1.

INTRODUCTION:
An aircraft is a machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force
of gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an air foil, or in a few cases
the downward thrust from jet engines.
The human activity that surrounds aircraft is called aviation. Crewed aircraft are flown by an
on-board pilot, but unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or self-controlled by
on-board computers. Aircraft may be classified by different criteria, such as lift type, aircraft
propulsion, usage and others.
Propulsion means to push forward or drive an object forward. The term is derived from two
Latin words: pro, meaning before or forward; and pellere, meaning to drive. A propulsion
system consists of a source of mechanical power, and a propulsor (means of converting this
power into propulsive force).
A technological system uses an engine or motor as the power source (commonly called a power
plant), and wheels and axles, propellers, or a propulsive nozzle to generate the force.
Components such as clutches or gearboxes may be needed to connect the motor to axles,
wheels, or propellers.
Biological propulsion systems use an animal's muscles as the power source, and limbs such as
wings, fins or legs as the propulsor.
Some aircraft, like airliners and cargo planes, spend most of their life in a cruise condition. For
these airplanes, excess thrust is not as important as high engine efficiency and low fuel usage.
Since thrust depends on both the amount of gas moved and the velocity, we can generate high
thrust by accelerating a large mass of gas by a small amount, or by accelerating a small mass
of gas by a large amount. Because of the aerodynamic efficiency of propellers and fans, it is
more fuel efficient to accelerate a large mass by a small amount. That is why we find high
bypass fans and turboprops on cargo planes and airliners.

Some aircraft, like fighter planes or experimental high speed aircraft require very high excess
thrust to accelerate quickly and to overcome the high drag associated with high speeds. For
these airplanes, engine efficiency is not as important as very high thrust. Modern military
aircraft typically employ afterburners on a low bypass turbofan core. Future hypersonic aircraft
will employ some type of ramjet or rocket propulsion.

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2. Propulsion system
An aircraft propulsion system generally consists of an aircraft engine and some means to
generate thrust, such as a propeller or a propulsive nozzle.

An aircraft propulsion system must achieve two things. First, the thrust from the propulsion
system must balance the drag of the airplane when the airplane is cruising. And second, the
thrust from the propulsion system must exceed the drag of the airplane for the airplane to
accelerate. In fact, the greater the difference between the thrust and the drag, called the excess
thrust, the faster the airplane will accelerate.

Some aircraft, like airliners and cargo planes, spend most of their life in a cruise condition. For
these airplanes,

Excess thrust is not as important as high engine efficiency and low fuel usage. Since thrust
depends on both the amount of gas moved and the velocity, we can generate high thrust by
accelerating a large mass of gas by a small amount, or by accelerating a small mass of gas by
a large amount. Because of the aerodynamic efficiency of propellers and fans, it is more fuel
efficient to accelerate a large mass by a small amount. That is why we find high bypass fans
and turboprops on cargo planes and airliners.

Some aircraft, like fighter planes or experimental high speed aircraft, require very high excess
thrust to accelerate quickly and to overcome the high drag associated with high speeds. For
these airplanes, engine efficiency is not as important as very high thrust. Modern military
aircraft typically employ afterburners on a low bypass turbofan core. Future hypersonic aircraft
will employ some type of ramjet or rocket propulsion.

A propeller or airscrew comprises a set of small, wing-like aerofoil blades set around a central
hub which spins on an axis aligned in the direction of travel. The blades are set at a pitch angle
to the airflow, which may be fixed or variable, such that spinning the propeller creates
aerodynamic lift, or thrust, in a forward direction.

A tractor design mounts the propeller in front of the power source, while a pusher design
mounts it behind. Although the pusher design allows cleaner airflow over the wing, tractor
configuration is more common because it allows cleaner airflow to the propeller and provides
a better weight distribution.

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3
4
3. AIRCRAFT MOTION:
This slide shows some rules for the simplified motion of an aircraft. By simplified motion we
mean that some of the four forces acting on the aircraft are balanced by other forces and that
we are looking at only one force and one direction at a time. In reality, this simplified motion
doesn't occur because all of the forces are interrelated to the aircraft's speed, altitude,
orientation, etc. But looking at the forces ideally and individually does give us some insight
and is much easier to understand.

Fig 2-Various forces acting on aircraft

In an ideal situation, an airplane could sustain a constant speed and level flight in which the
weight would be balanced by the lift, and the drag would be balanced by the thrust. The closest
example of this condition is a cruising airliner. While the weight decreases due to fuel burned,
the change is very small relative to the total aircraft weight. In this situation, the aircraft will
maintain a constant cruise velocity as described by Newton's first law of motion.

If the forces become unbalanced, the aircraft will move in the direction of the greater force.
We can compute the acceleration which the aircraft will experience from Newton's second law
of motion

F=m*a

Where ‘a’ is the acceleration, m is the mass of the aircraft, and F is the net force acting on the
aircraft. The net force is the difference between the opposing forces; lift minus weight, or thrust
minus drag. With this information, we can solve for the resulting motion of the aircraft.

If the weight is decreased while the lift is held constant, the airplane will rise:

Lift > Weight - Aircraft Rises

If the lift is decreased while the weight is constant, the plane will fall:

Weight > Lift - Aircraft Falls

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Similarly, increasing the thrust while the drag is constant will cause the plane to accelerate:

Thrust > Drag - Aircraft Accelerates

And increasing the drag at a constant thrust will cause the plane to slow down:

Drag > Thrust - Aircraft Slows [1]

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4. AIRCRAFT ENGINE:
Merriam –Webster dictionary defines engine “a machine for converting any of various
forms of energy into mechanical force and motion’’. The engine is hence an energy
transformer. [2]

Fig 3- the turbojet engine

This transformation is unfortunately not perfect and accompanied by certain loses .this
introduce the notion of efficiency, which is define as “The ratio of the useful work performed
by a machine or in a process to the total energy expended or heat taken in’’ [3]. Its value is always
less than 1 (or 100 %).

The principle of aeronautical

f opposite action
or action-reaction) which says that anybody A exerting a force on a body B experiences a force
of equal intensity, exerted on it by body B. In the case of aeronautical propulsion, the body A
is atmospheric air which is accelerated through the engine. The force the action necessary to
accelerate this air has an equal effect, but in the opposite direction the reaction -, applied to the
object producing this acceleration (the body B, that is the engine, and hence the aircraft to
which it is attached).

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5. GAS TURBINE:
The basic operation of the gas turbine is a Brayton cycle with air as the working fluid. Fresh
atmospheric air flows through the compressor that brings it to higher pressure. Energy is then
added by spraying fuel into the air and igniting it so the combustion generates a high-
temperature flow. This high-temperature high-pressure gas enters a turbine, where it expands
down to the exhaust pressure, producing a shaft work output in the process. The turbine shaft
work is used to drive the compressor; the energy that is not used for shaft work comes out in
the exhaust gases that produce thrust. The purpose of the gas turbine determines the design so
that the most desirable split of energy between the thrust and the shaft work is achieved. The
fourth step of the brayton cycle (cooling of the working fluid) is omitted, as gas turbines
are open systems that do not use the same air again.

Fig 4- open gas turbine cycle

Gas turbines are used to power aircraft, trains, ships, electrical generators, pumps, gas
compressors and tanks. [4]

Gas turbines are particularly suited for aircraft propulsion because they are light and compact
and have a high power –to –weight ratio. Aircraft gas turbines operate on an open cycle called
“jet propulsion cycle ’’.It can be of turbojet, turbofan or turboprop type.

Components of gas turbine –

1. Compressor
2. Combustion chamber
3. Gas turbine
4. Nozzle

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 5.1 Advantages of gas turbine –
1. Once the turbine is brought up to rated speed by starting the motor and the fuel is ignited
the gas turbine will accelerate from cold start to full load without warm up time.

2. Because of its smaller size, the floor space required for its installation is less.

3. A gas turbine plant can be started up as well as shut down quickly, like a diesel engine.

4. The floor space required for installation is less.

5. The requirement of cooling water is not much.

6. In thermal power plant station ash disposal from the site often poses a serious problem.
This is not so in gas turbine power plant.

7. The cost of installation is much less compared to thermal plant.

5.2 Disadvantages of gas turbine plant –

1. Part load efficiency is low.

2. The efficiency depends on the ambient condition.

3. Compressor work required is quite large, which tells upon the efficiency of the plant.

4. Air and gas filters have to be of very high quality so that no dust enters to erode and corrode
the turbine blades.

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6. Jet propulsion:
Jet propulsion is thrust produced by passing a jet of matter (typically fluid) in the opposite
direction to the direction of motion. Jet propulsion like all other propulsion, is based on
newton’s second law of motion and third law of motion. Newton’s second law states that
the rate of change of momentum in any direction is proportional to the force acting in that
direction. Newton’s third law states that for every action there is equal and opposite
reaction.

Aircraft propulsion may be achieved by using a heat engine to drive a propeller or by

allowing a high – energy fluid to expand and leave the aircraft in a rearward direction as a
high velocity jet .In propeller type of aircraft engine, the propeller takes a large mass flow
and gives it a moderate velocity backward relative to the aircraft .In the jet engine, the
aircraft induces a relatively small air flow and gives it a high velocity backwards relative
to the aircraft. In both cases the rate of change of momentum of the air provides a reactive
forward thrust which propels the aircraft.

The jet aircraft draws in air and expels it to rearward in the form of product of combustion.
The action of accelerating the mass of fluid in a given direction creates a reaction in the
opposite direction in the form of propulsive force. The magnitude of this force is defined
as thrust.

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 7. Propulsion devices for aircraft:

Table 1-Various propulsion devices used for aircraft and missiles

Propulsive devices

Those which makes use of Those which do not use

ambient air ambient air

Direct reaction
Indirect reaction Rocket
1.Turbojet
1. Propeller 1. Solid propeller
2.ramjet
2.Truboprop 2. Liquid propeller
3.Pulsejet

Propulsive devices are basically of two types: those which make use of atmospheric air as the
main working medium supplying oxygen for combustion of fuel, the atmospheric jet engines,
and those which carry oxygen required for combustion of fuel, the rockets. The performance
of jet engines depends on the forward speed of engine and upon the atmospheric pressure and
temperature. The rocket engine carries its own oxidizer for the combustion of fuel and is
therefore, independent of the atmospheric air as well as forward speed.

The main propulsive devices are the following:

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a. Propeller-It is an indirect reaction. Earlier, it is used to be driven by the reciprocating
internal combustion engine. A propeller handles relatively a large mass of air and accelerates
it rearwards at low speeds. It is the reaction of the rate of change of momentum of the air, called
the thrust, which propels the aircraft. The function of the engine is only to revolve the propeller
at the desired speed. [5]

b. Turboprop- A turboprop engine is a turbine that drives an aircraft propeller. In its

simplest form a turboprop consists of an intake, compressor, combustor, turbine, and
a propelling nozzle. Air is drawn into the intake and compressed by the compressor. Fuel is
then added to the compressed air in the combustor, where the fuel-air mixture then combusts.

Fig 5- turboprop
operation

The hot combustion gases expand through the turbine. Some of the power generated by the
turbine is used to drive the compressor. The rest is transmitted through the reduction gearing
to the propeller. Further expansion of the gases occurs in the propelling nozzle, where the gases
exhaust to atmospheric pressure. The propelling nozzle provides a relatively small proportion
of the thrust generated by a turboprop. [6]

c. Turbojet- The turbojet is an air breathing jet engine, typically used in aircraft. It consists
of a gas turbine with a propelling nozzle. The gas turbine has an air inlet, a compressor, a
combustion chamber, and a turbine (that drives the compressor).

Fig 6-turbojet operation

The compressed air from the compressor is heated by the fuel in the combustion
chamber and then allowed to expand through the turbine. The turbine exhaust is
then expanded in the propelling nozzle where it is accelerated to high speed to

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provide thrust. Two engineers, Frank Whittle in the United Kingdom and Hans von
Ohain in Germany, developed the concept independently into practical engines
during the late 1930s.
Turbojets have been replaced in slower aircraft by turboprops because they have
better range-specific fuel consumption. At medium speeds, where the propeller is
no longer efficient, turboprops have been replaced by turbofans. The turbofan is
quieter and has better range-specific fuel consumption than the turbojet. Turbojets
are still common in medium range cruise missiles, due to their high exhaust speed,
small frontal area, and relative simplicity.
Turbojets have poor efficiency at low vehicle speeds, which limits their usefulness
in vehicles other than aircraft. Turbojet engines have been used in isolated cases to
power vehicles other than aircraft, typically for attempts on land speed records.
Where vehicles are 'turbine powered' this is more commonly by use of a turbo
shaft engine, a development of the gas turbine engine where an additional turbine
is used to drive a rotating output shaft. These are common in helicopters and
hovercraft. [7]

d. Ramjet- A ramjet, sometimes referred to as a flying stovepipe or an athodyd (an

abbreviation of aero thermodynamic duct), is a form of air breathing jet engine that
uses the engine's forward motion to compress incoming air without an axial
compressor or a centrifugal compressor. Because ramjets cannot produce thrust at
zero airspeed, they cannot move an aircraft from a standstill. A ramjet-powered
vehicle, therefore, requires an assisted take-off like a rocket assist to accelerate it to
a speed where it begins to produce thrust. Ramjets work most efficiently at
supersonic speeds around Mach 3 (2,300 mph; 3,700 km/h). This type of engine
can operate up to speeds of Mach 6 (4,600 mph; 7,400 km/h).

Fig 7-simple ramjet operation with Mach number

Ramjets can be particularly useful in applications requiring a small and simple
mechanism for high-speed use, such as missiles. Weapon designers are looking to
use ramjet technology in artillery shells to give added range; a 120 mm mortar shell,
if assisted by a ramjet, is thought to be able to attain a range of 35 km (22 mi). They
have also been used successfully, though not efficiently, as tip jets on the end
of helicopter rotors. [8]
As speed increases, the efficiency of a ramjet starts to drop as the air temperature
in the inlet increases due to compression. As the inlet temperature gets closer to the
exhaust temperature, less energy can be extracted in the form of thrust. To produce
a usable amount of thrust at yet higher speeds, the ramjet must be modified so that

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the incoming air is not compressed (and therefore heated) nearly as much. This
means that the air flowing through the combustion chamber is still moving very fast
(relative to the engine), in fact it will be supersonic—hence the name supersonic-
combustion ramjet, or scramjet. [9]

e. Pulse jet - A pulsejet engine (or pulse jet) is a type of jet engine in which
combustion occurs in pulses. A pulsejet engine can be made with few or no moving
parts, and is capable of running statically (i.e. it does not need to have air forced
into its inlet typically by forward motion).

Fig 8- operation of pulse jet

Pulsejet engines are a lightweight form of jet propulsion, but usually have a poor
compression ratio, and hence give a low specific impulse. One notable line of
research of pulsejet engines includes the pulse detonation engine which involves
repeated detonations in the engine, and which can potentially give high compression
and reasonably good efficiency. [10]

Note- Ramjets differ from pulsejets, which use an intermittent combustion; ramjets
employ a continuous combustion process.
f. Rocket –
A rocket engine is a type of jet engine that uses only stored rocket propellant mass
for forming its high-speed propulsive jet. Rocket engines are reaction engines,
obtaining thrust in accordance with Newton's third law’

Fig 9- High Res image from Lockheed Martin

Most rocket engines are internal combustion engines, although non-combusting
forms (such as cold gas thrusters) also exist. Vehicles propelled by rocket engines
are commonly called rockets. Since they need no external material to form their jet,

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 rocket engines can perform in a vacuum and thus can be used to
propel spacecraft and ballistic missiles.
Compared to other types of jet engines, rocket engines are by far the lightest, and
have the highest thrust, but are the least propellant-efficient (they have the
lowest specific impulse). The ideal exhaust is hydrogen, the lightest of all gases,
but chemical rockets produce a mix of heavier species, reducing the exhaust
velocity. Rocket engines become more efficient at high velocities, due to
greater propulsive efficiency and the Oberth effect. Since they do not require an
atmosphere, they are well suited for uses at very high altitudes and in space. [11]

f.1 Principle of operation of rocket-

Rocket engines produce thrust by the expulsion of an exhaust fluid which has been
accelerated to a high speed through a propelling nozzle. The fluid is usually a gas
created by high pressure combustion of solid or liquid propellants, consisting
of fuel and oxidiser components, within a combustion chamber. The nozzle uses the
heat energy released by expansion of the gas to accelerate the exhaust to very high
(supersonic) speed, and the reaction to this pushes the engine in the opposite
direction. Combustion is most frequently used for practical rockets, as high
temperatures and pressures are desirable for the best performance, permitting a longer
nozzle, giving higher exhaust speeds and better thermodynamic efficiency.
An alternative to combustion is the water rocket, which uses water pressurised by
compressed air, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, or manual pumping, for model rocketry.
f.2 Propellants-
The rocket motor using a chemical fuel are generally divided into two categories-

1. Solid propellant rocket

2. Liquid propellant rocket
3. Hybrid rocket (that combines solid fuel with a liquid oxidizer).

f.2.1 solid propellant rocket-It consist of a seamless tube, usually made of steel,
closed at one end .The tube is filled with solid propellant called the grain.

Fig 10-A typical solid rocket booster

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The grain with contains both oxidizer and fuel is electrically ignited and burns fully
as there is no method to stop the burning. The open end holds the convergent-
divergent nozzle, through which the gases are ejected out at supersonic speed. The
reaction to the ejection of the high velocity gases produces the thrust of the rocket
motor. The main advantage of solid propellant rockets is its simplicity, having no
moving parts and any fuel supply system. The disadvantage are that it has to be large
enough to store the entire amount of propellant and is strong enough to withstand high
pressure (40 to 140 bar) and temperatures (1600 to 3000* C) .There is no provision
of cooling. These rockets are suitable for producing thrust for short durations. They
are used to power rocket projectiles, guided missiles and as boosters for aircraft as
well as spacecraft.

f.2.2 Liquid propellant rocket-

Liquid propellant utilize propellant store in container outside the combustion

chamber. The liquid propellant are of two types –mono propellant and bio
propellant. A monopropellant is a liquid that requires no auxiliary material
(oxidizer) for bringing about the release of the thermochemical energy.

Fig 11-Component of liquid propellant rocket

Nitrometane, propyl nitrate and hydrogen peroxide are some common

monopropellant with only on storage tank. A liquid propellant rocket consist of
three major components – rocket motor ,propellant system and controls .An
advantage of liquid propellant is its ability to discontinue combustion any time . [12]

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8. Conclusion –

A propulsion system is a machine that produces thrust to push an object forward.

On airplanes, thrust is usually generated through some application of Newton's third
law of action and reaction. A gas, or working fluid, is accelerated by the engine,
and the reaction to this acceleration produces a force on the engine.
The four basic parts of a jet engine are the compressor, turbine, combustion
chamber, and propelling nozzles. Air is compressed, then led through chambers
where its volume is increased by the heat of fuel combustion. On emergence it spins
the compression rotors, which in turn act on the incoming air.

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References –
1. https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/smotion.html
2. www.merriam –webster.com
3. https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/engine

4. Introduction to Engineering Thermodynamics, Richard E. Sonntag, Claus Borrgnakke

2007. Retrieved 2013-03-13.
5. Basic and applied thermodynamics by p. k nag.

6. "Turboprop", Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge,Federal Aviation

Administration, 2009.

7. "Turbojet Engine". NASA Glenn Research Center. Retrieved2009-05-

8. Oxford, United Kingdom: Osprey Publishing. p. 145. ISBN 978-1846032257.

Retrieved 2016-02-12.

9. "Here Comes the Flying Stovepipe". TIME. Time Inc. 1965-11-26. Archived from the
original on 2008-04-08. Retrieved2008-04-08.

10. "Pulse Detonation Engine". Gofurther.utsi.edu. Retrieved 2014-03-03

11. George P. Sutton & Oscar Biblarz (2001). Rocket Propulsion Elements (7th ed.). Wiley
Interscience. ISBN 0-471-32642-9

12. Basic and applied thermodynamics by p.k nag

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