The Application of Selected Effective Learning, Teaching and

Assessment Strategies to the Subject of Design Communication

Graphics in Second Level Education

Sean Smyth
G00328604

Submitted for the Award of

Bachelor of Science (Hons) in Education
(Design Graphics and Construction)
to
Galway-Mayo Institute of Technology, Letterfrack

Research Supervisor: Dr Pauline Logue Collins

Readers: Dr Pauline Logue Collins and Dr Susan Rogers
Programme: Bachelor of Science (Hons) in Education (DGC)
Module Title: Dissertation

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Plagiarism Disclaimer

Student Name: Sean Smyth

Student Number: G00328604
Programme: Bachelor of Science (Hons) in Education (Design
Graphics and Construction)
Year: 4th
Module: Dissertation
Assignment Title: The Application of Selected Effective Learning, Teaching and
Assessment Strategies to the Subject of Design
Communication Graphics in Second Level Education
Due Date: 23/03/2018
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 ABSTRACT

Design Communication Graphics (DCG), as a subject, was established in 2007 by the

Department of Education and Skills. Since the subject was established, no major review of
learning, teaching and assessment (LTA) methods in the subject has been undertaken. The
main aim of this dissertation is to identify and apply selected effective learning, teaching and
assessment strategies to the subject of Design Communication Graphics at second level. The
methodological approach in this study commences with a secondary research literature
analysis, focusing on current literature in the field of LTA, Irish Second Level Chief Examiner
Reports and DCG Subject Inspection Reports. The research finds that a variety of LTA
strategies are needed to promote effective learning in the subject DCG; it further identifies
selected strategies. The research also finds that, by utilizing a variety of strategies over a suite
of lessons in the DCG scheme of work, the teacher can accommodate different learning styles
and support mixed ability students in their classes. This study recommends follow on primary
research, to include focus groups and surveys of students and teachers engaged with DCG.

KEYWORDS: Learning, Teaching and Assessment (LTA), Design Communication Graphics

(DCG), Second Level Education.

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INTRODUCTION

Design Communication Graphics (DCG), as a Leaving Certificate subject, was introduced in

2008. Since the subject was established, no major review of learning, teaching and
assessment (LTA) methods in the subject has been undertaken. A survey of chief examiners’
reports and subject reports in DCG highlights several recurring themes which are centred
around assessment methods, differentiation of students of mixed ability, and improving
problem solving ability. These reports recommend that teachers should encourage students
to develop an understanding of the subject using a range of teaching methodologies.
However, no specific LTA strategies are suggested.

The main aim of this dissertation is to identify applicable learning, teaching and assessment
strategies to the subject of design communication graphics in second level education and the
objectives are:

-To assess current LTA practice in DCG, through an analysis of Chief Examiner Reports and
Subject Inspection Reports.

-To identify and discuss in depth effective LTA practice, with attention to selected LTA
philosophies and learning styles.

-To explore applications of effective LTA strategies in DCG with a view to recommendations
for best practice.

-To provide an original analysis of the selected effective LTA practice, with a view to a
balanced approach.

This dissertation focuses on secondary research. Primary sources, such as focus groups and
surveys of students and teachers, would be useful in further developing LTA methods for the
subject but is considered outside the scope of this present study.

Section one will commence with an overview of the DCG chief examiner’s report and a
compilation of subject specific reports. These reports will then be analysed to identify both
positive and negative aspects of current practice in DCG teaching. The negative aspects will
be analysed by quantifying incidence of specific areas mentioned. These weaknesses
predominantly focus on assessment for learning (AFL), problem solving and differentiation
between student types. Section two will establish effective LTA practice It will give a brief
4
synopsis of the philosophical models recommended by (Jackson, O. G. 2015). It will also
analyse and describe the visual, auditory and kinaesthetic (VAK) learning models. Section
three of this dissertation will review results obtained and offer recommendations for best LTA
practice. The final section will provide an original analysis of the selected effective LTA
practice, with a view to a balanced teaching approach.

ANALYSIS OF SELECTED SUBJECT AND CHIEF EXAMINERS’ REPORTS

A thematic analysis of the twenty most recent subject reports in DCG was carried out (n=20).
From this analysis, six recurring themes emerged consistently, namely: assessment,
differentiation, engagement, problem solving, gender imbalance and SEN strategies. These
themes are highlighted in Table 1 and Figure 1, respectively, below. Of these six recurring
themes, the three most dominant themes, in order of frequency, were: assessment (n=14),
problem solving (n=11) and differentiation (n=6). This chapter will focus on these three
dominant areas.

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 Table 1. Themes identified in Subject Reports

Report ref no.

Gender imbalance
Problem Solving
Assessment for

Differentiation

SEN strategies
Engagement
Learning
70140L x x
60264A x x x
91372D x x
70810H x
71290M x x
71610E x
91371B x x x
70600T x
70840Q x x
70860W x x
71101G x x x
71790J x x
70730J x x x
70710D x x
91372D x x
91514U x x
72300R x
68068R x
70810H x
70140L x
Total frequency (n=) 14 6 3 11 1 3

6
 16

14

12

10

0
Assessment Differentiation Engagement Problem Solving Gender SEN strategies
imbalance

Figure 1.1: Incidence of Themes in Subject Reports

The strongest theme across the reports was Assessment, in particular, assessment for
learning (AfL) (n=14). It was suggested that consistent provision of formative feedback should
be undertaken to affirm quality work and guide improvement. (91372D, 2016). All students
work should be checked, and formative feedback should be written on students’ drawings
and given in oral form (70860W, 2017). Subject department should pilot further assessment
for learning (AfL) practices with an identified year group, possibly first year. This should
include: structured opportunities for peer and self-assessment, a formatively assessed
student portfolio and collaboratively developed student target setting procedure (71610E,
2016). Teacher planning should incorporate a focus on assessment for learning (AfL) practices.
More innovative assessment methods should be incorporated. “Student learning was good in
most lessons observed. In one lesson however, students’ application of learning was poor.”
In this instance, greater use of (AfL) strategies would have identified the issue and enabled
the teacher to take the appropriate actions (70810H, 2014). A focus should be placed upon
developing a formatively assessed student portfolios (71610E,2016).

7
Differentiated learning was the second dominant theme (n=11). It was stated that
differentiated learning needs to be prioritised to enable students to work at a pace that
supports and challenges them appropriately (60264A, 2015). Further development and
implementation of cooperative and differentiated learning strategies is essential (91372D,
2016). A variety of methods must be utilized to promote a more differentiated approach to
teaching and learning and enable students of varying abilities to achieve success at their most
appropriate level (70810H, 2014). It was recommended that all lessons plan for appropriate
differentiated support with greater opportunity for discovery, discussion and problem-solving
(70140L, 2015). It was proposed that cooperative learning opportunities should be developed
and extended to support differentiated learning by pairing students of different abilities and
students with different experience (91372D, 2016). It was further advised that a broader
range of methodologies be employed to support learning for all students (91371B, 2015).

The theme of problem-solving was the third most dominant theme (n=6). It was
recommended that all lessons plan incorporate appropriate problem-solving challenges or
opportunities (70140L, 2015). Teachers should actively promote student-directed learning
through focused use of problem solving activities and individual worksheets (70810H, 2014).
It was suggested that all classes should allow opportunity for discovery, discussion and
problem-solving (70730J, 2015). Teachers should encourage students to develop an
understanding of the key geometric principles of using a variety of techniques. Parametric
modelling should be used in interrogating key principles and concepts, linking geometry with
real-life applications and using teaching methodologies which encourage problem solving
(Chief examiners report, 2015). Students should be given sufficient opportunities to test their
knowledge, understanding and skill through focused independent learning activities that
promote the development of their problem-solving skills. This could be achieved through the
incorporation of sketching areas on teacher developed work sheets to encourage student led
problem solving and through the utilisation of collaborative learning techniques such as pair
work (70600T, 2015).

Through analysis of the chief examiners and subject reports and development of strategies to
address deficiencies documented in same, this dissertation proposes and applies selected
effective learning, teaching and assessment practices. According to Gwyneth Owen-Jackson
(2015) a combination of five philosophical theories must be utilized in design and graphics:

8
behaviourism, constructivism, social constructivism, situated cognition and embodied
cognition.

Section two will briefly explain these theories and discuss how they can be related to LTA
practice in the senior level Design & Communication Graphics (DCG) subject. The section will
then apply each LTA approach to the three themes identified in the subject reports:
differentiation, problem-solving and assessment. It will identify and discuss in depth effective
LTA practice, with attention to selected LTA philosophies and learning styles.

Effective LTA Practice: Selected LTA Philosophies and Learning Styles

Education is commonly considered to have three main strands: learning, teaching and
assessment. Learning is the process students undertake in acquiring new or modifying
existing knowledge, behaviours, skills, values, or preferences. Smith, R. M. (1982) suggests
“that the term learning defies precise definition because it is put to multiple uses. Learning is
used to refer to (1) the acquisition and mastery of what is already known about something,
(2) the extension and clarification of meaning of one’s experience, or (3) an organized,
intentional process of testing ideas relevant to problems. In other words, it is used to describe
a product, a process, or a function.” Teaching is the process by which teachers facilitate
student learning through either an informal or formal approach to learning, including a course
of study and lesson plan that teaches skills, knowledge or thinking skills.

Different ways to teach are often referred to as pedagogy. Palmer, P. J. (2007) states that
“(t)eaching is the process of attending to people’s needs, experiences and feelings, and
making specific interventions to help them learn particular things.” The
term assessment refers to tools used to evaluate, measure, and document the academic
readiness, learning progress, skill acquisition, or educational needs of students. The National
Research Council (2001) writes that “Educational Assessment seeks to determine how well
students are learning and is an integrated part of the quest for improved education. It
provides feedback to students, educators, parents, policy makers, and the public about the
effectiveness of educational services.”

9
Together, these three aspects of the educational process are grouped as learning, teaching
and assessment (LTA). There is merit in ensuring that pupils are exposed to a variety of
teaching and learning methods across their programme of study NUIG (2014). Ofsted (2014)
states that consistently good teaching, combined with high quality assessment, leads to very
effective learning. Research highlights the central role teachers play in determining the
quality of learning in classrooms. Teachers make a difference in how much students learn,
and this difference depends on how they teach (Bransford, Darling-Hammond, & LePage,
2005). The vital importance of LTA strategies is to make it easier to implement a variety of
teaching methods and techniques. This will help students take more responsibility for their
own learning and enhance the process. More diverse teaching and learning strategies should
be used in an integrated manner, to support the students’ different learning styles and
abilities. It is recommended that a broader range of methodologies, including collaborative
learning practices, be employed to support learning for all students (91371B, 2015).

A learning style is the preferred way a student will absorb and process knowledge (Sternberg
1994). More often than not, students will have a preferred learning style but will learn
nonetheless from different learning styles (Oxford 2011). Though the degree in which
students can learn varies (Ehrman 1996). Advocates of learning styles believe by identifying
students particular style and adapting your teaching methodologies to suit, academic results
can be greatly enhanced (Sternberg, Grigorenko, and Zhang 2008). However not all academics
believe that adapting teaching methodologies to suit specific learning styles results in greater
achievement (Stahl 1999; Willingham 2005).

This dissertation will focus on teaching and assessment methods that are best suited to these
three learning styles. The hypothesis that no single learning strategy can work for all students
has been proven by numerous authors such as Antepohl, W. (1999) and Michel, MC. (2002).
Therefore, tailoring learning methods to the students’ learning style preference is advocated
(Minotti, JL., 2005). As indicated above, according to Gwyneth Owen-Jackson (2015) a
combination of five learning philosophies must be utilized in design and graphics:
behaviourism, constructivism, social constructivism, situated cognition and embodied
cognition. This dissertation will focus mainly on these five philosophical models. Later I will
use these five philosophical models to inform the development of teaching and assessment

10
strategies which aim to address issues identified in the areas of differentiation, problem
solving and formative assessment.

The above strategies will be developed with the VAK learning styles in mind. For example,
when teaching Solidworks a teaching strategy involving Lego could be applied. Students
would build simple models from lego and then draw them in solidworks. This would allow
students to see 3d versions of their projects, solidifying concepts such as elevation, plan and
end elevation. In this case a constructivist philosophy would be employed to inform the
selection of a kinaesthetic learning style. This learning style will be facilitated through use of
appropriate teaching strategies which are specifically selected with the aim of addressing
deficiencies in current practice as identified in subject reports. This methodology is
summarised in Figure 2.

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 Philosophical from Jackson, G.O.
(2015) e.g.
Models Constructivism

using VAK
Learning framework
Inform selection
of…
Styles e.g. visual and
auditory

Teaching and Recommended best

practice
To be facilitated Assessment e.g. Peer Tutoring
by…
Strategies

Deficiencies Identified in subject

Aiming to in current reports
e.g. AFL
address… practice

Figure 2: Schematic of Project Methodology

Section two will establish effective LTA practice It will give a brief synopsis of the
philosophical models recommended by (Jackson, O. G. 2015). It will also analyse and
describe the visual, auditory and kinaesthetic (VAK) learning models.

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 SYNOPSIS OF PHILOSOPHICAL MODELS

Behaviourism focuses on changing external behaviour through reinforcement and repetition

to shape behaviour of learners. Behaviourists theorize that through continual implementation
of reinforcement, behaviour can be shaped. The instructor rewards good behaviour and
punishes bad behaviour (Skinner, B.F. 1969). Behaviourists believe that the teacher is the
teacher is the most important component of the classroom. Many disapprove of this learning
methodology, even though it has been practiced for decades and remains widely utilized. It
does still, however, show great promise in teaching pupils with learning difficulties (Mercer,
1997).

It is important to explain to students what the desired learning outcomes from each lesson
are. The setting of goals and targets effectively can enable students to take more ownership
and control of their learning experience (Lamb & Schmitt, 2012). Several studies have
concluded that this ownership and self- assessment leads to greater learning outcomes for
students who explain and monitor their progress than for those who do not (Chi et al., 1994),
(Bielaczyc, Pirolli, & Brown, 1995) and (Palinscar & Brown, 1984). Teachers should provide
information in logical steps to be learned and then provide feedback throughout. The
feedback is highly important. It can improve problem solving skills and understanding of the
concept being taught (Mazur, 2009). This provision of regular feedback helps students to
identify their own learning problems and thus, enhances learning overall (Bloom, Madaus, &
Hastings, 1981; Stiggins, 2002).

Within a constructivist methodology, pupils are no longer simply passive but rather active
participants. (Jonassen, Peck, & Wilson, 1999) “Constructivists state that pupils construct
their own meaning through active engagement and by constructing their own depiction of
what they know.” When students are actively engaged it increases the learning that is taking
place (Juniu, S. 2006). In a constructivist setting, pupils are challenged to become actively
engaged throughout the complete learning process. Woodard, B.S. 2003, p186) “According to
constructivist theory, learning is an active and social process in which students play an active
role in building knowledge, discovering relationships among facts, constructing conceptual
frameworks that explain those relationships, and exploring new arenas”.

13
Holt & Willard-Holt (2000) state that evaluation is on-going throughout teaching and that
enables the student to learn steadily. Evaluation involves conversation with the student,
which allows the teacher to monitor the student and their development of knowledge
(Wilson, B. et al 1995). This ongoing monitoring and assessment is not just to see if the student
has grasped the concept, but Constructivists will also monitor and assess the child as a whole.
The teacher will also note the physical posture and behaviour of the student. Constructivist
use a variety of tools and methods in their approach, such as KWL Charts (Ogle, D. et al 1985),
performance tasks, mind mapping and even mood boards (Badders, 2000). Animated power
point presentations, social networking and other digital tools can all be incorporated into the
Constructivist approach.

Social constructivism learning theory is based mainly on the work of Russian psychologist Lev
Vygotsky. He concluded that learning was attached to social setting unlike other cognitivists
of the time, such as Perry and Piaget. Vygotsky proposed that learning was not simply
assimilated and accommodated data but was a product of social interaction. He suggests
through social relationships, students create a new understanding by actively engaging in the
lesson. The theory of the zone of proximal development states what students can achieve on
their own and what they might accomplish with support of a mentor or peer. For Vygotsky,
thinking and language are essential to a child as they develop. Social exchanges such as
playing, and language are key (Rogoff, 1990).

Social Constructivism takes the importance of feedback in the lesson one step further. It
requires feedback from both the teachers and the students. Rust, Price & O’Donovan (2003)
found that providing students with a rubric so that they could mark their own work and then
discuss the results with their classmates and teachers had positive results. Forbes & Spence
(1991) also found this when students marked the work of their peers. It is not the rubric in
itself that increases learning and understanding but the active engagement in the process that
does so (Saunders & Davis, 1998). It is the discussion and the explanation of the results after
the marking that increases learning. In Social Constructivism it is this feedback that can
significantly affect learning and achievement. Bransford, Brown, & Cocking (2000) reinforces
that the provision of more feedback and less teaching can result in superior learning.

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Situated cognition proposes that pupil’s knowledge is formulated through culture, activity
and context. It reflects on how knowledge learned will be translated into real world concepts.
Students interact with each other through conversation, and problem solve by sharing
knowledge. (Aydede, M., & Robbins, P. 2009), (Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. 1989).
Cognitive apprenticeship plays a vital role in situated cognition. Social interactions between
students and teacher result in sharing of experiences and key skills (Collins, A., Brown, J. S., &
Newman, S. E. 1988). The student learns in the same way as an apprentice, with the teacher
or expert passes down essential procedures for the student to learn. This is a form of socio-
cultural learning. Similar to Vygotsky’s approach, the teacher scaffolds the student.

Brown, Collins & Duguid (1989) argued that knowledge is heavily weighted in the context and
actively in which it is learned. Choi and Hannafin (1995) stated that teachers often “teach to
the test”. This leads to students learning to merely recall information which just leads to
surface memorisation. Young (1995) argues that is essential that assessment is not just
additional to the teaching and learning process. Instead assessment must become a
continuous, integrated part of the learning process (McLellan, 1995). Case (2015) states that
there is much research to show that assessment and learning must be done as part of learning
and not be disconnected from it. It appears, academics believe that while students learn, it
is important to assess them on tasks that allow them to solve realistic real-world problems.
This may be easily adaptable into the design portfolio section of the DCG course.

Embodied cognition emphasises the part that the body and environment play in cognitive
processing (Barsalou, 2008), (Clark, 2001), (Shapiro, 2011). It states that cognition is shaped
by facets of the entire body. This theory has led to understandings in rudimentary cognitive
knowledge, such reasoning, judgement and how gesture facilitates spatial thinking. Embodied
cognition has therefore provided tools that may be effective for teaching and learning,
especially in the science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) disciplines, which depend
upon concepts that are both detailed descriptions of the physical world and quite abstract.
These tools would be of great benefit in any graphics or conceptual thinking class.

Green & Smrcek (2006) examined the worth of physical model making as a teaching strategy
to support engineering design education. G., & Smrcek, L. (2006). emphasize the position of
learning by trial and error and confirm that pupils are better able to “link theory and
15
knowledge with practical implementation.” Holmes and Mullen, (2013). provide examples of
how pre-prepared models can be used to explain concepts, providing both visual and tactile
aspects for the student. Lemons et al. (2010) carried out a study. The team used a variety of
assessment techniques to record observations including taking observational notes, a short
questionnaire and reflections by each student. The study concluded that model building has
the potential to help students generate, visualise and evaluate design ideas as well as expose
flaws in preliminary sketches and ideas.

DESCRIPTION OF THE VAK LEARNING STYLES MODEL

Even in today’s classroom and in a time when a variety of pedagogies have been developed,
whole class lecture is still regarded as the mainstream method of teaching (Hess, 1999; Sizer,
1999). Students enter school all over the globe with little to no support, while others have
knowledge far above their expected age level (Tomlinson, 1999). Educators must adapt to this
wide variety of individual differences. Tomlinson (2000) states that teachers must adjust their
instructional methods to suit the needs of different learners.

The most widely accepted learning styles are visual, auditory and kinaesthetic (VAK). These
form the basis of the VAK Learning Styles model, which recognises that all students process
information in different ways (Fleming & Baume, 2006). Diverse teaching and learning
strategies should be used in an integrated manner, to support the students’ different learning
styles and abilities (91371B, 2015). Teachers should encourage students to develop an
understanding of the key geometric principles of design graphics using a variety of techniques.
For example, parametric modelling should be used in interrogating key principles and
concepts, linking geometry with real-life applications and using teaching methodologies
which encourage problem solving (Chief Examiner’s Report, 2015).

The model focuses on the three main sensory receivers: Visual, Audio, Kinaesthetic
(movement) to determine the dominant learning style of an person. It was originally
developed in the 1920s to support teaching students with dyslexia. Subsequently, this has
been more widely applied and its relevance established (Grist, N. 2009). Pupils use all three
of these learning styles but typically one or two of these styles are dominant (University of
Pennsylvania, 2009). The dominant style describes the way in which a student best receives
and processes new information. However, Constantinidou, F. and Baker, S. (2002) theorize

16
that one cannot tailor a class to suit every learning style for every student. Rather, by
combining several teaching methodologies and remembering the different ways in which
students process material, teachers can create a multisensory learning environment. An
amalgamation of stimuli will improve group learning.

Nunley (2007) describes differentiated learning styles as taking your students to a destination
but using different modes of transport. Sarvghad and Dianat (2009) conducted a study which
aimed to examine different learning styles and problem-solving styles. The outcomes showed
that there was a substantial correlation between students' learning styles and the strategies
they employed to solve problems. Differentiated instruction using a variety of media can
enable a variety of students to master material through utilising their dominant learning
style(s). Section three will explore applications of effective LTA strategies in DCG with a view
to recommend best practice.

RECOMMENDED LTA APPROACHES BASED ON SUBJECT REPORT THEMES

Tharp (1993) proposes that differentiation is about task structuring, which may include
activities such as “chunking, sequencing, detailing, reviewing, or any other means to structure
the task and its components to fit it into the learner’s zone of proximal development”. To
develop the ZPD effectively, learners must actively interact socially with a knowledgeable
adult or capable peers. Supporting this theory, Dennen (2000) found that scaffolds in the form
of chunking and sequencing tasks helped motivate students and enabled them to focus more
on the content-based learning goals than on project management elements of the
assignment. This strategy lends itself well to students with learning difficulties, for example
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Students participate in culturally organized
social activities play in influencing their cognitive development such as structured
collaborative learning groups.

In relation to assessment, it is important to explain to students what the desired learning

outcomes from each lesson are. The setting of goals and targets effectively can enable
students to take more ownership and control of their learning experience (Lamb & Schmitt,
2012). Teachers should provide information in logical steps to be learned and then provide
feedback throughout. The feedback is highly important. It can improve problem solving skills
and understanding of the concept being taught (Mazur, 2009). Evaluation involves

17
conversation with the student, which allows the teacher to monitor the student and their
development of knowledge (Wilson, B. et al 1995). Active learning encourages students to
operate in their environments or a learning tool. Teachers can use a checklist and observation
to assess student success with the particular material (model making for the more conceptual
topics).

Problem solving ability can be achieved by Teaching by Asking' or discovery learning.

Explaining tasks that require students to express their understanding to each other, and to
develop this understanding before expressing it (e.g. peer explanation, and Jigsaw) Ask
‘diagnostic' question and answer and use wrong answers to explore and correct
misunderstandings. ‘Socratic questioning'. Use thought provoking tasks and questions that
are high on Bloom's Taxonomy, rather than simple recall as these require more thought and
processing. Analysis: ‘why?' questions. Graphic planners afford pupils a way to organise their
thoughts in a logical manner. By drawing diagrams or mind maps, students can better connect
concepts and see their relationships. This will help students develop a habit of connecting
concepts

Differentiated instruction can enable students with a wide range of abilities—from gifted
students to those with mild or even severe disabilities—to receive an appropriate education
in inclusive classrooms (Lawrence-Brown, D. 2004). The foundational belief for differentiation
is that student learning is individualistic, and all pupils learn at different rates (Tieso, C. 2005).
The rationale behind differentiated instruction is Piaget’s constructivist theory, Vygotsky’s
zone of proximal development, and Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences (Adlam, E.
2007). Piaget’s theory can be broken down into three key elements: Schemas(building blocks
of knowledge). Adaptation processes that enable the transition from one stage to another
(equilibrium, assimilation, and accommodation). Stages of Cognitive Development:
sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational. The learners
therefor create their own ideas on how to solve problems. This theory proposes that
individuals generate and construct knowledge as they try to bring meaning to their
experiences. “In the differentiated classroom, teachers should facilitate the learning process
by organizing learning activities and using variety of aid material according to the level of

18
functioning of student’s cognitive structure to enable him to construct knowledge through his
experiences” (Adlam, E. 2007).

Projects should be divided into small steps rather than students being briefed on the entire
project as a whole. A good example in this case is students being tasked with reproducing a
given technical drawing, as is often required in their Leaving Certificate examination. This
would consist of a combination of orthographic and isometric projection of a particular part.
As a project in itself, this task requires a vast number of steps to complete and may appear
unmanageable, particularly to weaker students. However, it can be split into a number of
smaller tasks. For example, the production of the initial elevation view of the orthographic
projection can be seen as a drawing task in itself. Then projection of lines from this view to
the plan, and detailing of the plan view, is another step. Subsequent projected views, section
and detail views, and the isometric projection, are all similarly seen as distinct tasks which link
together to produce a whole.

The recommendation here is that regular intervention on the part of the teacher is required
while students are drawing a prescribed graphic. These interventions may take the form of
coaching. This suits student with learning difficulties, e.g. ADHD. Tasks should be divided into
sections which last approximately one minute.

In the early 1900s Lev Vygotsky paved the way for differentiated learning with his social
constructivist theory. Since becoming popular, educators across the world have seen this
theory as an essential learning and teaching framework. (Flem, Moen, & Gudmundsdottir,
2000). Wertsch followed on from Vygotskys work and his socio-cultural theory has substantial
implications in the world of education (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988). This theory is grounded on
the hypothesis that cognitive function is related to cultural, institutional, and historical
context. Students participate in culturally organized social activities play in influencing their
cognitive development. Vygotsky's theory sees learning as a continual process, not a product
(Riddle & Dabbagh, 1999). Vygotsky's zone of proximal development refers to a level of
development attained when learners engage in social behaviour (Blanton, 1998; Kearsley,
2005; Riddle & Dabbagh, 1999; Scherba de Valenzuela, 2002). The zone of proximal
development (ZPD) is a connection between what is known to what is unknown (Riddle &

19
Dabbagh, 1999). To develop the ZPD, learners must actively interact socially with a
knowledgeable adult or capable peers.

The notion of a cognitive apprenticeship—defined as “learning through guided experience on

cognitive and metacognitive, rather than physical, skills and processes” (Collins et al. 1989).
It is a branch off social learning theories. Its key element is that students engage with a master
or professional, whom directs their learning journey. Students are challenged with
increasingly difficult tasks which are slightly ahead of their cognitive ability and work in
collaboration with peers and teacher to accomplish their goals. Students first observe more
experienced peers or experts until they are ready to undertake the practical activity. The main
benefit from this style of learning compared to traditional methods is students get to see
expert practice which may not have been evident from traditional lecturing style. (Collins et
al. 1989) “Coaching—Assisting and supporting student cognitive activities as needed”. The
author cannot help but notice the direct link between this and Vygotsky’s theory of ZPD
(scaffolding).

Social constructivism can be demonstrated in the DCG classroom by grouping students

together to solve graphical problems. An example project could be on the topic of solids in
contact: locating a point on the surface of a cone. Putting students in groups and briefing
them on the project, they would have a set amount of time to solve this graphical challenge.
These groups must be carefully chosen to promote cooperative learning. Weaker students
are typically paired with stronger students to encourage scaffolding. In this case, the stronger
student will be expected to take a prominent role in examining the challenge and helping
his/her colleague to understand the issues involved. This team functions as a cognitive
apprenticeship: the stronger student is effectively acting as a peer mentor and enhancing
his/her understanding of the material through teaching it to another. This technique gives
effective differentiation in that both students are working on the same project, but the
stronger student will be stretched to further his/her understanding, while the weaker student
will not be left behind. At the end of the project, each group presents their work at the front
of the class. In this way, each of the VAK learning styles are facilitated. Sketching ideas will
be visual work; communication between students will be auditory and presentation will
involve kinaesthetic activity.

20
Many pupils find it very difficult to relate in class theory to the outside real world (Carraher,
Carraher, & Schliemann, 1985). Bransfort et al states that this problem grows from
decontextualized formal learning experiences. Simplified facts like these lacks the means to
gain thorough understanding of a topic (Spiro, Feltovich, Jacobson, & Coulson, 1991). In
general education settings, skills are taught in a very different way to how they would be
applied in the real world. Therefor pupils may pass exams, but this is just the use of surface
memorization and students would struggle in applying these skills in the real world. In
contrast to this situated cognition links real world context and student learning throughout
the lesson (Bransford, Sherwood, Hasselbring, Kinzer, & Williams, 1990). Brown, Collins, &
Duguid, (1989) state “learning is presumed to be the active by-product of unique association
among an individual and the environment; learning, then, is a natural by-product of
individuals engaged within contexts in which knowledge is embedded naturally” This theory
lends itself very well to DCG as there is a high amount of conceptual learning and problem
solving.

An example of how the situated cognition model could be used to enhance problem solving
in the DCG classroom would be setting work in real world contexts, such as graphically
representing local architecture. Many examples of this can be seen in the Leaving Certificate
past papers where much of Irelands’ architecture has been utilized to form questions. While
the teacher explains the concepts of these questions, they should show images of the
architecture to help students conceptualize the given problem. Using dialogue and graphically
representing images on the visualizer, students that fall under the visual and auditory learning
style should prosper. The importance of encouraging the students to become better problem
solvers by providing a realistic way of conceptualizing a particular situation was highlighted
by Choi and Hanaffin (1995). That work recommended that situated-cognition be used as a
teaching model for enhancing the problem-solving skills of the students.

A teacher centred approach is said to encourage surface memorization and fail in constructing
critical thinkers and problem solvers (Trigwell and Prosser, 1996). Social constructivism
advocates learners to critically analyse and problem solve (Steffe and Nesher, 1996). Thus, in
this learning environment, the teachers take on roles as facilitators to acquire and improve
higher order thinking such as problem solving. This can be achieved by “Teaching by Asking”

21
or discovery learning. Explaining tasks that require students to express their understanding
to each other, and to develop this understanding before expressing it (e.g. peer explanation,
and Jigsaw). Ask ‘diagnostic' question and answer and use wrong answers to explore and
correct misunderstandings. ‘Socratic questioning'. Use thought provoking tasks and questions
that are high on Bloom's Taxonomy, rather than simple recall as these require more thought
and processing. Analysis: ‘why?' questions.

In a fifth-year class, preparations for the sixth-year design project could involve assigning a
team to addressing a particular project. A typical project would consist of designing and
modelling a kitchen blender. Tasks to be undertaken here include existing product research,
sketching and conceptual work, modelling and drafting manufacturing and assembly
drawings. While this is undertaken on an individual case in sixth year, in fifth year it is useful
to have teams undertaking this project to introduce them to the scope of work involved, while
not overwhelming individual students with workload. Again, selection of teams is important
in this case. Typically, the teacher will know which students have particular areas of strength
(e.g. research, modelling etc) and will team students up accordingly. The aim is for students
to learn from each other’s strong points and strengthen their understanding in all areas
before moving on to take this project on an individual basis in sixth year.

The idea of promoting pupil reflection on their educational journey is strongly encouraged by
constructivists. Brown (2000) states that reflection has an enormous role to play in the
discussion of constructivism. Therefore, teachers must leave sufficient time for students to
reflect on their learning process. Fawbert (2003) ‘it is not sufficient simply to have an
experience to learn because without reflection it may be forgotten, and its learning potential
lost’. While on placement as a student teacher, I developed a reflection sheet. At the end of
every class pupils were allowed a given time frame to reflect on the key learnings and how
they could improve in future learning. These reflection documents would be then used at the
start of the next class as a recap method. It would also allow students to see where could
improve in this lesson. These documents contained a rubric, in which pupils graded their own
work. As an added incentive, pupils would receive an extra five percent if they were within
five percent of my grade. This motivated students to take their time and really dissect their
work. This form of self-assessment promotes ownership of their learning. While correcting

22
student work, a consideration on their suggested improvements would be taken. For
example, if they had said they need to improve on line weighting and no effort was made to
improve, this must be considered.

According to Skinner (1959), behaviour is a learned response strengthened by the

consequences ensuing from that behaviour. An example of this is to reward a student
if they do more work. Then the pupil is more likely to repeat this action. The
implementation of a reward system can reinforce this behaviour. I applied
behaviourism theory to my fifth year DCG class, while on School Placement. Students
built up points awarded based upon the quality of their in class and homework
questions. After students hit a certain target amount of points, they would be
rewarded with a prize. For example, each week the best drawing and most improved
drawings were displayed in the room. The author noted that this process became a
highly motivating factor for students, in particular, for those in the junior cycle. Having
their work displayed acted as positive reinforcement for those students who were
applying themselves; those who had not had their work displayed would strive to
improve their work for future weeks.This allows the teacher to differentiate the work
of students and allows pupils to view and analyse their peers’ work to see what best
practice is. Students can then discuss which aspects of their own work they need to
improve. The entire process acted as a type of peer formative feedback.

It is interesting to note that this example falls under the two categories of social
constructivism and behaviourism. Two different pedagogies, often seen as polar
opposites, can be used to complement each other and generate an effective learning
environment for the student. Section four seeks to provide a balanced approach to
effective LTA practice. The author aimed to strike a balance between employing the five
philosophies on one hand and addressing the three report themes on the other.

23
An Original Analysis of Selected Effective LTA Practice, with a View to a
Balanced Approach.

The main aim of this dissertation was to apply effective learning, teaching and assessment
strategies to the subject of DCG at second level. In this work, the subject and chief examiners’
reports for the subject over a period of four years were analysed. These reports contain
observations on areas which could be improved in the teaching of the subject. A number of
themes recurred through these reports. The three most commonly occurring of these themes
became the focus of efforts in this work to improve teaching practice. The five learning
philosophies defined by Jackson, G.O. (2015) were then examined. The three learning styles
of Visual, Auditory and Kinaesthetic in the VAK model were described. Proposed teaching
methods which facilitate these three learning styles and aim to address subject report
themes, were then outlined. The author finally gave observations on personal experience of
applying these teaching methods to the teaching of the Design Communication Graphics
subject.

The six targeted interventions produced in this work aim to address the three thematic areas
most prominent in the subject reports. They are based upon the five philosophies in Jackson’s
(2015) model. In teaching practice, the author examined and experimented with a number
of interventions for inclusion in this suite of tools for improving teaching of design
communication graphics. In selecting these six, the author aimed to strike a balance between
employing the five philosophies on one hand and addressing the three report themes on the
other.

In evaluating these and other interventions for potential inclusion in this set of
recommendations, the author gave marks to each LTA approach based upon, firstly, how
relevant each philosophy was in the formation of the approach, and secondly how much the
author stablished that this approach impacted upon each report theme. In both cases, links
were marked from 1 to 5, with 5 being the strongest connection. Tables 5.1 and 5.2 and
Figures 5.1 and 5.2 display the results of this evaluation. The data shows that some LTA
approaches lean heavily on one or more philosophies for their formation. For example,
approach A: Chunking is heavily influenced by the behaviourism philosophy (5) and much less
so by either situated cognition (1) or embodied cognition (1). The average row, however, is
24
instructive. It shows that for the five philosophies, aggregate relationships to all six
approaches developed range from 2.7 to 3.8 on average. This shows that the six LTA
approaches developed reflect a balanced mix of the five philosophies used.

Figure 5.2 shows the author’s assessment of the effectiveness of each of the identified LTA
approaches in addressing the three report themes. Other LTA approaches were examined
but these six were found to have the most impact upon the report themes. Taken collectively,
they had a balanced impact upon all three of the themes impact upon the themes respectively
were 3.7 (AFL), 3.2 (Problem Solving) and 3.2 (Differentiation).

25
 Table 5.1: Importance of Philosophies in developing Recommended LTA Approaches

social constructivism

LTA Approach
A: Chunking
B: Peer Apprenticeship
C: Real-World Context
D: Teamwork on Projects
E: Reflection Sheets
F: Displaying Standout Work
Average
embodied cognition
situated cognition
constructivism
behaviourism
5 4 2 1 1
2 2 5 4 4
2 4 2 5 4
2 5 5 3 3
2 5 2 2 2
5 3 4 2 2
3.0 3.8 3.3 2.8 2.7

Table 5.2: Rating Relevance of Recommended LTA Approaches to Report Themes

As discussed in section two, no one strategy can be implemented to suite all learners. The
research suggests that an amalgamation of philosophical models and learning styles must be
implemented to maximise learning. These diagrams help in obtaining a balance of the
philosophical models and LTA strategies chosen.

26
 Table 5.1: Importance of identified themes in developing Recommended LTA Approaches

Problem Solving

Differentiation
AFL
LTA Approach
A: Chunking 1 3 5
B: Peer Apprenticeship 5 3 4
C: Real-World Context 2 5 2
D: Teamwork on Projects 5 4 3
E: Reflection Sheets 5 2 3
F: Displaying Standout Work 4 2 2
Average 3.7 3.2 3.2

Figure 5.2: Rating Relevance of Recommended LTA Approaches to Report Themes

Similarly, to graph 5.1 the research suggests that a balance of LTA strategies must be utilized
to maximise student learning. These diagrams help in obtaining a balance of the identified
themes and LTA strategies chosen.

27
Conclusion
The main aim of this dissertation was to assess current LTA practice in DCG, through an
analysis of Chief Examiner Reports and Subject Inspection Reports. Section one commenced
with an overview of the DCG chief examiner’s report and a compilation of subject specific
reports. These reports were analysed, and three themes were prominent; assessment for
learning (AFL), problem solving and differentiation between student types.

Section two set identified and discussed in depth effective LTA practice, with attention to
selected LTA philosophies and learning styles. The VAK learning style model was chosen to
frame the research in this work as it is one of the most widely regarded models for learning.
In the author’s view, the VAK model is particularly appropriate for the Design Communication
Graphics subject, given that mastery of the subject requires abilities in visualisation (Visual),
ability to learn from listening to or reading instructions (Auditory and Reading), and skills in
producing models from paper and card (Kinaesthetic).Gwyneth Owen Jackson (2015)
recommends the use of a variety of philosophical theories to frame activities in teaching and
learning. In the author’s view, the five theories described in this work (behaviourism,
constructivism, social constructivism, situated cognition and embodied cognition) are
appropriate for the Design Communication Graphics subject.

Section three explored applications of effective LTA strategies in DCG and recommended best
practice. The six targeted interventions produced in this work addressed the three thematic
areas most prominent in the subject reports. They are based upon the five philosophies in
Jackson’s (2015) model. In teaching practice, the author examined and experimented with a
number of interventions for inclusion in this suite of tools for improving teaching of design
communication graphics.

Section four gave an original analysis of the selected effective LTA practice and a balanced
approach was then given. An assessment of the effectiveness of each of the identified LTA
approaches is addressed with the three report themes in mind. Other LTA approaches were
examined but these six were found to have the most impact upon the report themes. Taken
collectively, they had a balanced impact upon all three of the themes impact upon the themes
respectively were 3.7 (AFL), 3.2 (Problem Solving) and 3.2 (Differentiation).

28
The research further suggests that many teaching, and learning strategies are needed to
promote true learning. It is impossible to cater for every student in every lesson but by
utilizing many strategies over different lessons, a teacher can cater for the different learning
styles and mixed ability students in their classes. This is also advantageous in that students
may not know how best they learn and seeing a plethora of styles can only benefit them.
Educators who utilize a range of learning approaches promote independent critical thinking
learners. Primary sources, such as focus groups and surveys of students and teachers, were
considered outside the scope of this study but would be extremely useful in eliciting needs
for the further development of LTA methods for the subject. Specifically, it would be useful
to have several teachers experiment with the LTA approaches recommended here, and then
to give their scores regarding the effectiveness of each approach in addressing the report
themes. The data developed here is derived, by necessity, from the author’s analysis, a wider
set of views of these LTA approaches would be very welcome.

29
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REPORTS

Subject Inspection of Technical Graphics and Design and Communication Graphics

REPORT Coláiste Íosagáin, Portarlington, County Laois Roll number: 68068R Date
of inspection: 23 March 2015

Subject Inspection of Technical Graphics and Design and Communication Graphics

REPORT
Árdscoil Rath Iomgháin Rathangan, County Kildare Roll number: 70730J Date of
inspection: 22 April 2015

Subject Inspection of Design and Communication Graphics and Technical Graphics

REPORT Corran College Ballymote, County Sligo Roll number: 72300R Date of
inspection: 27 November 2015
Subject Inspection of Technical Graphics and Design and Communication Graphics
REPORT St Aidan’s Community College Dublin Hill, Cork Roll number: 71101G
Date of inspection: 9th March 2016

Subject Inspection of Technical Graphics and Design and Communication Graphics

REPORT Coláiste Iósaef Kilmallock, County Limerick Roll number: 76070ADate of
inspection: 5th May 2016

Subject Inspection in Technical Graphics and Design and Communication Graphics

REPORT Ennistymon Vocational School Ennistymon Co Clare Roll number
70840Q Date of Inspection: 07-03-2017

National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (2007) Leaving Certificate Design
and Communication Graphics Syllabus Ordinary level and Higher level For
implementation in September, 2007

36
Subject Inspection in Technical Graphics & Design and Communication Graphics, St
Michael's Community College, Kilmihil, Co Clare. / Roll number 70860W, 14-03-
2017

Subject Inspection of Technical Graphics and Design and Communication Graphics

REPORT Firhouse Community College Dublin 24 Roll number: 70140L Date of
inspection: 12 March 2015

Subject Inspection of Technical Graphics and Design and Communication Graphics

REPORT Desmond College Newcastle West, County Limerick Roll number: 71790J
Date of inspection: 6th May 2016

Subject Inspection of Design and Communication Graphics and Technical Graphics

REPORT Glenamaddy Community School Glenamaddy, County Galway Roll
number: 91514U Date of inspection: 05 April 2016

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38