcohol’.
 The commonly used refrigerant in fridges is Freon
(dichloro difluoro methane).
 Freshly passed urine has no smell, but when it is
allowed to stand, it develops a strong ammonia
 Chemically interferon is a glycoprotein.
odour owing to conversion of urea to ammonia by
 The sweetest among the sugars is fructose
bacteria.
(C6H12O6).
 Cheese and vinegar are made by fermentation.
 Artificial silk is also called rayon.
 Non-stick kitchenware are coated with teflon and
pottassium hydrogen tartarate.  Gober gas is a natural gas obtained from cow
 Teflon is a polymer named ‘poly tetrafluoro- dung and it has higher fuel value and commercial
ethylene (PTFE). value. It is used as an alternative fuel to LPG.
 Chiefly biogas contains methane while LPG (Liq-
 The main constituent of dynamite is T.N.T.
uefied petroleum gas) contains butane.
 Anthracite is the purest form of mineral coal.
 Marsh gas is Methane.
 The chemical name of aspirin is acetyl salicylic
 Coal gas is a mixture of hydrogen (48%), meth-
acid.
ane (35%), carbon monoxide (6%), nitrogen (6%),
 Gelatine is used in the manufacture of icecream carbon dioxide (1%)
to prevent crystal growth.
 Methane causes about 38% of the warming of
 Soaps are produced by the saponification of fats the globe through the green house effect.
with alkali solution.
 Alcoholic beverages contain ethyl alcohol. Radioactivity
 Natural gas predominantly is methane.
 Neutral radioactivity was discovered by Henry
 The chief chemical constituent of petroleum is
Bacqurrel.
hydrocarbons.
 Among the fertilizers, urea has the maximum ni-  Artificial Radioactivty was discovered Irene curie
trogen content. & F. Juliot.
 Wood heated in an enclosed container will pro-  Simplest Radioactive atom is 13H (Tritium)
duce charcol.  Tritium is a beeta emitter.
 Petrol is otherwise known as gasoline.  The daughter element of Tritium is Helium - 3
 Enzymes are substances that convert organic (23He)
substances into simpler substances.  Age of fossil can be calculated by Radio - Carbon
 Chemically enzyme is protein. - Dating, using carbon - 14.
 Gas oil is same as the diesel oil.  Wine Dating can be done by using Tritium.
 Interferone is a substance produced by cells in
 Rock-Dating (Age of planet) can be calculated
response to virus infections. It usually prevents
by Uranium datingby using U-238 and Pb - 206.
other viruses from infecting simultaneously.

54 8
 Radioactive Iodine (Iodine -131) is used for the
treatment of Hyper Thyroidism.
 Cobalt - 60 isotope is used for cancer treatment.
 Deficit in blood-circulation is identified by using
phosphorus - 32
 Gold - 198 is used for the treatment of Leukaemia.
 Angrogram Test is done by using sodium - 24
 Bone Cancer can be diagonised by using
phosphorus - 32.
 Highest velocity is shown by grama rays (same
as light)
 Hightest pentrating power also shown by gamma
rays due to very high energy (very short
wavelength)
 During beeta emission isobars are produced.
 Controlled fission reaction is done in Nuclear
Reactor.
 The collen used in Nuclear Reactor is Liquid
Sodium.
 Graphite Rods and Cadmium Rods are used as
moderator in Nuclear Reactor.
 Five research reactor of India at BAARC are
Purnima, Zerlina, Dhruva, Circus and Apsara.
 Important Power stations in India are
1. Tarapur Atomic Power Station - Maharashtra
2. Rajasthan Atomic Powerstation - Kota
3. Narora Atomic power station - U.P
4. Indira Gandhi Centre of Research - Kalpakkam
(Chennai)
 Nuclear Fusion reaction takesplace in Hydrogen
Bomb.
 Strongest Radioactive element is RADIUM.
 Liquid Radioactive metal is FRANCIUM
 Gaseous Radioactive element is RADON
 Unit of Radioactivity is Bacqurrel (Bq) (1Bq = 1
disintegrestion per second)
1 curie = 3.7 × 1010 Bq
 Photographic film is very strongly affected by
beeta rays.
 Fats and Oils are esters of glycerol and organic acid.
 Neoprene is synthetic rubber used for insulation
of electric cables.
 SBR is styrene butadiene which is an artificial
rubber used for making tyre, chappals etc.
 Rayon Silks are synthetic fibres. Synthetic fibres
are polymers.
 Sodium/Potassium salt of stearic acid, palmitic
acid, and oleic acid is called soap.
 Synthetic Rubber used for making hoses is
Thiokol.
 Tyres filled with air are called pneumatic.
 Vinyl plastics are used as adhesive.
 Aqua regia is a mixture of concentrated nitric acid
and hydrochloric acid. It can dissolve gold and
platinum.
 The standard Oral Rehydration Salt (ORS) con-
tains sodium chloride, potassium chloride and
anhydrous glucose.
 D.D.T. and Gammexine are insecticides.
 Synthetic detergents are a mixture of sodium salts
of aromatic and aliphatic sulphonic acids.
 Hypo, used in photography, is chemically sodium
thiosulphate.
 Mordants are substances that fix colours of
fabrics.
 Gypsm is also used in the production of cement
for controlling the setting time of cement.
 Biogas is the appropriate technology to be
adopted for rural electrification and cooking.
 The tapes in the tape recorder are made of plastic
coated with iron oxide.
 The combination of PETN (Penta Erythritol Tetra
Nitrate) and TNT (trinitrotoluene) is called
pentolite. Doctors also use PETN in treating cer-
tain heart disorders.
54 9
 Halon is a gas for extinguishing fire.  Aluminium was first isolated by Hans Oested.
 Electron was discovered by J.J. Thomson.
Glasses  Neutron was discovered by James Chadwick.
 Glass is a super cooled liquid.  Nucleus and Proton was discovered by Ernest
1. Ferric salts yellow Rutherford.
2. Ferrous salts – Green  W. George discovered titanium in 1791.
3. Cobalt salts – Blue  Pierre & Marie Curie discovered Radium in
4. Manganese dioxide – Purple 1898.
5. Nickel salt – Red  Henry Cavendish discovered hydrogen in 1766.
6. Cupric oxide – Red
7. Cadmium sulphide – Lemon Yellow Chemical Processes
8. Uraniumoxide - Greenish Yellow  CHROMATOGRAPHY: The modern and most
9. Cryolite - Milkay effecive method to seperate different components
10. Calcium phosphate - Milkey (opaque) of a mixture.
 SUBLIMATION:The conversion of substance
Explosives directly from solid to vapour state.
 TNT is trinitrotoluene. It is highly explosive sub-
Camphor, Iodine etc. undergoes sublimaton.
stance. It is manufactured by the action of con-
centrated nitric acid on toluene.  OXIDATION:The process of loss of electrons in
 Explosive power is measured in terms of TNT. a chemical reaction.
 RDX - Research and Development Explosive is  ELECTROPLATING:The deposition of the metal
a highly explosive substance. on another by electric current .
 PETN-Penta Erythritol Tetra Nitrate is more le-  PASTEURIZATION of milk is the process by
thal and deadly explosive than RDX; which milk is exposed to a high temperature from
 Gun cotton (nitro cellulose) is a powerful explo- 62.80C - 65.50C for 30 minutes to destroy certain
sive formed by the action of nitric acid on cellu- micro - organisms and to prevent or arrest fer-
lose, used in the manufacture of gunpowder. mentation.
Instruments  The method used to obtain alcohol from molas-
ses is called fermentation.
 Eudiometer is to measure volume changes in
chemical reactions between gases.  Bessemer Process : Removal of impurities from
 Manometer is an instrument to determine the molten metal by blowing air through the molten
pressure of the gas. charge in a Bessemer converter. Used to remove
 Saccharimeter is an instrument for determining carbon and phosphorous from steel; sulphur and
the amount of sugar in a solution. iron from copper.
Chemists  Bosch Process : Production of hydrogen by the
catalytic reduction of steam with carbon monox-
 The name 'Hydrogen' and 'Oxygen' was given by 0
ide at 500 C
Antoine Lavoisier.
 Joseph Black (1728-1799) a scottish chemist, dis-  Haber Process : The process in which Ammo-
c o v e r e d nia is prepared by combining nitrogen and hy-
carbondioxide as drogen.
distinct gas,  Contact process:Preparation of sulphuric acid.
showed that gases  Alumino thermic process : Preparation of chro-
could appear in mium and manganese.
solid, developed
 Cyanide process : used for the extraction of
the theory of latent
heat. James Chadwick J.J. Thomson silver and gold.

55 0
Phenomena and Reasons
 In cold countries, alcohol is preferred to mer-
cury as a thermometer liquid because alcohol has
a very low freezing point than that of mercury.
 When we dip in sea water and come out , we feel
chilled due to evaporation of water on the body.
 Mercury is used generally in thermometers be-
cause mercury expands and contracts evenly when
heated or cooled. It also remains liquid over a wide
range of temperatures and does not stick to glass.
Miscellaneous
 Kevlar is a material for making bullet proof dresses.
 The oil in water is an example of suspension.
 Catalyst in a chemical reaction generally helps to
accelerate a reaction.
 The main use of salt in the diet is to produce
hydrochloric acid to digest the food.
 Chlorination means the addition of a small quan-
tity of chlorine in water as a germicide.
 Hydrogen has the same atomic number and mass
number.
 The ultimate source of nitrogen is the atmosphere
but, plants and animals cannot assimilate atmo-
spheric nitrogen directly.
 The animals get their nitrogen supply in the form
of proteins from plants which in turn get their
nitrogen supply from the soil in the form of ni-
trates.
 Ammonia (NH3) is a compound of nitrogen. It can
be manufactured by combining nitrogen and hy-
drogen at low temperature under high pressure.
 Air pollution caused by automobiles can be re-
duced by using lead free petrol and design alter-
nations in automobiles.
 Carbon monoxide (CO) is most carcinogenic in na-
ture.
 Normal Oxygen (O2) and Ozone (O3) are allot-
ropes of oxygen.
 Diamond, corrundum and topaz are all very hard.
A scale called Moh’s scale is used to indicate the
degree of hardness of minerals.
 Pure water is obtained from sea water by the pro-
cess of distillation
Terminology
 Absolute temperature Temperature reckoned on
a scale beginning with absolute zero (---273.160C).
 Acetone A colourless inflammable liquid used as
a solvent.
 Adenosine Tri Phosphate (ATP) A nucleotide
co-enzyme that takes part in several chemical
reactions in living organisms. It is an intermediate
produced in photosynthesis.
 Alkali metal Any metal, such as sodium,
potassium, or lithium, whose hydroxide is an alkali.
 Alkaline Having the properties of an alkali.
 Alkaline earth metals The group of chemical
elements comprising calcium, strontium, barium
and magnesium.
 Allotrophy The property by which certain
chemical elements exist in two or more different
forms (as carbon in graphite, charcoal, diamond,
lamp black, etc.).
 Alum A double sulphate of ammonium, or a univalent
metal (sodium or potassium), or of a trivalent metal
(aluminium, iron or chromium). It is used as an
astringent, an emetic and in the manufacture of
baking powder, dyes and paper. The commonest
form is potash alum.
 Amber A yellow or brownish-yellow translucent
fossil resin. Found on some sea shores and used
in jewellery, pipe stems etc. It is hard, easily
polished and quickly electrified by friction.
 Amino acids A group of nitrogenous organic
compounds that serve as units of structure of
proteins and enzymes and are essential to human
metabolism.
 Ammonia A colourless, pungent gas, compound
of nitrogen and hydrogen. Its compounds are
used as fertilisers, in medicines etc.
 Amphoteric Substances having both acidic and
basic properties, e.g. alumina.
 Antidote Medicine used against a poison, or to
prevent a disease from having effect.
 Antipyretic A substance used to lower body
temperature.
 Antiseptic Prevents infections, decay etc. It
inhibits the action of micro organisms.
55 1
 Asbestos (Rock Cotton) A variety of fibrous
silicate minerals, used as heat insulating material
and fireproof fabrics as they are nonconductors
of electricity.
 Aspirin Acetyl salicylic acid, a white solid used
in medicine as an antipyretic and analgesic.
 Avogadro’s hypothesis At constant temperature
and pressure, equal volumes of gases contain
equal number of molecules.
 Avogadro’s number Number of molecules present
in one mole of a substance is constant and is
equal to 6.023 x 1023..
 Base metal Non-precious metal, the main metal
constituent of an alloy.
 Bath salts Salts used to soften hard water.
 Beet sugar Sucrose (sugar) obtained from sugar
beet.
 Bell metal An alloy of copper and tin (30%).
 Benzaldehyde A clear, pleasant smelling liquid
found in the oil of bitter almonds. It is used in
making dyes, perfumes and flavourings.
 Benzene A clear, inflammable liquid obtained by
the fractional distillation of coaltar. It is used as a
solvent and has carcinogenic properties.
 Benzine A mixture of hydrocarbons, obtained
by the fractional distillation of petroleum and used
as a motor fuel and in dry cleaning.
 Bleaching Decolourisation by means of chemicals
or by exposure to the sun’s rays.
 Bleaching powder Calcium oxychloride, used as
a bleaching agent.
 Blue vitriol Crystalline copper sulphate.
 Boiling point The temperature at which a
particular liquid boils.
 Borax A white crystalline salt with an alkaline
nature used in the manufacture of glass soldering
of metals, enamels, gems, soaps etc.
 Carbohydrates Energy-producing organic
compounds, e.g. cane sugar, glucose, starch etc.
 Carcinogenic Compounds capable of causing
tumours and cancer (e.g. benzene).
 Carvacrol A thick oil, extracted from the oil of
mint and used as an antiseptic and anaesthetic.
55 2
 Catalysis The process by which the rate of a
chemical reaction may be altered.
 Catalyst Any substance that changes the rate of a
reaction without undergoing any chemical change.
 Catenation Property of atoms binding themselves
to atoms of the same element. This property is
exhibited by carbon.
 Celluloid A thin, inflammable substance made
from pyroxylin and camphor. It is used for making
photographic films.
 Chemical warfare Warfare by means of chemical
devices, e.g. gases, including bombs, smoke-
screens etc.
 Chemiluminescence Light produced during
certain chemical reactions e.g. light emitted by
fire flies.
 Chemotherapy The treatment of diseases by the
administration of chemicals, e.g. sulphonamides
(sulpha drugs).
 Chrome green Chromic oxide, used as a green
pigment.
 Coal gas Gas used as a fuel, manufactured by the
destructive distillation of coal in the absence of
air.
 Coal tar Thick, black, sticky substance which is
produced when coal gas is made by the
destructive distillation of coal.
 Cracking Decomposition of a chemical
substance into smaller molecules by heating. This
process is used in the petroleum industry.
 Cyanamide A colourless, crystalline and unstable
substance used in the manufacture of fertilizers.
 Cytochemistry The chemistry of living cells.
 Decantation The process of separating a solid
from a liquid by pouring off the liquid into another
container.
 Dehydration Elimination of water.
 Deliquescent Substances which have the
property of absorbing water molecules from the
atmosphere, e.g. calcium chloride.
 Denatured A substance that has been converted
into a form that is not its natural form, for purposes
 of making them unfit for eating or drinking, e.g.
making ethyl alcohol denatured by adding
methanol or naphtha.
 Detergent A cleaning agent made of the sodium
slat of aliphatic or aromatic sulphonic acids.
 Dewar flask A thermos flask used for keeping
liquids at temperatures different from that of air.
 Distillation A process involving both evaporation
and condensation simultaneously, used for
purifying liquids.
 Endothermic reaction Reactions in which heat is
absorbed.
 Exothermic reaction Reactions in which heat is
liberated.
 Fermentation The chemical changes brought about
by living organisms (yeasts, bacteria etc.) in which
bigger organic molecules are converted into smaller
molecules, e.g. conversion of glucose and cane
sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide.
 Flash point The lowest temperature at which a
substance catches fire on being lighted with a
flame.
 Formaldehyde Also called formalin (40% aqueous
solution of the gas formal-dehyde). It is used as a
preservative and disinfectant.
 Freezing mixture Salts of metals (NaCl, MgSO4,
etc.) when mixed with crushed ice, lower its
temperature below 00C.
 Galvanization The process in which iron or steel
articles are coated with zinc by dipping them in a
bath of molten zinc, to protect them from
corrosion.
 Gasoline The same as petrol obtained by the
distillation of petroleum.
 Glass wool A collection of very fine glass threads.
 Glycerine A colourless, thick, syrupy liquid
prepared by the hydrolysis of fats and oils. It is
also called glycerol.
 Hydrolysis A chemical reaction in which a
substance reacts with water to form a weakly
acidic, weakly basic or neutral solution.
 Hypertrophy Enlargement of organs due to
excessive nutrition or eating.
 Ignition The heating of a compound or mixture
to the point of complete combustion.
 Iodoform A yellow, crystalline compound. It is
used as a bactericidal in dressings.
 Isomer Different chemical compounds with same
molecular formula but having different structural
formula e.g. dimethyl ether (CH3OCH3) and
ethanol (CH3CH2CH) have the same molecular
formula (C2H6O). This phenomenon is called
isomerism.
 Lechatelier’s principle If some force is applied
to a system in equilibrium, the system adjusts
itself to annual the effect of the applied force.
 Lithophone A white pigment made from zinc
sulphide and barium sulphate. It is used in paints.
 Litmus A purple-coloured substance used in
testing whether a particular substance is acidic
or basic.
 Mordants Substances used for fixing colours and
dyes on textiles during the process of dyeing.
 Pasteurisation The partial sterilization of food
stuff by heating to a temperature below boiling
(1000C normally). This process kills micro-
organisms, but retains the taste, flavour and
nutritive value of food. It is named after its
pioneer, Louis Pasteur. For example, milk is
pasteurised by heating to 600C.
 Proof spirit Solution of ethyl alcohol containing
49.28 percent alcohol by weight in water.
 Pyrolysis Chemical decomposition by the action
of heat.
 Quicksilver Another name given to mercury
(because it is a liquid and looks like molten silver).
 Saccharin A white crystalline solid which is 550
times sweeter than sugar, but does not have any
food value. It is given to diabetic patients.
 Steroids Class of organic compounds present in
animals and plants. These are present as bile
acids.
 Turpentine Resinous oil from terebinth and other
trees. It is used in varnishes, paints and in
medicinal preparations.
 Urea Crystalline solid which is the chief
constituent of human and other urine. It is formed
in the body by the decomposition of proteins.
 Vulcanization This is a process of improving the
quality and hardness of rubber by heating it with
sulphur at about 1500C.
 White bronze Bronze containing a high
proportion of tin.
 White heat Temperature at which bodies become
incandescent.
 White lead Lead carbonate which is used as a
pigment.
 White spirit A mixture of petroleum
hydrocarbons.
55 3