AS 4312: AN AUSTRALIAN

ATMOSPHERIC CORROSIVITY STANDARD

by

R A Francis
Aurecon, South Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

SUMMARY Engineers, designers and specifiers need to be aware of the corrosiveness of the environment
in which they are working when selecting materials, coatings, fasteners and other items exposed to the
exterior environment. Many standards and literature from manufacturers, such as those for selecting
protective coatings, coated sheet metal products and fasteners, contain guidelines to enable the user to
determine atmospheric corrosivity. Identification of the correct environment is important to ensure that the
user selects adequate corrosion protection, without the cost penalties of over protection. AS 4312
Atmospheric corrosivity zones in Australia has been developed to standardise corrosivity zones which can
apply for a range of corrosion protection materials and coatings. This will simplify selection of such
products, and make certain that users are using the most accurate and up-to-date data available. This
paper provides an overview of the standard, the information it contains and how it can be used. This
standard is believed to be the only one of its type in the world, and should enable specifiers and users in
many fields to gain an awareness of atmospheric corrosivity and select optimum materials, coatings and
other corrosion protection systems.

1 INTRODUCTION
Knowing the corrosivity of the atmosphere is of critical importance to many in the corrosion control industry,
from specialist practitioners such as paint and material specifiers through to a wide range of engineers and
others responsible for buildings, structures, machinery, etc. that will be exposed to a specific environment.
For example, coating specifiers will normally specify a more complex, thicker coating system in a severe
industrial or marine environment than in a mild interior environment. Repair and maintenance requirements
in an industrial plant are usually more urgent and more complicated in a severe environment than in a mild
environment. There are a number of grades of alloys such as stainless steel where selection of the optimum
grade often depends on the exposure environment. Clearly an understanding of the factors that influence
aggressiveness of the environment to coatings and materials is of great benefit to many within and outside
the corrosion protection industry. While such information may be available in the scientific literature or
manufacturers’ literature, placing it in a standard gives it much greater credibility and easy availability.

This paper looks at the development of a standard for determining corrosivity zones in Australia, a brief
overview of the zones, how the standard is used and how it relates to corrosivity discussions in other
Australian standards.

2 DEVELOPMENT OF A CORROSIVITY STANDARD

Information on atmospheric corrosivity in Australia has been available in AS/NZS 2312 [1] for many years.
This standard, designed for selection of protective coatings for steelwork exposed to the atmosphere,
requires the specifier to determine the environment as the first stage in coating selection. This standard
contains a description of corrosion zones and an appendix to assist the user in determining the correct
zone. In recent years, International Standards have been developed to categorise corrosivity, and
AS/NZS 2312 has moved to adopt the ISO categories to enable the corrosion protection industry to use
internationally recognised corrosion zones. The categories in AS/NZS 2312 have been accepted throughout
industry, shown by the fact that the AS/NZS 2312 categories and approach have been adopted by many
other Australian standards.

The success of the system has led to separation of the corrosivity section from AS/NZS 2312 in the form of
a recent standard, AS 4312—2008 Atmospheric corrosivity zones in Australia. This standard takes the

2 STEEL CONSTRUCTION VOLUME 45 NUMBER 1 – DECEMBER 2011

approach and information from AS/NZS 2312, but expands it significantly to make categorisation easier, and
provide much more information to the user. As a separate standard, it also makes it easier to reference
when developing standards that require consideration of atmospheric corrosivity. It is not intended that the
discussion on corrosivity and categories be removed from the individual standards, but rather that this
newer standard provide much more detailed information for the user if and when required.

The starting point for determination of corrosion zones is ISO Standard 9223 and related standards.
ISO 9223 [2] and ISO 9224 [3] define corrosion zones. There are two main methods to determine their
corrosivity. ISO 9225 [4] determines the zone by measuring the time of wetness, chloride concentration and
SO 2 levels. ISO 9226 [5] uses corrosion rates of metals to determine the corrosion zone. The relationship
between these various standards is shown in Figure 1.

ISO 9223
Classification of
atmospheric corrosivity

Method 1: Method 2:
Classification in terms Classification based
of time of wetness and on corrosion rate
pollution measurement

ISO 9223
Corrosivity
categories

ISO 9225 ISO 9224 ISO 9226

Measurement of Guiding values of Determination of
pollution corrosion rate for corrosion rate of
each category standard specimens

Figure 1: Family of ISO Corrosivity standards

Whichever method is used to determine corrosivity, atmospheres are divided into one of five categories
from C1 to C5 in ISO 9223 in increasing severity of the environment, as shown in Table 1. AS 4312 expands
these categories slightly. The C5 zone is split into C5M and C5I (Marine and Industrial) to account for the
differing effects of marine and industrial environments on some coatings, even though the corrosion rate of
steel may be the same. This provides consistency with AS/NZS 2312 and ISO 12944.2 [6]. In addition, a
Tropical (T) category is included to account for the effect of a tropical environment on some paint coatings,
which does not relate to corrosion rate of steel. This category is unique to Australian standards.

Table 1: Corrosivity categories according to AS 4312 and ISO 9223

AS 4312 ISO 9223 Corrosivity Steel corrosion rate Typical environment

Category Category (µm/yr)
C1 C1 very low <1.3 dry indoors
C2 C2 low 1.3–25 arid/urban inland
C3 C3 medium 25–50 coastal or industrial
C4 C4 high 50–80 sea-shore (calm)
C5M C5 very high – marine 80–200 sea-shore (surf)
C5I C5 very high – industrial 80–200 severe industrial
T – – – tropical inland

STEEL CONSTRUCTION VOLUME 45 NUMBER 1 – DECEMBER 2011 3

While the ISO standards provide an established and well recognised method of categorising corrosivity,
they are not without their weaknesses and limitations. These are discussed in detail by King and
Duncan [7]. One of these weaknesses is the poor correlation between corrosivity zone as calculated from
time of wetness and pollution levels, and that measured from corrosion rate of exposed metal specimens.
Another is that corrosivity zone, as determined by corrosion rates on different metals, does not correlate.
For example, a zone may be designated as C3 according to steel corrosion rate, but C2 or C4 according to
zinc corrosion rate. AS 4312 overcomes this limitation by only categorising zones according to steel
corrosion rates, although it does not specifically forbid use of one of the other methods. However, most of
the experimental work done in Australia is with steel so this is unlikely to be a major issue. Furthermore,
there is little data on time of wetness, salt deposition and SO2 concentration available in this country to use
these levels to determine corrosion zone.

3 CORROSIVITY SURVEYS
Surveys of corrosivity in Australia have been carried out for many years, and the significant amount of data
available is one of the reasons that a standard such as this can be produced for such a large country. It is
not the intention of this paper to list or review the work that has been done, as the standard contains a list
of readily available technical papers in Appendix C. The surveys carried out by George King, John Moresby
and others at CSIRO, especially for Melbourne, Newcastle and the state of South Australia, have been
especially beneficial for the development of this standard. This work has been included in the standard,
simplified to show only the corrosion categories. Corrosion rates at various sites around the country from
numerous other surveys are included in a table in the standard. References are given so that the user can
investigate the original work if so desired.

The corrosion zones in Australia are described in the standard. It points out that proximity to the coast is the
single most important factor. If there is no marine influence, then corrosion rates are generally low, and
such areas would normally be in Category C2. Marine influence can fall away within a kilometre of the coast
on a sheltered bay when winds and topography are favourable. However, salt deposition and resulting high
corrosion rates can be found up to fifty kilometres inland in some areas, such as south eastern South
Australia. As a basic rule, any site more than 50 kilometres from the coast will be in the Moderate C2
category. This covers a vast proportion of the Australian land mass, but as most of the population of the
country live within 50 kilometres of the sea, they are potentially in one of the more severe categories. The
corrosivity category will not only depend on distance from the shoreline, but also whether seas are rough or
quiet, as shown in Table 2. Regions right on the coast with rough seas will be in the C5M (very severe
marine) category as there is significant salt deposition. This extends inland by a small distance, generally of
the order of 0.3 kilometres, but may be as much as 0.5 kilometres when conditions are severe. The next
region inland from rough seas is the C4 region, and extends to around one kilometre inland. Regions right
on the coast (within 0.1 kilometre of the shoreline) on sheltered bays are in C4. On sheltered bays, the
marine influence has disappeared within a kilometre or so of the shoreline.

Table 2: Selection of corrosivity category according to distance from shoreline

Rough seas within 20/50* No rough seas within 20/50*

Distance from shoreline
kilometres kilometres
0 to 0.1 km C5M C4
0.1 to 0.3/0.5* km C5M C3
0.3/0.5* to 1.0 km C4 C3
1.0 to 20/50* km C3 C2 (T)
> 20/50* km C2 (T) C2 (T)
Notes: (1) T = Use Tropical category for sites in tropical region of the country.
(2) * Use the higher figure when winds are strong and/or topography conducive to salt
travel inland.

Table 2 shows the importance of distinguishing between local rough or quiet seas. The difference is one
corrosivity category, or two in the case of the region from 0.1 to 0.5 kilometres inland. There are, of course,

4 STEEL CONSTRUCTION VOLUME 45 NUMBER 1 – DECEMBER 2011

some regions where the distinction between rough and quiet seas is not clear. In the gulf regions of South
Australia for example, the seas are rough at the southern end, but quieter further north. Adelaide has surf
beaches to the south, but the seas to the north of the metropolitan area are relatively benign. The survey
carried out for South Australia shows that in such situations it would be best to estimate zones as
somewhere between these two extremes.

The standard contains maps of major regions of Australia where surveys have been carried out, namely
Melbourne, Newcastle and South Australia. In addition, maps are included of the Sydney, Brisbane and
Perth metropolitan areas. Delineation of zones in these three regions is based on estimates and behaviour
of regions where surveys have been carried out. It should be stressed that the borders are only estimates
for these regions, and users should be aware of limitations. These are discussed below. Figure 2
summarises the maps given in the standard, indicating the major zones. No attempt has been made to
determine the extent of the very severe marine zone on these maps, which cannot be resolved on this
scale.

Figure 2: Corrosivity zones in some Australian centres according to AS 4312

4 MICRO-ENVIRONMENTS AND DESIGN FACTORS

The corrosivity surveys used to delineate corrosivity zones determine the effect of the macro-environment at
a given site, that is, the environment generated by normal weather patterns. The important factors
influencing macro-environmental corrosivity are identified as time of wetness and salt deposition. These are
discussed in detail in the standard, and the research work listed in Appendix C of the standard. However,
the standard notes that micro-environmental or micro-climatic factors at a site, and design features of the
structure under consideration, can interact to convert a mildly corrosive site into a more severe one. The
important factors are listed in Table 3, along with their effect on corrosivity. It should be noted that SO 2
pollution (‘acid rain’) is considered as a micro-environmental factor in Australia, unlike many other parts of

STEEL CONSTRUCTION VOLUME 45 NUMBER 1 – DECEMBER 2011 5

the world where it is considered a macro-environmental factor. Australia has been fortunate that its fossil
fuels have historically been low in sulphur, and furthermore that the influence of such pollutants has
dropped over the past 30 or so years [8]. The table shows that micro-environmental factors will generally
increase corrosivity. However, regions sheltered from rain washing generally show higher corrosion rates,
but in regions with little atmospheric contamination (Category C2), exposure to rain or washing can increase
corrosion rates. The major micro-environmental factors all increase corrosivity, and the standard
recommends moving up to at least the next corrosivity category if any of these influence the structure. As
most engineering structures will have flat ponding surfaces, if not influenced by the other factors, moving up
to the next category will be the usual procedure.

5 METALS OTHER THAN STEEL

Section 2 of the standard contains a brief summary of the atmospheric corrosion properties of metals other
than steel, including stainless steel, copper, zinc and aluminium. It refers to the relevant Australian
standards for details. The standard notes that these metals have much lower corrosion rates than steel, and
that generally their corrosion rate will increase as the environment becomes more severe. Unlike ISO 9223,
the standard does not accept a numerical relationship between steel corrosion rates and corrosion rate of
zinc, copper and aluminium. Corrosivity of the environment is important in selecting such alloys for
atmospheric use. More highly alloyed stainless steels, for example, are required as the environment
becomes more severe, especially with regard to chloride environments. The standard does not cover the
useful ‘Pitting Resistance Equivalent (PRE)’ which can be used to select stainless steels. This allows
comparison between different grades with respect to pitting and crevice corrosion, the most important forms
of corrosion in severe environments. The PRE formula depends on the amount of chromium (Cr),
molybdenum (Mo) and nitrogen (N) in the stainless steel. Higher PRE presents better resistance to pitting
and crevice corrosion. PRE can be estimated using the following formula:

PRE = % Cr + 3.3 x % Mo + 16 x % N

Table 3: Micro-environmental factors influencing corrosivity

Feature Cause Examples Effect on corrosivity

Micro-environmental
• Industrial pollutants
• Chemicals
• Abrasion and impact
Design
• Regions sheltered from
rain or regular washing
• Prolonged surface
wetness
SO 2 , other corrosive Around and within fossil Increase
gases fuel burning industries
Chemical salts, fertilisers, Industrial activities, Increase
farming wastes farming activities
Wind erosion, traffic, Dusty regions, farms, Increase
livestock handling
Build up of salts and Under canopies, bridge Increase in severe environments
pollutants soffits Decrease in mild environments
Increased time-of-wetness Ponding areas, shaded Increase
regions

Table 4 provides a rough rule-of-thumb giving required PRE, and example stainless steels, for the various
corrosivity categories. It must be recognised that this is a very simplified approach, and actual selection
requires consideration of factors such as surface finish, presence of welding scale and maintenance
regimes.

Table 4: Selection of stainless steels based on PRE number

Corrosivity category Corrosivity description PRE Example stainless steels

C1 Very low <15 409, 3CR12
C2 Low 15–20 430, 304
C3 Medium 20–25 444, 316
C4 High 25–30 2304
C5 Very high >30 904L, 2205

6 STEEL CONSTRUCTION VOLUME 45 NUMBER 1 – DECEMBER 2011

6 HOW THE STANDARD IS USED
There are three methods of determining the corrosivity zone for a given site in Australia. These are:

(a) Where surveys have been done, the corrosivity zone can be determined from the steel corrosion rate.

(b) If the site has similar climatic and geographic features (including proximity to the sea) to a site where
a survey has been carried out, then the zone can be estimated by analogy.

(c) If surveys have not been carried out at the site, or at an analogous site, then the corrosivity zone will
need to be determined from first principles.

6.1 Zones using corrosivity surveys

Where surveys have been carried out, it is a relatively easy task to determine corrosivity zone. If, for
example, the one year steel corrosion rate is 40 microns per year at the site of interest then, according to
Table 1, the corrosivity zone is C3. The standard contains maps of the Melbourne and Newcastle
metropolitan areas, and the southern region of South Australia, adapted from the CSIRO surveys. Appendix
A of the standard contains a list of 89 locations around the country where surveys have been carried out,
giving their corrosion rate, distance from the sea and corrosivity zone. The user must be aware that
proximity to the sea is critical as indicated in Table 2, and a given town or suburb near the coast could be in
any one of three different corrosivity categories.

Even where surveys have been carried out, the user needs to be aware of problems using experimentally
determined corrosion rates. There are two main problems with using experimental results.

Firstly, considerable variation in results can arise when carrying out surveys at a given site. Some of these
variables are described below:

 When using steel, use of a low copper alloy steel (known as BISRA steel) overcomes the effects of
slight variations in chemical composition of the steel on corrosion rate, and this has been used in
most surveys in Australia. However, the corrosion rate determined with this material needs to be
‘converted’ to an equivalent corrosion rate of mild steel. There is no accepted conversion constant,
but BISRA steel tends to show a rate of 20 to 40 per cent less than mild steel.

 Surveys are often carried out over periods of time other than one year. Two year corrosion rates are
reckoned to be about 20 per cent less than one year rates, but again there is no accepted figure. For
other periods of time, other estimates must be performed.

 There are many experimental variations which can significantly influence the corrosion rate obtained.
These include specimen orientation, height above sea level, surface finish and others. Appendix B of
the standard discusses these factors, noting their influence as either major or minor. This appendix
refers to the recent work of Melchers and Jeffries [9] which showed a variation of corrosion rate from
300 to 600 microns per year at a severe marine site just by varying some of these factors. LaQue,
after investigating factors that influence atmospheric corrosivity, concluded: “The factors that
influence atmospheric corrosion of test specimens are so many and so diverse that one must
conclude that results of tests of this sort can have only a limited quantitative status” [10]. Corrosivity
figures from such investigations must be considered only as approximate and small differences are
not significant. However, the semi-quantitative ISO categories are probably sufficiently accurate to
distinguish between significant environmental corrosivity groups, although the borders between them
are arbitrary.

It should be noted that the standard is not designed for those carrying out such surveys although it
has much useful information, such as a list of work carried out in Australia in Appendix C of the
standard.

The second important factor is that corrosivity at a given site can and will change over time. Perhaps the
most important change has been a reduction in the amount of atmospheric pollution over the past fifty years

STEEL CONSTRUCTION VOLUME 45 NUMBER 1 – DECEMBER 2011 7

or so. Polluting plants have closed down or reduced emissions, and any sites where pollution was a major
contributor to corrosivity will show reduced rates for more recent surveys. For example, the Newcastle
corrosivity map shows “islands” of high corrosivity around the steelworks and Boolaroo smelter. Both have
since closed, and the corrosivity would now be expected to be at a background level. Furthermore, the
standard quotes the early work of Egan [11] who carried out surveys at various industrial sites in 1971.
Many of these sites would be expected to have changed corrosivity. For example, Egan quotes a steel
corrosion rate of 30 microns per year for the Adelaide suburb of Woodville, putting it in the ISO C3 category,
while a survey carried out by CSIRO only ten years later [12] showed a corrosivity nearly half this for the
same suburb, putting it in the ISO C2 category. Furthermore, climate changes now believed to be taking
place will mean changes to time of wetness, winds and other factors which could see changes to corrosivity
of a given site. The figures in the standard must not be seen as fixed, but rather a starting point only.

6.2 Zones by analogy to surveys

If an actual survey has not been carried out, the next alternative would be to attempt to find a site or area
with similar environmental conditions resulting in a similar corrosivity. For example, it is reasonable to
assume that places along the coast of NSW from the Victorian border to the Gold Coast will have similar
behaviour to that determined at Newcastle. The prevailing winds are from the south-east and the
temperature, rainfall and humidity are similar. The crucial factor would be distance from the coast. The map
of Sydney in the standard has been drawn based on the Newcastle experience, noting that the escarpment
at the west of the city would be a natural boundary between the C3 and C2 regions where it is relatively
close to the coast. Other places along the east coast could be expected to show similar behaviour.

Brisbane is rather difficult to predict, as it is more humid, but against this has the sheltering effect of the
Stradbroke and Moreton islands offshore minimising salt deposition. The map in the standard is a best
estimate based on survey results and estimated behaviour. It is less corrosive than regions from the Gold
Coast south, as there is no breaking surf, but more corrosive than the sheltered Melbourne region. Similarly,
the map of Perth in the standard is a best estimate from survey results and estimated behaviour.

6.3 Zones from first principles

If a survey has not been done, and there is no existing site analogous to the desired site, the user will need
to determine the classification from first principles. The standard provides some information in Section 4.
There is a flow chart which should assist, working through the zones in a systematic way, similar to the
approach described above. If the site is more than 50 kilometres from the coast, the corrosivity is C2, or
Tropical in the northern part of the country. For those areas within 50 kilometres of the coast, the next
decision to be made is whether the nearest seas are considered best as rough or quiet. It is then best to
work through the categories, looking at the most severe category first, and work down from this until the
most reasonable estimate can be made. With the figures obtained from surveys carried out across the
continent, it should be possible for the user to come up with a realistic estimate. For critical applications, a
conservative approach would be required, using the more severe category if there is any doubt.

7 COMPARISON WITH OTHER STANDARDS AND CLASSIFICATIONS

Appendix D in the standard is a brief summary of corrosivity information in other Australian standards.
AS/NZS 2312 has generally been the major source of corrosivity information in an Australian standard, and
the appendix contains a table relating classifications in earlier versions of the standard to later versions, as
well as the ISO classification. The main change that has occurred over the years is recognition of the
significant variation in corrosivity within a ‘marine’ environment. In the 1994 version of the standard, for
example, there was a mild and a moderate category, both largely covered by current C2. However, there
was one ‘marine’ category which would cover corrosivities given in C3, C4 and C5 of the current standard,
that is, a range with steel corrosion rates varying from 25 to 200 microns per year. It is clear that adoption
of zones based on corrosion rates has had a major effect on the way that corrosion environments are now
recognised.

8 STEEL CONSTRUCTION VOLUME 45 NUMBER 1 – DECEMBER 2011

The Appendix also notes that the classification used in AS/NZS 2312 has generally been adopted by other
standards, such as anodising and coated steel products. It also notes that the recent development of
standards with corrosion resistance performance requirements, such as for lintels [13] and self tapping
screws [14], can be related to environmental corrosivity. It is expected in the future that this new standard
will become the central reference for other standards, providing one consistent and up-to-date reference
point.

One standard with a corrosivity classification not mentioned in the new standard is AS 3600 [15] and related
standards concerning concrete. These define various exposure classifications which are intended to relate
to required properties of concrete, such as strength and cover to reinforcement. In an aggressive marine
environment, for example, a high strength concrete with significant cover to reinforcement is required to
minimise risk of chloride diffusion through the concrete causing rusting of the reinforcement and spalling of
the concrete. While degradation of concrete does not directly relate to steel corrosivity, the main reason for
this classification is to prevent corrosion of reinforcement, which is influenced by the same factors as
corrosion of steel in the atmosphere. A summary of the classifications in AS 3600 and related AS 4312
categories is given in Table 5. This shows that the concrete standards consider that there is a need for only
two marine environments, whether the structure is less than or more than one kilometre from the coast. It
does not distinguish between rough sea and quiet seas, and does not recognise the extremely high
corrosivity found within a few hundred metres of rough seas. Ignorance of these facts must mean that many
structures in marine environments are either under-designed or over-designed, with possible serious safety,
maintenance and economic consequences. It is hoped that the concrete industry will note the content of this
new standard and make the required changes.

Table 5: Corrosivity category according to distance from shoreline for AS 4312 and AS 3600

AS 4312 AS 4312 AS 3600 exposure

Distance from shoreline Rough seas within 20/50* No rough seas within 20/50* classification for
kilometres kilometres reinforced concrete
0 to 0.1 km C5M C4 B2
0.1 to 0.3/0.5* km C5M C3 B2
0.3/0.5* to 1.0 km C4 C3 B2
1.0 to 20/50* km C3 C2 (T) B1
> 50 km (tropical) Tropical Tropical B1
> 50 km (industrial) C2 (C3, C4, C5 if severe) C2 (C3, C4, C5 if severe) B1
> 50 km (temperate) C2 C2 A2
> 50 km (arid) C2 C2 A1
Note: * Use the higher figure when winds are strong and/or topography conducive to salt travel inland.

8 CONCLUSIONS
This paper has described the Australian standard on atmospheric corrosivity, AS 4312. It has described the
development of the standard, the information contained, how it is used, and how it relates to other
Australian standards with discussions on corrosivity. This standard should enable those making decisions
on selection of corrosion control strategies for atmospheric exposure to quickly, simply and accurately
determine corrosivity.

9 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author thanks the members of Standards Australia committee MT14/5 for their contributions to the
standard.

STEEL CONSTRUCTION VOLUME 45 NUMBER 1 – DECEMBER 2011 9

10 REFERENCES
[1] Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand, AS/NZS 2312:2002, ‘Guide to the protection of
structural steel against atmospheric corrosion by the use of protective coatings’.

[2] International Standards Organization, ISO 9223:1992, ‘Corrosion of metals and alloys—Corrosivity of
atmospheres—Classification’.

[3] International Standards Organization, ISO 9224:1992, ‘Corrosion of metals and alloys—Corrosivity of
atmospheres—Guiding values for the corrosivity categories’.

[4] International Standards Organization, ISO 9225:1992, ‘Corrosion of metals and alloys—Corrosivity of
atmospheres—Measurement of pollution’.

[5] International Standards Organization, ISO 9226:1992, ‘Corrosion of metals and alloys—Corrosivity of
atmospheres—Determination of corrosion rate of standard specimens’.

[6] International Standards Organization, ISO 12944.2:1998, ‘Paints and varnishes—Corrosion protection
of steel structures by protective paint systems—Part 2: Classification of environments’.

[7] King, G.A. and Duncan, J.R. 1998, ‘Some apparent limitations in using the ISO atmospheric
corrosivity categories’, Corrosion & Materials, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 8–14 & 22–25.

[8] Bartlett, D.J. 2001, ‘Industrial pollution and its impact on corrosion and corrosion mitigation practices’,
Corrosion and Prevention 2001, Australasian Corrosion Association, Newcastle, paper 044.

[9] Jeffrey, R. and Melchers, R.E. 2006, ‘Early observations of corrosion losses for steels at a severe
marine atmospheric site’, Corrosion and Prevention 2006, Australasian Corrosion Association, Hobart,
paper 028.

[10] LaQue, F.L. 1964, ‘Precautions in the interpretation of corrosion tests in marine environments’,
Industrie Chimique Belge, no. 11, pp. 1177–1185.

[11] Egan, F.J. 1971, ‘Effect of environmental factors on the corrosion of steels’, Australasian Corrosion
Engineering, vol. 15, no. 6, pp. 9–16.

[12] Martin, K.G. and King, G.A. 1981, ‘Corrosivity measurements at some Australian cities’, Corrosion
Australasia, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 10–15.

[13] Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand, AS/NZS 2699.3:2002, ‘Built in components for masonry
construction—Lintels and shelf angles (durability requirements)’.

[14] Standards Australia, AS 3566.2—2002, ‘Self drilling screws for the building and construction
industries—Corrosion resistance requirements’.

[15] Standards Australia, AS 3600—2001, ‘Concrete structures’.

[16] Standards Australia, AS 4312—2008, ‘Atmospheric corrosivity zones in Australia’.

10 STEEL CONSTRUCTION VOLUME 45 NUMBER 1 – DECEMBER 2011