Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10482-018-1024-x
ORIGINAL PAPER
Geology and geochemistry of the Atacama Desert
J. Tapia . R. González . B. Townley . V. Oliveros
G. Aguilar . A. Menzies . M. Calderón
Received: 13 December 2017 / Accepted: 24 January 2018
! Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018
Abstract The Atacama Desert, the driest of its kind
on Earth, hosts a number of unique geological and
geochemical features that make it unlike any other
environment on the planet. Considering its location on
the western border of South America, between 17 and
28 "S, its climate has been characterized as arid to
hyperarid for at least the past 10 million years. Notably
dry climatic conditions of the Atacama Desert have
been related to uplift of the Andes and are believed to
have played an important role in the development of
the most distinctive features of this desert, including:
(i) nitrates and iodine deposits in the Central Depres-
sion, (ii) secondary enrichment in porphyry copper
deposits in the Precordillera, (iii) Li enrichment in salt
flats of the Altiplano, and (iv) life in extreme habitats.
The geology and physiography of the Atacama Desert
have been largely shaped by the convergent margin
J. Tapia (&)
Instituto de Ciencias de la Tierra, Facultad de Ciencias,
Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
e-mail: pepeline.999@gmail.com;
joseline.tapia@uach.cl
R. González ! A. Menzies
Departamento de Ciencias Geológicas, Facultad de
Ingenierı́a y Ciencias Geológicas, Universidad Católica
del Norte, Antofagasta, Chile
B. Townley ! G. Aguilar
Advanced Mining Technology Center, Facultad de
Ciencias Fı́sicas y Matemáticas, Universidad de Chile,
Santiago, Chile
. F. Álvarez .
present since the Mesozoic era. The geochemistry of
surface materials is related to rock geochemistry (Co,
Cr, Fe, Mn, V, and Zn), salt flats, and evaporite
compositions in endorheic basins (As, B, and Li), in
addition to anthropogenic activities (Cu, Mo, and Pb).
The composition of surface water is highly variable,
nonetheless in general it presents a circumneutral pH
with higher conductivity and total dissolved solids in
brines. Major water constituents, with the exception of
HCO3-, are generally related to the increase of salinity,
and despite the fact that trace elements are not well-
documented, surface waters of the Atacama Desert are
enriched in As, B, and Li when compared to the
average respective concentrations in rivers worldwide.
Keywords Atacama Desert ! Geology !
Geochemistry ! Mineral deposits
B. Townley
Departamento de Geologı́a, Facultad de Ciencias Fı́sicas y
Matemáticas, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
V. Oliveros ! F. Álvarez
Departamento de Ciencias de la Tierra, Universidad de
Concepción, Concepción, Chile
M. Calderón
Carrera de Geologı́a, Facultad de Ingenierı́a, Universidad
Andres Bello, Sazie 2119, Santiago, Chile
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Introduction
The Atacama Desert is located along the western
border of South America, spanning the central Andes
to Pacific Ocean in northern Chile (Rech et al. 2006;
Fig. 1a). It is known for its arid to hyperarid climate
(Clarke 2006; Dunai et al. 2005) and water scarcity
(CR2 2017). In fact, some areas of the Atacama Desert
have not been eroded since 23 Ma (million years ago)
(Dunai et al. 2005; Fig. 1b). Its distinctive climate is
the result of the confluence of a subtropical high-
pressure zone, the cold Humboldt current on the coast,
offshore winds (Clarke 2006), as well as the Andean
rain-shadow effect and latitudinal position of the
region (Houston and Hartley 2003). Precipitation is
very scarce; in the case of the cities Arica and Iquique,
they have reported annual rainfalls of 0.5 and 0.6 mm
per year, respectively, while Antofagasta, Calama and
Copiapó have reported rainfall ranging from 1.7 to
12 mm per year (Clarke 2006; Figs. 1b,c).
The Atacama Desert presents unique conditions
such as notably low rates of erosion (Jungers et al.
2013; Placzek et al. 2010), accumulation of rare nitrate
and iodate salts and more common halite, gypsum, and
anhydrite salts (Álvarez et al. 2016; Ericksen 1981;
Pérez-Fodich et al. 2014), as well as the occurrence of
important epigenetic metallic mineral deposits (Alpers
and Brimhall 1989; Palacios et al. 2011; Reich et al.
2008).
Geologic and paleoclimatic characteristics of the
Atacama Desert have been extensively researched;
Ignacio Domeyko (Domeyko 1903) and Rodulfo
Philippi (Philippi 1860) were the first scientists to
characterize this region. The most important prior
research related to the geology and climate in this
desert were undertaken to evaluate: (i) the relationship
between the formation of the desert and Andes
Mountain uplift (Lamb and Davis 2003; Rech et al.
2006); (ii) the beginning of the arid to hyperarid
conditions (Alpers and Brimhall 1989; Clarke 2006;
Dunai et al. 2005; Hartley et al. 2005; Rech et al.
2006); (iii) supergene expression of deep-lying pri-
mary mineralization (Leybourne and Cameron
2006, 2008; Reich et al. 2008; Townley et al. 2007),
diversity of primary mineral deposit types, and the
development of exploration methods based on knowl-
edge of regolith and landscape evolution processes
(e.g., Castillo et al. 2015; Palacios et al. 2005, 2011;
Townley et al. 2007, 2013, 2015); and finally (iv)
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Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
geological similitudes between the Atacama Desert
and Mars which favor the presence of life (De Waele
et al. 2017; Navarro-González et al. 2003; Vı́tek et al.
2012; Wierzchos et al. 2011). In addition, during this
century, microbiological research in the Atacama
Desert has increased (Bull et al. 2016).
Despite the considerable amount of research
devoted to general geology and climate, studies
related to the geochemistry of the Atacama Desert
are fairly new and most investigations have been
undertaken to better understand the formation of Cu–
Mo porphyries (Alpers and Brimhall 1989; Leybourne
and Cameron 2006, 2008), the discovery of cover
deposits through regolith geochemistry in the Inca de
Oro district (López 2014), and the characterization of
iodine (Álvarez et al. 2015, 2016), nitrates (Pérez-
Fodich et al. 2014), and lithium (Ide and Kunasz 1990;
Risacher et al. 1999) deposits.
Sediment geochemistry has been studied by the
National Survey of Mining and Geology (SERNA-
GEOMIN). In 2011, a national plan was undertaken by
that institution to quantify the geochemistry of sedi-
ments with the intent of systematically providing data
to the public (SERNAGEOMIN 2012a, b, c). In
addition, the composition of sediments has been
studied in areas affected by mining activities such as
distinct reaches of El Loa River (Romero et al. 2003),
the mouth of the El Salado River (Chañaral-Caleta
Palito in Fig. 1; Ramı́rez et al. 2005), and the El Salado
River and Pedernales salt flat of the northern Atacama
Region (Tapia et al. 2018). Soils of the Atacama
Desert have been poorly documented and some
information is available at specific locations such as
for agricultural soils in the regions of Tarapacá and
Antofagasta (De Gregori et al. 2003), and the
contaminated sites of Quillagua, Antofagasta
(CENMA 2014), and Arica (Agriquem 2009; Fig. 1b).
Limited information exists in relation to saline
precipitates, however they have been documented in
the Pedernales salt flat (Tapia et al. 2018). In regard to
mine waste present in the Atacama Desert, Serna-
geomin made an inventory and characterized the
geochemistry of tailing impoundments (SERNAGEO-
MIN 2017).
To evaluate surface water chemistry of the Atacama
Desert, the national Water General Direction (DGA)
has sampled surface water in Chilean basins, and
available information is provided on the government
website (DGA 2017). Major constituents and some
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
(a)
Fig. 1 a Atacama Desert regional location. b Important locations mentioned in the text that are within the Atacama Desert. c Historic
precipitation (data from CR2, 2017)
trace elements of saline water and brines were
extensively documented by Risacher et al. (1999).
Hot springs were studied for major constituents (K?,
Na?, Ca2?, Mg2?, HNO3-, SO42-, Cl-), As, B, and Li
(Hauser 1997). Geochemistry, as it pertains to ground-
water, has been mostly studied to better understand
mineralization (Leybourne and Cameron 2006, 2008;
Soto 2010).
In this review of the geology and geochemistry of
the Atacama Desert, the primary focus is to present the
(c)
(b)
main geological features of the desert and to compile
information from literature related to Earth materials
such as rocks, sediments, soils, saline precipitates,
tailing impoundments, saline water and brines, fluvial
and lacustrine water, groundwater, and hot springs.
This manuscript, from a geological and geochemical
perspective, will highlight the unique characteristics
of the Atacama Desert that make it unlike any
environment on Earth.
123

Physiography and geomorphology
The landscape of the Atacama Desert reflects the
active Andean orogeny after the middle Cretaceous
period which was formed by compression and sub-
duction of an oceanic plate below continental crust.
Bivergent thrusts and uplift were strongly intensified
during the Cenozoic era, however the nature and
actual timing of the uplift is still debated (Armijo et al.
2015 and references therein). From the Cenozoic
period onward, climatic conditions have been influ-
enced by the Andes uplift which changed the atmo-
spheric circulation patterns (Insel et al. 2010 and
references therein) in addition to mass circulation in
the ocean and global climate change during the
Cenozoic era (e.g., Zachos et al. 2001). The pro-
nounced duration of these conditions, magnitude of
orogenic processes, and arid to hyperarid climate of
the Atacama Desert resulted in very low rates of
erosion (Carretier et al. 2018).
Five elongated physiographic units constitute the
present landscape of the Atacama Desert: (i) the
Coastal Cordillera, (ii) the Central Depression, (iii) the
Precordillera or Domeyko Cordillera, (iv) the Alti-
plano, and (v) the Western Cordillera (Fig. 2). From
Late Paleozoic to Recent, a convergent margin has
been the dominant tectonic setting of the western
margin of South America, and the characteristics of
each physiographic unit can be correlated to magmatic
belts of the past. At 24.5 "S, the Coastal Cordillera
reaches up to 3000 m.a.s.l. and is limited to the west
by marine terraces and a large coastal cliff that show
evidence of coastal uplift during the Neogene period
(e.g. Martinod et al. 2016). To the east, the Central
Depression represents a conjunction of pediment
surfaces and longitudinal basins characterized by
isolated Cenozoic sedimentation and arid climatic
conditions (e.g. Riquelme et al. 2007). The Precordil-
lera or Domeyko Cordillera is the most prominent
relief feature in the Atacama Desert. Perched sub-
planar surfaces show Neogene cycles of pedimenta-
tion and Plio-pleistocene incision of the current
valleys (e.g. Aguilar et al. 2011). To the east, in the
Western Cordillera, Neogene stratovolcanos reach
2000 meters over the Altiplano (average 4000 m
a.s.l.), a group of endorheic basins filled with Neogene
evaporitic, siliciclastic, and volcanic successions
(Jordan et al. 2014; and references therein; Fig. 2).
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Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
In this geomorphological framework, chemical
weathering is low and mechanical weathering of
bedrock appears as a fundamental process in the
formation of soils. Only a few fluvial systems cross the
western slope of the Andes, intersecting distinct
physiographic units (Fig. 2). In the northern segment,
exorheic catchments show canyon morphologies that
incise the extensively low relief surface with pedi-
ments. These valleys are characterized by very steep
hills and a narrow valley bottom where ephemeral and
intermittent streams were developed. Only some
valleys show perennial streams such as the Lluta,
Azapa, Camarones, and Camiña rivers (Fig. 1b). In the
central segment, with the exception of the Loa River,
catchments do not reach the Pacific Ocean and their
geomorphological evolution is related to hydrologic
capture as the result of tectonic and geomorphic
factors (e.g. in the Quillagua reach). Finally, in the
southern segment, the increase of precipitation and its
orographic control signifies more favorable conditions
for the development of exorheic catchments, such as
for the Taltal, El Salado, and Copiapó rivers; however,
the first two present ephemeral conditions whereas the
latter is intermittent (Fig. 1b).
Geology of the Atacama Desert
Rocks of the Atacama Desert can be divided into two
main groups: (i) older rocks, which are of Pre-
Mesozoic era, that correspond to the basement and
(ii) younger rocks, from the Mesozoic onwards, which
are related to the convergent margin, distinct mag-
matic and volcanic chains (younger in the eastward
direction), and Andean uplift.
The oldest rocks, or the Pre-Mesozoic basement,
correspond to scattered metamorphic outcrops of
Precambrian age exposed in the Precordillera and
Coastal Cordillera (ca. 1100–800 Ma; e.g. Pankhurst
et al. 2016) in addition to Early Paleozoic igneous and
sedimentary outcrops located to the south of the
Atacama Salt flat (e.g. Augustsson et al. 2015;
Niemeyer et al. 2014). From the Late Carboniferous
to Permian (ca. 330–270 Ma), when the Pangea
supercontinent was present, a subduction-related
magmatic arc was active in the Precordillera (e.g.
Maksaev et al. 2014 and reference therein). This stage
provoked the deposition of volcanic rocks and
emplacement of plutonic (granitic) bodies which are
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

And
N-S Transcurrent faults of the Upper Tertiary. ea n B'
Altiplano

N
NW-NE faults related to the Andes uplift. Western
Basement rocks. Cordillera
Surface materials (sediments, soils, saline
Precordillera
precipitates, tailing impoundments, and
or Domeyko
surface water).
Cordillera

Sal
t flat
s
Central
Coastal Depression
Cordillera
Marine
B Platform

Trench

Tsg

Tig

Sedimentary Rocks Intrusive Rocks

Kg Upper Tertiary to Recent Tsg
Continental sediments Upper Tertiary
Pzg Jg Tig
Tertiary
Continental and volcanic sedimentary rocks Lower Tertiary
Cretaceous
Continental rocks Kg
Continental and volcanic sedimentary rocks Cretaceous
Jurassic
Volcanic rocks Jg
Marine sedimentary rocks Jurassic
0 10 20 km Paleozoic
Metamorphic rocks of sedimentary protolith Pzg
Paleozoic

Fig. 2 Geomorphological and geological sections of the Atacama Desert (obtained from Risacher et al. 1999). B–B0 transect of Fig. 1

exposed in a nearly continuous longitudinal belt of
outcrops in the uplifted central blocks of the Domeyko
Cordillera.
Since the Mesozoic onward, the evolution of
subduction has shaped the geology of the Atacama
Desert, and a series of N–S longitudinal magmatic
belts can be recognized from west to east (Fig. 2). The
Coastal Cordillera is constituted by thick volcanic
(andesitic) sequences and related plutonic bodies;
these formed in a magmatic arc related to Late Triassic
to Early Cretaceous subduction (e.g. Casquet et al.
2014; Oliveros et al. 2007; Fig. 2). To the east of this
magmatic arc, a marine back-arc basin was filled with
fossiliferous and calcareous materials forming sedi-
mentary rocks that crop out in the slope of the
Precordillera (e.g. Ardill et al. 1998). This calcareous
marine basin was closed and inverted at the end of
Early Cretaceous period (Amilibia et al. 2008), and
magmatic activity migrated to the east to what
currently corresponds to the eastern Central Depres-
sion and western slope of the Precordillera. Late
Cretaceous to Paleogene (72–48 Ma) bimodal igneous
rocks, namely lava and pyroclastics deposits (e.g.
Espinoza et al. 2011, 2012), as well as minor
continental sedimentary rocks (e.g. Mpodozis et al.
2005), were deposited in a longitudinal volcanic arc at
this location.
During the Late to Early Oligocene (ca. 42–35 Ma),
a relevant deformation event known as the Incaic
Phase was responsible for uplift of the Precordillera,

123

coinciding with the emplacement of a series of Cu-rich
igneous bodies (porphyry Cu) that are scattered along
the mountain chain. After this stage and since the
Miocene, continental sedimentation was a conse-
quence of landscape denudation due to arid to
hyperarid climatic conditions. As a result, alluvial
gravel to sandy sedimentary deposits known as
Atacama Gravels (Mortimer 1973) covered most of
the slopes of the Precordillera and Central Depression.
In addition, during the Neogene, the nitrate and iodine-
rich soil known as caliche was deposited, representing
a unique feature of the Central Depression in the
Atacama Desert (Álvarez et al. 2016).
Since the Neogene period onward, volcanic activity
migrated eastwards, and during the Miocene era,
ignimbrite (pyroclastic) flows were extensively depos-
ited in the Altiplano. This physiographic unit started to
uplift ca. 25 Ma contributing to the building of the
Andes Mountains (e.g. Allmendinger et al. 1997;
Jordan et al. 2010). In this context, a series of
endorheic basins between the Precordillera and the
Altiplano were formed between ca. 23–25 "S (Fig. 2);
these basins host active salt flat deposits where the
Atacama and Punta Negra salt flats are the most
prominent. The present-day volcanic activity is con-
centrated along the Western (or Main) Cordillera,
along the Chile-Argentina border, corresponding to a
series of stratovolcanoes that extrude lava and pyro-
clastic flows of acidic to intermediate composition.
Mineral deposits and the Anthropocene
The arid to hyperarid conditions of the Atacama
Desert have been studied in a number of previous
works with the predominant intent of identifying the
start of those conditions. Some hypotheses state that
they begin as early as the late Triassic (Clarke 2006) or
late Jurassic (Hartley et al. 2005), yet most indicate
they started recently in late Oligocene ca. 23 Ma
(Dunai et al. 2005), mid-Miocene (ca. 14 Ma; Alpers
and Brimhall 1989), Upper Miocene (ca. 10 Ma; Hoke
et al. 2004), or late Pliocene (Hartley and Chong
2002). These arid to hyperarid climatic conditions
have resulted in distinguishable characteristics of the
Atacama Desert such as salt flats enriched in Li (Ide
and Kunasz 1990; Risacher et al. 1999) and B
(Risacher et al. 1999), large nitrate deposits (Pérez-
Fodich et al. 2014), iodine deposits (Álvarez et al.
123
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
2016), and secondary enrichment in porphyry copper
deposits (Sillitoe and Perelló 2005).
The richness in mineral deposits of the Atacama
Desert has led to the development of numerous large-
scale mining exploration campaigns during the
Anthropocene. As such, within the Atacama Desert,
there are numerous mines of great significance; such
examples are (i) the Cu–Mo porphyries of Chuquica-
mata, Zaldı́var, La Escondida, and El Salvador; (ii) the
stratabound deposits of Mantos Blancos, Michilla,
Manto de la Luna and Manto Verde; (iii) the iron oxide
Cu–Au (IOCG) deposits of Esperanza and Candelaria
and (iv) the epithermal deposits of El Peñón, San
Cristóbal, Guanaco, El Hueso and La Coipa (Fig. 1b),
among others.
As the result of widespread and often unregulated
mining activities, during the Anthropocene, well-
known cases of pollution developed. For instance, air
pollution has been registered in the surroundings of the
smelter of Chuquicamata (Orihuela 2014; Fig. 1b) and
Cu ore processing facility in Tocopilla (Jorquera 2009;
Fig. 1b). The mines of Potrerillos and El Salvador
(Fig. 1b), which exploited Cu–Mo porphyries,
dumped nearly 150 9 106 tons of tailing impound-
ments directly into El Salado River between 1938 and
1975 (Castilla 1983); currently, the smelter of
Potrerillos (Fig. 1b) is responsible for water and
sediment pollution (Tapia et al. 2018), among other
impacts on the environment.
Geochemistry of the Atacama Desert
In the Atacama Desert, the previously described
geologic and anthropogenic features are characterized
by their distinct rocks and materials. The geochemistry
of these features can be divided in three main types:
rocks, surface materials (including sediments, soils,
saline precipitates, and tailing impoundments), and
water. Their chemistry, more specifically, can be
understood through the main and trace constituents
present.
Geochemistry of rocks
The chemical composition of hard rocks that are
present on the surface of the Atacama Desert varies
significantly with longitude, whereas it remains rather
constant as a function of the latitude (e.g. Haschke
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
et al. 2006; Mamani et al. 2010; Rogers and Hawkes-
worth 1989). Such segmentation of the chemistry is
the result of the subduction-dominated South Amer-
ican plate, where the geological record represents
successive arc domains at the plate margin (Mpodozis
and Ramos 1990).
Major oxides
The SiO2 content in the rocks of the Atacama Desert is
slightly variable from west to east, with the Coastal
Cordillera exhibiting the lowest values through Juras-
sic-Late Cretaceous magmatism. From the Central
Depression to the east, the values are more variable but
are normally over 55% of the total volume of the rocks
(Fig. 3). A negative correlation of Ca, Mg, Fe, Ti, Mn
and Al with Si is observed for most of the igneous
rocks (Figs. 3a,c,d), whereas positive correlations are
found for K, Na, and P (Fig. 3b). Enrichment in Fe
over Mg with differentiation is not observed with the
exception of some Jurassic volcanics, consistent with
the calc-alkaline nature of the Paleozoic to Recent
igneous rocks. Metamorphic rocks have a Si content
between 50 and 60% wt., and in general exhibit higher
contents of Al, Fe, Na, and Ca in comparison with
igneous rocks.
Trace elements
The rare-earth elements (REE) in the Atacama Desert
are enriched relative to chondrite in all rock types,
with the lowest contents in some Mesozoic plutons. A
unique characteristic of the distribution of REE is that
the ratio of light (LREE) to heavy (HREE) elements,
represented by chondrite-normalized La/Sm and La/
Yb, generally decreases with age (Haschke et al. 2006;
and references therein); it is also at its maximum in
some Eocene–Oligocene intrusions related to por-
phyry copper deposits (Reich et al. 2003; Richards
2011). The Eu content in all rocks is normally lower
than other REE, reflecting the strong control of
plagioclase fractionation in Andean magmas. In a
similar way, some HREE depletions in Cretaceous to
Holocene rocks might reflect deeper sources of
magmatism and their relation to thicker crust
(Haschke et al. 2006; Mamani et al. 2010). Base
metals (Fe–Cu–Zn–Pb) are in the normal range of
intermediate igneous rocks (Fig. 4), but they are
slightly higher in Jurassic volcanics and some
intrusions, a feature related to the origin of Mesozoic
IOCG deposits in the Coastal Cordillera widely
recognized for Cu. Titanium and V show a strong
correlation among all studied rocks, reflecting the
importance of Fe–Ti oxides in Andean magmatism.
Cobalt, Ni, and Cr are uniformly depleted relative to
the primitive mantle, indicating strong fractionation
prior to the generation of most igneous rocks.
Geochemistry of surface materials
Surface materials in the Atacama Desert including
sediments, soils, saline precipitates, and tailing
impoundments are described below.
Major oxides
In general, geochemical data for the main oxides
shows that there exists a strong correlation between
SiO2 and Al2O3, and SiO2 and K2O in sediments
(Fig. 3), indicating an enrichment of Al and K in more
felsic-derived sediments.
On the contrary, in sediments, Ca (Fig. 3c) and Fe
(Fig. 3d) oxides are indirectly related to SiO2 which
indicates an expected depletion of these elements in
more felsic-derived sediments. The flat sloping trends
observed for CaO (Fig. 3c) are related to volcanic and
continental rocks of Oligocene to Miocene ages
located close to the Andes Mountains. Flat trends
observed for Fe2O3 (Fig. 3d) are related to Oligocene
to Quaternary continental deposits located close to the
Coastal Cordillera.
The relationship between major oxides in tailing
impoundments (SERNAGEOMIN 2017) in the Ata-
cama Desert shows variable trends (Fig. 3).
Geochemical anomalies related to mineral deposits
The geochemistry of mineral deposits has been
extensively documented in the Atacama Desert.
Special attention has been given to nitrates, iodine,
lithium, boron, and copper.
Nitrates and iodine The Atacama Desert is the
world’s premier source of natural nitrate minerals,
which are hosted in the nitrate soils or caliche
deposits. These deposits are unique because no
equivalent accumulations of nitrate are found
elsewhere (Ericksen 1981, 1983). Nitrate deposits
123

(a)
(c)
Fig. 3 Oxide plots of volcanic and plutonic rocks (Mamani
et al. 2010 and references therein), sediments (SERNAGEO-
MIN 2012a, b, c), and tailing impoundments (SERNAGEOMIN
2017) of the Atacama Desert. a SiO2 versus Al2O3, b SiO2
are complex assemblages of highly soluble nitrates
(* 7–15% NO3), iodates, chlorides, sulfates,
perchlorates, borates, and chromates. They are
located along the eastern margin of the Coastal
Cordillera between 19"300 S and 26 "S, in an almost
continuous * 700 km-long, * 20 km-wide belt,
only interrupted by salt flats and the Loa River.
Nitrate deposits of the Atacama Desert are unique
not only because of their high nitrate concentrations,
123
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
(b)
(d)
versus K2O, c SiO2 versus CaO, d SiO2 versus F2O3. Note All
individual plots (a–d) have the same x-axis, as shown in the
bottommost plots of c and d. All data in wt%
but also because they are significantly enriched in
iodine. Concentrations of the latter exceed the average
upper continental crust (UCC) average value
(1.4 lg g-1; Rudnick and Gao 2003) by 3–4 orders
of magnitude, ranging from 2 to 4000 lg g-1, with an
average concentration of approximately 700 lg g-1
(Álvarez et al. 2015). Hence, the Atacama Desert is the
world’s premier producer of natural iodine, which is
extracted from the caliche ore as iodate (IO3-)
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
minerals, such as lautarite, fuenzalidite, and hector-
floresite (Pueyo et al. 1998). Aside from nitrate
deposits, anomalous iodine mineral occurrences in
the Atacama Desert have been documented in the
supergene zones and soils developed above copper
deposits (e.g., Cameron et al. 2010; Reich et al. 2013),
as well as in different types of natural waters (Álvarez
et al. 2016).
Several theories about the origin of nitrate deposits
have been proposed. Recent studies suggest a multi-
source origin for the principal components of nitrate
deposits. These include predominant atmospheric
sources (Michalski et al. 2004) such as dry deposition
(nitrates, perchlorates) and sea spray inputs (sulfate,
chloride and calcium components), in addition to
deeper sources related to groundwater flow (chro-
mates, iodates) from large-scale circulation and mix-
ing of fluids of meteoric, sedimentary, and volcanic
origins (Álvarez et al. 2015; Pérez-Fodich et al. 2014).
Lithium, boron, and potassium The Atacama Desert
also hosts important Li, B, and K deposits, most of
which are located in salt flats to the west (Pre-Andean
basins) and within the Altiplano (Gajardo 2014). The
source of these elements is believed to be related to
inputs of Cenozoic volcanic activity, the weathering of
volcanic rocks, and hot springs (Alonso et al. 1991;
Gajardo 2014). Specifically for the Atacama Salt flat,
the origin of Li is related to (i) geothermal waters
associated with active volcanism, (ii) leaching of
water-soluble salts from volcanic rocks, (iii) leaching
of Li-rich clays, and (iv) saline water of lakes and salt
flats at high elevations of the Andes (Ide and Kunasz
1990). High concentrations of Li have been also
documented in Neogene evaporites, which reside in
closed drainages within and adjacent to the volcanic
arc, facilitating the capture of all products of
geothermal activity (Alonso et al. 1991). The
enrichment of these elements is believed to be
related to high rates of evaporation (approximately
3200 mm year-1), scarce precipitation (Gajardo
2014), and the presence of endorheic basins in the
Pre-Andean and Altiplano areas (Alonso et al. 1991).
Reserves of Li have been estimated in the Atacama
salt flat at 6.3 million tons, while in Pedernales and
Maricunga, salt flats contain 240,000 and 280,000
tons, respectively (Gajardo 2014).
Copper Mineralization of copper can be broadly
related to IOCG and stratabound deposits in the
Coastal Cordillera as well as to porphyry copper
deposits in the Precordillera (Fig. 2). Mineralization
related to the Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous metallogenic
belt (Sillitoe 2003) is constituted by the magnetite-
dominated, sulfide-poor deposits of the Chilean Iron
Belt (Espinoza 1990), and productive Cu-Au centers
(e.g., the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre and Mantoverde
districts; Benavides et al. 2007).
The Atacama Desert also hosts important porphyry
copper deposits such as Chuquicamata-El Abra (Bal-
lard et al. 2001; Campbell et al. 2006), Spence
(Leybourne and Cameron 2006, 2008; Reich et al.
2008), La Escondida (Garza et al. 2001; Ortiz et al.
1986), and El Salvador (Cornejo et al. 1997; Gustafson
and Hunt 1975). From a geochemical perspective,
these deposits are characterized by high concentra-
tions of Cu, Mo, and to a lesser extent Au and Re,
which are linked to Cu-bearing sulfides such as
chalcopyrite, bornite, chalcocite, and gangue minerals
(i.e. pyrite, arsenopyrite, quartz, and calcite) (Sillitoe
2010). These deposits were and continue to be
intensively exploited in the Atacama Desert. How-
ever, as a result, extremely high values of Cu and Mo
can be expelled into the environment from tailing
impoundments associated with mining processes
(Fig. 4).
Additional trace elements
From an environmental perspective, arsenic has been
extensively studied in the Atacama Desert (Risacher
et al. 1999; Romero et al. 2003; SERNAGEOMIN
2012a, b, c; Tapia et al. 2018). This element is highly
concentrated there, especially in brines and salt flats,
and its suggested origin is similar to that of Li, B, and
K (Alonso et al. 1991). Arsenic shows concentrations
well above the UCC average in the Atacama Desert
and this trend does not reflect the geochemistry of
volcanic or plutonic rocks of the region (Fig. 4). The
highest concentration values are related to saline
precipitates (Tapia et al. 2018) and Neogene evapor-
ites (Alonso et al. 1991). Boron and Li enrichment has
also been observed in saline precipitates (Fig. 4).
In relation to other trace elements such as Co, Fe,
Mn, V, and Zn, which are poorly documented in
surface materials of the Atacama Desert, it is observed
that these elements reflect the geochemistry of
123
 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

123
 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

b Fig. 4 Box plots of concentrations of arsenic (As), boron (B), Francisco (Risacher et al. 1999), and in fluvial water
cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), lithium (Li), from Rı́o Azufre (Sulfur River; DGA 2017; Fig. 1b).
manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), lead (Pb), vanadium (V),
and zinc (Zn) in volcanic and intrusive rocks, soils and regolith, Total dissolved solids (TDS) present the highest
sediments, saline precipitates, and tailing impoundments of the concentrations in saline water, brines, and hot springs
Atacama Desert. The dotted line indicates the average (Table 1). The electric conductivity is highly variable,
concentration of the upper continental crust (Rudnick and Gao but in general is the highest in saline water and brines
2003)
(Table 1). In the Atacama Desert, surface water features
such as lakes and rivers are generally not deep, therefore
temperature depends on the sampling time which tends
volcanic and intrusive rocks in sediments and soils and
to be the highest at midday. The highest water
show similar average concentration values to those of
temperatures are related to hot springs (Table 1).
the UCC. Saline precipitates are in general depleted in
these elements, and tailing impoundments show a
Major constituents
slight enrichment in Fe, Mn, V, and Zn (Fig. 4).
Chromium is depleted in comparison to the UCC, yet
Major water constituents such as Mg2?, Ca2?, Na?,
it exhibits similar values in surface materials to those
K?, SO42-, Cl- and HCO3- are well-documented in
observed for rocks of the Atacama Desert. Saline
saline water and brines (Risacher et al. 1999), fluvial
precipitates are depleted in Cr and the median
and lacustrine water (DGA 2017), and hot springs
concentration in tailing impoundments is similar to
(Hauser 1997), yet there is little information available
that of the UCC average (Fig. 4).
regarding groundwater (Leybourne and Cameron
Trace elements such as Mo and Pb are studied
2006, 2008; Soto 2010) and CO32-. With the excep-
mainly for exploration of mineral resources or for the
tion of HCO3-, there is a strong correlation between
assessment of potential areas of contamination. It is
most major water constituents of the distinct water
evident that extremely high values of Mo and Pb are
types (Fig. 5).
associated with tailing impoundments; nonetheless,
sediments, soils, and to a lesser extent saline precip-
Trace elements
itates exhibit similar concentrations to Atacama
Desert volcanic and plutonic rocks (Fig. 4). The
Trace elements in water of the Atacama Desert that are
spatial distribution of these elements shows positive
well documented are: As (DGA 2017; Hauser 1997;
anomalies close to the HMC cathode production
Risacher et al. 1999; Romero et al. 2003; Tapia et al.
facility in the Tarapacá Region (Fig. 1b), among other
2018), B (DGA 2017; Hauser 1997; Risacher et al.
mining-related facilities and localities such as the
1999; Romero et al. 2003), Li (Hauser 1997; Risacher
Potrerillos smelter and Caleta Palito which have been
et al. 1999; Romero et al. 2003; Tapia et al. 2018) and
affected by the release of tailings since the 1970s
Cu (Leybourne and Cameron 2008; Soto 2010; Tapia
(Fig. 1b). These trends indicate that the enrichment of
et al. 2018). The elements Co, Cr, Fe, Mn, Mo, Pb, V,
these elements is most likely related to anthropogenic
and Zn are not well-documented and related informa-
activities, namely mining.
tion in the Atacama Desert is scarce (MOP 2017).
Box plots showing the available concentration data are
Water chemistry
presented in Fig. 6.
In the Atacama Desert, the most enriched elements
Water in the Atacama Desert is scarce due to arid to
in water when compared to the average concentration
hyperarid conditions. The few available water
of rivers worldwide are As, B, and Li; their concen-
resources are present as brines, saline water, fluvial
trations are similar between the various water types,
and lacustrine surface water, groundwater, and hot
yet the highest are related to brines (Fig. 6). From the
springs (Table 1).
available data, it is evident that (i) Cu concentrations
In general, the various water sources exhibit average
are higher in groundwater, (ii) Co values are higher in
circumneutral pH. Acidic waters are only found at
surface water and groundwater, (iii) Mo, V, and Zn are
specific sites, such as the Gorbea and Ignorado salt flats,
more concentrated in brines, (iv) Cr and Pb show
in springs located close to the Laguna del Negro
variable concentration values depending on the water

123
 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

123
 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

b Fig. 5 Major constituents of water in the Atacama Desert.
a SO42- versus Cl-, b SO42- versus HCO3-, c SO42- versus
K?, d SO42- versus Na?, e SO42- versus Ca2?, f SO42- versus
Mg2?. Note All individual plots (a–f) have the same x-axis, as
shown in the bottommost plots of e and f. All data is presented in
mg L-1. Brines TDS[50,000 mg L-1, saline water 500\TDS
(mg L-1)\50,000, and fluvial and lacustrine water TDS\500
mg L-1
type, yet are more concentrated in fluvial and lacus-
trine water, and (v) with the exception of hot springs,
for Fe and Mn, concentrations are quite similar
between the distinct water types and are close to the
average concentrations of rivers worldwide (Fig. 6).
Conclusions
As evidenced from the various geologic and geo-
chemical features discussed, there are intriguing and
unique characteristics related to the physiography,
geomorphology, geology, and geochemistry of the
Atacama Desert that reflect conditions of water
scarcity present since at least the Late Pliocene
(Hartley and Chong 2002). The compressive subduc-
tion, Andean uplift, and establishment of arid to hyper
arid conditions in this desert, as well as their origins,
are still in debate. Nonetheless, there is evidence
which supports the premise that conditions of the
Atacama Desert were suitable to generate secondary
enrichment in porphyry copper deposits, iodine
deposits, nitrate deposits, extremely saline environ-
ments in endorheic hydrologic systems (such as salt
flats enriched in As, B, K, and Li), and life under
extreme conditions.
Active research is still being undertaken in the
Atacama Desert. One research area of importance is
related to extremely high concentration of As, B, K,
and Li in endorheic basins of the Atacama Desert; in

Table 1 Main physio- pH TDS Conductivity Temperature

chemical characteristics of mg L-1 lS cm-1 "C
water in the Atacama Desert
Brines
n 94 86 88 92
Average 7.3 165,003 151,019 14.5
Range 1.3–10.8 50,618–341,759 47,100–1,229,000 1.5–29.5
r 1.4 96,294 128,111 6.3
Saline water
n 366 356 342 362
Average 7.8 8630 12,055 13.4
Range 2.0–10.5 510–48,710 393–288,000 -1 to 35
r 1.1 10,551 19,991 6.9
Fluvial and lacustrine water
n 407 133 329 248
Average 7.9 217 3321 15.2
Range 1.8–9.9 9.4–496 29–119,400 0.2–33.7
r 0.7 136 9150 6.7
Groundwater
n 122 60 25 71
Average 7.5 19,980 2100 25.9
Range 4.7–9.4 744–145,020 910–7396 9.9–35.3
r 0.7 22,710 1703 3.6
Hot springs
n 43 10 10 38
Average 7.4 4599 6661 46.3
Note n refers to the number Range 2.3–9.8 2.62–24,245 723–32,500 19–87.5
of samples and r is the r 1.2 7313 9714 20.7
standard deviation

123
 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

6 8 2
10 10 10

10
5 As 7
B WHO recommendation Co
10 World average
Concentration (µg•L-1)

4
10 6
10 1
10
3
10
5
10
2
10
4
10 (µg•L-1) 10
1
10 0
10
10
3 2,400 (µg•L-1)
0
10
0.62 (µg•L-1) 2
-1
10 10
0.148 (µg•L-1)
-2 1 10.2 (µg•L-1) 10
-1
10 10
2 5
10 10

50 (µg•L-1)
Cr 4
Cu 10
5 Fe
10
Concentration (µg•L-1)

-1
2,000 (µg•L )
3
1
10
3
10 10
2
10 66 (µg•L-1)

1
10
1 10
0 -1
10 0.7 (µg•L-1) 1.48 (µg•L )
0
10
-1
10
-1
10

-1
10 10
-2
10
-3

7 5 4
10 10 10

10
6 Li 10
4 Mn Mo
3
10
5 3
10 10
Concentration (µg•L-1)

4 2
10 10 10
2

3 1 34 (µg•L-1)
10 10
1
2 0 10
10 10

1 -1
10 10 0
1.48 (µg•L-1) 10
0 -2
0.42 (µg•L-1)
10 10

-1 -3 -1
10 10 10
4 3 5
10 10 10

Pb V 4
Zn
3 10
10
2
10
Concentration (µg•L-1)

3
10
2
10
2
10
1 1
10 10
1
10
0
10
0
0 10 0.6 (µg•L-1)
10 0.71 (µg•L-1)
-1
10 -1
10
0.079 (µg•L-1)
-1
-2
10 10 10
-2

Brine Saline water Fluvial and lacustrine water Groundwater Hot springs
TDS > 50,000 mg•L-1 500 < TDS (mg•L-1) < 50,000 TDS < 500 mg•L-1

123
 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
b Fig. 6 Element concentration box plots for arsenic (As), boron
(B), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), lithium
(Li), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), lead (Pb), vanadium
(V), and zinc (Zn) in brines, saline water, fluvial and lacustrine
water, groundwater, and hot springs of the Atacama Desert. The
widely spaced dotted line represents the world average
concentration (lg L-1) of each element in fluvial systems.
The closely spaced dotted line represents the World Health
Organization (WHO) recommended concentrations for As, B,
Cr, and Cu, in lg L-1
particular, besides climatic conditions, are bacteria
controlling their mobilization in water? Many other
important questions still remain. What is the role of
bacteria in the secondary enrichment of porphyry
copper deposits? Is bacterial activity related to iodine
or nitrate enrichment? As concluded, the basement
rocks of the Atacama Desert are not controlling As or
Li concentrations in saline precipitates. Therefore, a
collaborative effort between distinct disciplines will
aid in the clarification of these important research
questions in the future.
Acknowledgements We sincerely thank Alan Bull for the
invitation to participate in this special issue in addition to the
anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments and
suggestions. We thank Pablo Zúñiga for the compilation of
water data and Brandon Schneider for English improvement.
This review was partially funded by the grant entitled Programa
de Inserción en la Academia (PAI) 79150070.
Compliance with ethical standards
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no
conflict of interest.
Ethical approval This article does not contain any studies
with human participants or animals performed by any of the
authors.
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