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Rate of mass flow into the control volume = Rate of mass flow out of the control volume
(7.1)
Noting that mass flow rate is equal to the product of density (ρ), mean velocity (u) and
cross-sectional area normal to flow.
The rate at which fluid enters the control volume from the left surface is = ρu(dy.1) (7.2)
The rate at which the fluid leaves the control volume from the right surface can be
expressed as,
(7.3)
Repeating this for the y direction and substituting the results into Eq. (7.1), we obtain
(7.4)
Simplifying and dividing by ρ dx dy .1 gives,
This is the conservation of mass relation, (7.5)
also known as the continuity equation,
or mass balance for steady 2-D flow of a
fluid with constant density Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal
Conservation of Momentum Equations
The differential forms of the equations of motion in the velocity boundary layer are
obtained by applying Newton’s second law of motion.
Newton’s second law can be stated as the net force acting on the control volume is
equal to the mass times the acceleration of the fluid element within the control
volume.
Which is also equal to the net rate of momentum outflow from the control volume.
Note that pressure represents the compressive force applied on the fluid element by
the surrounding fluid, and is always directed to the surface.
(7.6)
Or (7.7)
(7.9)
Then the acceleration of the fluid element in the x direction is estimated from Eq. (7.9)
(7.10)
(7.11)
Since, τ = (∂u/∂y). Substituting Eqs. (7.7, 7.8, 7.10 and 7.11) into Eq. 7.6
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑃
𝜌 𝑢 +𝑣 𝑑𝑥. 𝑑𝑦. 1 = 𝐵𝑥 𝑑𝑥. 𝑑𝑦. 1 + 𝜇 − 𝑑𝑥. 𝑑𝑦. 1
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 2 𝑢 𝜕𝑃
𝜌 𝑢 +𝑣 = 𝐵𝑥 + 𝜇 2 − (7.12)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
This is the relation for the conservation of momentum in the x-direction, and
is known as the x-momentum equation. Therefore, y-momentum equation is,
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕 2 𝑣 𝜕𝑃
𝜌 𝑢 +𝑣 = 𝐵𝑦 + 𝜇 2 − (7.13)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
If we derive the momentum equations in the 3-D case without eliminating any terms,
therefore, x, y and z-momentum equations can be written as,
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑃 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
𝜌 𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = 𝐵𝑥 − +𝜇 + + (7.14)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑃 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣
𝜌 𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = 𝐵𝑦 − +𝜇 + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 (7.15)
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑃 𝜕2𝑤 𝜕2𝑤 𝜕2𝑤
𝜌 𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = 𝐵𝑧 − +𝜇 + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
(7.16)
Its states that the change in the energy content of a system during a process is equal to
the difference between the energy input and the energy output.
During a steady-flow process, the total energy content of a control volume remains
constant (and thus Esys = 0), and the amount of energy entering a control volume in all
forms must be equal to the amount of energy leaving it.
Then the rate form of the general energy equation reduces for a steady-flow process to
Ein - Eout = 0.
Note that energy can be transferred by heat, work, and mass only, the energy balance
for a steady-flow control volume can be written explicitly as
(7.17)
estream = h + KE + PE (7.18)
Where h is the enthalpy = u + pV, PE = gz is the potential energy per unit mass and
KE = V 2/2 = (u2 + v2)/2 is the kinetic energy of the fluid per unit mass.
The KE and PE energies are usually very small relative to enthalpy, and therefore it is
common practice to neglect them (though inclusion of these terms - get cancelled later).
We assume the density ρ, specific heat Cp, viscosity μ and the thermal conductivity
k of the fluid to be constant. Then the energy of the fluid per unit mass can be expressed
as,
estream = h = Cp T. (7.19)
From the Fig., mass flow rate of the fluid entering the
control volume from the left is, ρu(dy . 1).
The rate of energy transfer to the control volume by
mass in the x-direction is,
(7.20)
Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal
Similarly, the rate of energy transfer to the control volume by mass in the y-direction is
𝜕 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑥. 1 𝐶𝑝 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑣
𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 =− 𝑑𝑦 = −𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑣 +𝑇 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 (7.21)
𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠,𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
the net rate of energy transfer to the control volume by mass is determined to be
(7.22)
The net rate of heat conduction to the volume element in the x-direction is,
(7.23)
Repeating this for the y-direction and adding the results, the net rate of energy
transfer to the control volume by heat conduction becomes,
(7.24)
Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal
Energy transfer to and from the fluid in the control volume is the work done by the
body and surface forces.
The work done by a body force is determined by multiplying this force by the
velocity in the direction of the force and the volume of the fluid element, and this
work needs to be considered only in the presence of significant gravitational,
electric, or magnetic effects.
The surface forces consist of the forces due to fluid pressure and the viscous shear
stresses.
The shear stresses that result from viscous effects are usually very small, and can be
neglected in many cases.
This is especially the case for applications that involve low or moderate velocities.
Substitute Eqs. (7.22 and 7.24) into (7.17) and neglecting the effect of shear stress leads,
(7.25)
Therefore, the net energy convected by the fluid out of the control volume is equal to
the net energy transferred into the control volume by heat conduction
Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal
When the viscous shear stresses are not negligible, then the energy equation is,
(7.26)
(7.27)
Viscous dissipation may play a dominant role in high-speed flows, especially when the
viscosity of the fluid is high (like the flow of oil in journal bearings).
The energy equation for a 3-D case with unsteady nature, heat generation and viscous
dissipation terms can be written as,
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇
𝜌𝐶𝑝 . + 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 =𝑞+𝑘 + + + 𝜇Φ (7.28)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
Where 2 2 2 2 2 2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣
Φ= 2 +2 +2 + + + + + + (7.29)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
(7.30)
2
𝑞 1 𝜕𝑇
∆ 𝑇+ = (7.31)
𝑘 𝛼 𝜕𝑡
Where, α = k/ρCp is the thermal diffusivity
If there is no heat generation and if it is steady problem, then Eq. (7.30) reduced to
These Eqs. (7.30 to 32) looks like same as Eqs. (2.9 to 2.13)
When viscous dissipation is negligible, the continuity, momentum, and energy equations
(Eqs. 7.5, 7.12 and 7.26) reduce for steady, incompressible, laminar flow of a fluid with
constant properties over a flat plate to,
(7.33)
(7.34)
(7.35)
(7.36)
Once the velocity distribution is available, we can determine the friction coefficient and
the boundary layer thickness using their definitions.
Also, knowing u and v, the temperature becomes the only unknown in the Eq. (7.35)
and it can be solved for temperature distribution.
The continuity and momentum equations were first solved in 1908 by the German
engineer H. Blasius, a student of L. Prandtl.
This was done by transforming the two partial differential equations into a single
ordinary differential equation by introducing a new independent variable, called the
similarity variable.
Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal
After solving, the velocity boundary layer thickness becomes,
(7.37)
Rex = u∞x/ν, where x is the distance from the leading edge of the plate.
Note that the boundary layer thickness increases with increasing distance from the
leading edge x, but it decreases with increasing free-stream velocity u.
Therefore, a large free-stream velocity will suppress the boundary layer and cause it to
be thinner.
(7.38)
(7.39)
(7.40)
(7.41)
After solving, the local convection coefficient and Nusselt number become
(7.42)
(7.43)
(7.47)
Note that these relations are valid only for laminar flow over an isothermal flat
plate. Also, the effect of variable properties can be accounted for by evaluating all
such properties at the film temperature defined as Tf = (Ts + T∞)/2.
The Blasius solution gives important insights, but its value is largely historical because
of the limitations it involves.
Nowadays both laminar and turbulent flows over surfaces are routinely analyzed
using numerical methods.
Solution: The temperature at which properties are to be read is (20 + 100)/2 = 60°C for
air at one atmospheric pressure. The following values are read from tables:
ν = 18.97 × 10–6 m2/s, Pr = 0.696, k = 0.02896 W/mK
The distance at which Rex = 5 × 105 is determined using, (6 x x) / (18.97 x 10-6) = 5 x 105
solving x = 1.58 m
Chandramohan V.P./Asst Prof./MED/NIT Warangal
Problem 6.5: Air flows over a plate at a free stream velocity of 5 m/s. The plate
temperature is 100°C and the air temperature is 20°C. If the average value of convective
heat transfer coefficient is 15 W/m2K, determine the length of the plate in the direction
of flow.
Solution: From Eqs. (7.43 and 44) we can estimate the length of the plate.
k, ν and Pr are to be found at film temperature of (100 + 20)/2 = 60°C. The values are
read from data book : k = 28.96 × 10–3, ν = 18.97 × 10–6 m2/s, Pr = 0.696
Estimating,
Problem 6.7: Nitrogen at a pressure of 0.1 atm flows over a flat plate with a free stream
velocity of 8 m/s. The temperature of the gas is – 20°C. The plate temperature is 20°C.
Determine the length for the flow to turn turbulent. Assume 5 × 105 as critical Reynolds
number. Also determine the thickness of thermal and velocity boundary layers and the
average convection coefficient for a plate length of 0.3 m.
Solution: Properties are to be found at film temperature, – 20 + 20)/2 = 0°C
As density and kinematic viscosities will vary with pressure, dynamic viscosity is read
from tables μ = 16.67 × 10–6 Ns/m2, k = 24.31 × 10–3 W/mK, Pr = 0.705, ρ = 1.250 × 0.1
= 0.125 kg/m3
At x = 0.3 m, the Reynolds number is less than 5 × 105 and so the flow is laminar.
δh = 5x/Re0.5 = 5 × 0.3/(8 × 0.125 × 0.3/16.67 × 10–6)0.5 = 0.01118 m or 11.18 mm
δt = 12.56 mm
Pr number is very high, and heat flux is given, the most suitable solution is
mentioned page no: 114, 1.2.1, silicones (high viscous fluids) therefore,
The drag force FD depends on the density of the fluid, the upstream velocity V and the
size, shape, and orientation of the body, among other things.
The drag characteristics of a body is represented by the dimensionless drag coefficient
CD defined as
(7.53)
A stationary fluid exerts only normal pressure forces on the surface of a body
immersed in it.
A moving fluid, however, also exerts tangential shear forces on the surface because of
the no-slip condition caused by viscous effects.
Both of these forces, have components in the direction of flow, and thus the drag
force is due to the combined effects of pressure and wall shear forces in the flow
direction.
The components of the pressure and wall shear forces in the normal direction to flow
tend to move the body in that direction, and their sum is called lift
Where, m and n are constant exponents, and the value of the constant C depends
on geometry and flow.
When relations for local friction and convection coefficients are available, the average
friction and convection coefficients for the entire surface can be determined by
integration from
(7.55)
(7.56)
FD = 5275 N
Discussion: Note that this force is equivalent to the weight of a mass over 500 kg.
Therefore, the river exerts 500 kg mass on the pipe supported at its ends 30 m apart.
The necessary precautions should be taken if the pipe cannot support this force.
SOLUTION: A steam pipe is exposed to windy air. The rate of heat loss from the
steam is to be determined.
Assumptions
1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 Radiation effects are negligible.
3 Air is an ideal gas.
Properties The properties of air at the average film temperature of Tf = (Ts + T∞)/2 =
(110 + 10)/2 = 60°C and 1 atm pressure are
k = 0.02808 W/m °C; Pr = 0.7202; ν = 1.896 x 10-5 m2/s
Nu = 124
Then the rate of heat transfer from the pipe per unit of its length becomes
As = pL = πDL = π(0.1 m)(1 m) = 0.314 m2
Q = hAs(Ts - T∞) = (34.8 W/m2 °C)(0.314 m2)(110 - 10)°C
Q = 1093 W
Discussion: The simpler Nusselt number relation in Table (HMT data book, page 116) in
this case would give Nu = 128, which is 3 percent higher than the value obtained
above.
Example 6.12: Air at 30°C flows over a sphere of 0.1 m dia with a velocity of 8 m/s. The
solid surface is at 50°C. Determine the value of convection coefficient.
The 3rd equation being the latest correlation, it is safer to consider the value of 40.62
W/m2K for convection coefficient