Combining structural materials

for speed, qualiy and economy

in buildings

C H Goodchild BSc, CEng, MCIOB, MIStructE

Foreword
This publication was commissioned by
the Reinforced Concrete Council, which
was set up to promote better knowledge
and understanding of reinforced
concrete design and building technology.
The Council’s members are Co-Steel
Sheerness plc and Allied Steel & Wire,
representing the major suppliers of
reinforcing steel in the UK; and the
British Cement Association, representing
the major manufacturers of Portland
cement in the UK.
Charles Goodchild, author of this
publication, is Senior Engineer for the
Reinforced Concrete Council.
/
Acknowledgements cL * ’
The help and guidance received from I, e1 i me
many individuals are gratefully ‘2 .,
acknowledged. Special thanks are due to ’
those individuals and companies that s
have made photographic material
available.
The ideas and illustrations come from ’
many sources. Although we have tried to i
contact authors and/or publishers, this I ,
has not been always possible or success- j
ful. All known sources are acknowledged I
in the publications and journals noted /
under References.

97.337
First published 1995
ISBNO721014798 II
Price group F
OBritishCementAssociation1995

Published by the British Cement Association on

behalf of theindustry sponsorsof the Reinforced
Concrete Council.
British Cement Association
Century House
Telford Avenue
Crowthome
Berkshire RGll 6YS
Telephone: (01344) 762676
Fax: (01344) 761214

All advice or information from the British Cement

Association is intended for those who will evaluate 1
the significance and limitations of its contents and
take responsibility for its use and application. No
liability (including that for negligence) for any loss
resulting from such advice or Information is
accepted. Readers should note that all BCA
publications are subject to revision from time to time
and should therefore ensure that they are in
possession of the latest version.
Design Liz NicholsonAdam
Nicholson/ Hay
Art direction Media & Design Associates
 Hybrid concrete
construction

Contents Introduction
Introduction 1 Hybrid concrete construction is essen- the implications of their designs in terms
tially the combination of in-situ concrete of buildability and total costs, and
Why hybrid? 2 with precast concrete, steelwork or other materials will be used to better advan-
materials. It provides simple, buildable tage. Concrete hybrid structures and
1.0 Precast and in-situ concrete 4 and competitive high-quality structures hybrid elements will become more
that offer consistent performance. common as their potential is realized and
1.1 Floors 5
This publication illustrates in-situ familiarity grows.
1.2 Beams 16
concrete, precast concrete, steelwork and Many precast and in-situ concrete
1.3 Columns 25
other materials working together in hybrids have been developed overseas
1.4 Walls and cladding 31
building structures. It shows how the and are commonplace abroad. Although
1.5 Stairs and terraces 37
benefits of each material have been some ideas have emanated from the UK
1.6 Roofs 38
harnessed to produce hybrid concrete and have been used here, others from
1.7 Frames 40
solutions that suited particular sets of around the world are worthy of much
1.8 Services integration 50
circumstances. The examples show how fuller exploitation in this country. For
hybrid concrete construction can provide example, few composite steel-frame
2.0 Concrete and steelwork 51 economy, speed, flexibility and buildings had been built here before the
2.1 Floors 51 buildability while giving high-quality beginning of the 1980s. Now most steel
2.2 Beams 53 and aesthetically pleasing buildings. frames are designed as composites of
2.3 Columns 54 Many contemporary buildings are structural steel and in-situ concrete,
2.4 Frames 56 hybrids of different materials; indeed using technology originally imported
reinforced concrete is a hybrid of con- from the USA.
3.0 Concrete and other materials 60 crete and steel. Hybrid concrete construction is not a
Current trends in building point panacea for all situations but should be
3.1 Stone 60
towards more prefabrication, more considered as one of the basic frame
3.2 Timber 61
efficiency, reduced site activity, and safer options for achieving speed and quality
3.3 Plastics 61
and faster construction, Owners and at minimum cost.
tenants are demanding higher quality, This publication aims to provide a
4.0 Conclusions 62
with lower costs and reduced mainte- source of inspiration, offering a multi-
nance. tude of ideas that can be adapted and
5.0 References and origins 63
Designers, striving to achieve these improved upon in better buildings for
goals, will become even more aware of the future.

1
Why hybrid?
Hybrid forms of concrete construction
have much to offer. They can respond to
the often competing needs for economy,
safety, speed, quality, flexibility, durabil-
ity, service integration, appearance,
function, material availability and
preferred construction methods.
Framing materials
The initial choice of the frame material
for a project is influenced by many
interrelated factors. Individually, each
structural material has merits, yet there
is greater benefit in combining
materials: the advantages of one
compensate for the drawbacks of
another. In this country this potential
has only been partly realized, for
instance, in composite steel construction
and in the increasing use of precast
hollowcore floors within in-situ concrete
frames. There are many other forms of
hybrid concrete construction that can
satisfy a wide variety of needs.
Cost and speed
Cost is probably the most influential
factor in the choice of frame material.
Although the structure of a building
represents only 8% to 20% of construc-
tion cost, the choice of structural frame
material can have dramatic effects on the
price of other elements - such as external
cladding, services and internal planning.
It also affects net-to-gross floor area
ratios(‘), and can even determine whether
air conditioning is required. Thus,
selecting the correct structural framing
material is vital to a project’s feasibility
and success.
In terms of costs, in-situ reinforced
concrete is commonly viewed as the most
economic framing medium, while
precast concrete promotes speed and
high quality. Combining the two by
adopting hybrid techniques gives even
greater speed, quality and overall
economy. The resulting material costs of
the frame may be higher, but total project
costs are very often lower than with more
conventional frames due to buildability
savings on site.
By considering buildability at the
outset, hybrid techniques lead to cheaper
construction. As with ‘value engineer-
ing’, innovation and creativity are often
rewarded with lower costs, more usable
floor space, and greater team satisfaction.
For instance, adopting a hybrid concrete
frame instead of a composite steel frame
on a shell-and-core office project in
central London led to savings of £1.35 M
2
(from £12 / ft2 to £8.50/ ft2- a 29% saving),
and increased net lettable floor area by
13% (from 337,000 ft2 to 382,000 ftZ)‘Z1.
Project cost is inextricably linked to
speed. Faster programmes mean earlier
investment income, lower interest
charges, reduced construction prelimi-
naries and, consequently, minimum
development cost. Speed depends on
designs that are easy to procure and
construct. Encouraging speed of con-
struction and buildability should be a
fundamental objective of design. It may
take more design effort and contractual
flexibility but it results in more satisfied
clients, designers and contractors.
Buildability
Buildability is the extent to which design
simplifies construction and eradicates
unnecessary cost, subject to the
requirements of the completed building.
Hybrid concrete construction’s key
strength is buildability.
Buildability can often be improved by
refining an existing design. However, it is
far better to have a highly buildable
design from the outset. For full advan-
tage to be taken of hybrid forms of
construction, they should be considered
at the beginning of the design process. It
becomes more difficult to influence
design and reduce costs as the project
develops. Accordingly, the cost of change
increases.
w
5
s
Potential cost savings and cost of
change versus time
Buildability is not simply a function of
design repetition and standardization
nor is good design compromised by
standardization or simplicity. Structural
Fig. 1OOb
simplicity and steps taken to minimize
sequential site practices improve
construction efficiency and reduce total
costs.
Buildability derives not only from
construction methods, but also from
teamwork and designs that reflect
flexible attitudes to contractual relation-
ships. The traditional chain of responsi-
bility can isolate contractors and prevent
them from influencing decisions that
affect programme and cost. Remember,
contractors can help designers; and
where hybrid concrete construction is
adopted, contractors should be involved
early in the design process to help
maximize buildability, creativity and
team spirit. Once adopted for a project,
the philosophy of hybrid concrete con-
struction tends to be applied to many
parts of a structure, as demonstrated by
the examples in this publication.

Quality
Building owners and tenants are looking
for higher quality buildings. Quality
must never be an afterthought. It is a
priority for the client and must be for the
entire project team, from designers right
through to contractors, foremen, opera-
tives, material producers and suppliers.
The use of high-quality precast units
should make it easier to produce high-
quality buildings. When used as
permanent forms, exceptional frame
accuracy can result. It is far easier to let
concrete be moulded by previously fixed
factory-produced precast units rather
than fit high-quality precast units to
in-situ work.

Architecture
Architecturally, the possibilities of
hybrid concrete construction are almost
boundless. Frequently, high-quality and
specialist finishes can be incorporated at
reasonable cost, usually at much lower
overall cost than applied finishes. More
radically, this type of construction can
suggest new forms, concepts, ideas and
styles of architecture.

Construction
Traditional formwork can be slow and
expensive, accounting for up to 4 0 % of
in-situ frame costs, and skilled trades-
men are being lost from the industry.
Furthermore, the trend is towards faster
construction, better quality, more
prefabrication and reduced site activity.

How can these demands be met?

Some of the answers lie within hybrid
concrete construction.
1.0 Precast and in-situ
concrete
Precast concrete
Precast concrete has been a part of
construction for many years. It is a
versatile product that is widely used in
offices, car parks and commercial and
industrial developments of all kinds. In
buildings, precast concrete is most
commonly used for frames, floors and
cladding. Factory-engineered concrete
provides consistent high quality, with
economy, durability, inherent fire
resistance, dimensional accuracy, fast
erection and a freedom from site
influences. A wide variety of details
and finishes is available. While units
are usually simply reinforced,
prestressing and post-tensioning offer
greater structural performance.
Elements are normally cast in forms
made of concrete, timber, wood, steel,
glass fibre or a combination of these
materials. The forms are designed to be
durable and allow mechanization of the
factory process. Economies ,of produc-
tion are achieved through repetition
and automated processes.
Precast and in-situ concrete
Precast and in-situ concrete can be used
together in many different ways to
extend the design horizons for archi-
tects, engineers and contractors.
Precast cladding adorns many in-situ
framed buildings. Simple, repetitive
portions of a structure may naturally
lend themselves to precast construction,
whereas more complicated, less accessi-
ble sections may lend themselves to in-
situ construction. Precast units can
directly replace in-situ elements, for
example stair flights or hollowcore floor
units within in-situ frames. Units can be
used as permanent formwork, substi-
tuting for, and largely obviating the
need for, conventional formwork while
bringing the advantages of factory-
engineered concrete to site.
Precast and in-situ concrete can also
act compositely. In-situ concrete
toppings are often added to precast
floors for additional strength, stiffness
and robustness. In-situ floor slabs can
be cast on top of precast downstand
beams to give highly efficient composite
T-beams.
These simple and, perhaps, tradi-
tional examples illustrate the principles
that have been adopted and adapted to
give a wide range of hybrid options
while making very efficient use of
materials. They incorporate all the
benefits of precasting (eg, form, finish,
colour, speed, accuracy, prestressing,
high-quality, assured covers, and dense
and properly cured ‘covercrete’), with
all the benefits of in-situ construction
(eg, economy, flexibility, mouldability,
continuity and robustness). Material
and design costs might rise, but these
increased costs are more than offset by
savings on site, as the increased build-
ability reduces total construction costs.
Planning for construction
For any form of construction to be
successful, good planning is essential.
Precasting concrete actively encourages
an integrated approach to design and
construction. Designer, precaster and
builder pool their expertise and collabo-
rate to ensure better, more efficient
construction.
Besides design and manufacture of
the precast units, issues such as trans-
port, cranage, temporary support,
supplementary reinforcement and in-
situ concreting all have to be consid-
ered. Once these have been resolved,
the team can be confident of a fast and
efficient construction programme.
Generally instant access is available to
following trades, and there is no need
to return to add fire protection or, in
many instances, applied finishes.
Where circumstances allow, large
lorry-sized units can be the most
buildable solution. On the other hand,
using small precast units and a larger
proportion of in-situ concrete brings
greater flexibility and scope for

1.1 Floors
Precast
Most designers are familiar with the
range of precast floors available, which
caters for most loadings and spans.
innovation. Smaller units are easier to
lift, handle and use on site, but tend to
be more time-consuming.
The traditional method of fixing
precast units to an existing frame can be
slow and difficult owing to the inaccu-
racies in the frame and the rigidity of
the units. It is far easier to let precast
units form the structure. In hybrid
construction, the units can be placed
and aligned both with their theoretical
positions and with each other without
the constraints of an existing frame; any
inaccuracies can be eliminated by the
in-situ casting.
Placing precast elements will usually
be on the critical path of the construc-
tion programme. Units should therefore
be detailed so that they may be placed
with the minimum of crane time. They
should be lifted into position, generally
Fig. 1 Precast floors
b) Placing hollowcore floor units
1.1 Floors
onto shims, to marked lines and then
propped and braced as required.
(Ideally propping and temporary
bracing should be designed out.) This
results in minimum hook time by elim-
inating time spent on welding, bolting
or strong-arming units into place.
Lead-in time is seldom a problem as
units can usually be supplied ex-stock
or, if bespoke, by the time foundations
have been constructed. Production and
erection can generally overlap.
A wide choice
Numerous hybrid precast and in-situ
systems are available and some are
used widely in this country. However,
there are many other systems and ideas
that are worthy of examination and
more widespread use.
--------___--_-_t____________________
~:-J---JJ~;~:\
-=-- _--;_- -_->__ __-r_____-;__ __-+__ __*
 Double- T b e a m

400 to
1200
I

’ 1800 t o 3 6 0 0
I_--
e) Multi-purpose beam-and-block floors.
The 225 mm deep hollowcore beams give a larger Single- T b e a m
span range

lnverted-U b e a m

Mixed precast and in-situ Fig. 2 The IMS system

Precast concrete floor units can be

In-situ joints c o s t with
combined with in-situ concrete to p o s t tensioning t e n d o n s

produce a mixed precast and in-situ

floor.

Temporary steel
support beneath
floor panels Post-tensioning tendons,
Bars projecting
from top of *
floor panels
(splice-welded)

;
In-situ joints
cast with
post-tensioning
tendons
~ Section A-A
b) Part plan c) Section through rib
Holes can be made through the voided areas. The panels incorporate voids, and the resulting
construction is very lightweight -similar to a
waffle slab but with a bottom flange. No beams or
c o l u m n corbels are required.
 1.1 Floors

Mixed precast and in-situ Fig. 3 Citycorp Centre, Sao Paulo, Brazil

a) Elevation

Fig. 4 Lloyds, Chatham

An essential feature of the building is the use of 7.2 m square reinforced lightweight concrete truncated
pyramids that form structural ceilings. These support in-situ floors by way of precast stools mounted at
the apex and column positions. The void created was used for service routing, and the undersurfaces of the
199 units each of 8.5 tonnes are exposed to view and arc integral with services and lighting. l i g h t i n g
Precast shearheads Fig. 5 Precast shearheads

Permanent formwork Fig. 6 Precast beam as formwork

k Fig. 7 Typical GRC panel cross-sections
Precast concrete can act purely as
Typical panel cross section
permanent formwork, without any r a n g e - m(Note 1 mm
contribution to composite action with
the in-situ concrete.
Flat sheet
Prestressed precast solid soffit slabs up to 0.5
have been used as permanent
formwork, but are more generally used
in composite floors.
S i n g l e corrugated
0.5-l 5
,
an be filled with polytyrene

1 Ribbed, flat soffit

1.5-Z 5

Polystyrene

I Steel reInforced
GRC
1 5-4 5 plus

Fig. 8 Islamic Cultural Centre, Rome

8
 1.1 Floors
Fig. 9 Ferrocement trough units

Composite precast floors Fig. 10 Composite beam-and-block floors

Precast flooring units can be topped
with in-situ structural concrete to form a
composite slab.
The precast units support the weight
of fresh concrete and construction loads
during construction. Once set, the in-
situ topping acts compositely with the Helntorced concrete Relnfotced concrete
joist 1atttce ,015t
unit to take additional dead and
superimposed loads. This composite
action depends on shear connection
between the precast and in-situ
elements. Shear connection can be
achieved in various ways according to
the system employed, but may amount
to no more than a bond between precast
concrete and in-situ concrete.
Propping tends to be avoided but,
where used, it can lead to economies in
total floor thickness.
Continuity over multiple spans is
easily achieved by reinforcing the in-
situ topping over supports. The topping
often incorporates a reinforcement
mesh and is normally at least 40 mm
thick. Formwork is minimized and
construction is very quick.

Composite soffit slabs Fig. 11 Soffit slabs

7--. --~I
In-situ structural topping

soffit slab
 Fig. 12 ‘Flat slabs’

I In-situ concrete
\ Slab tendons

Fig. 13 Composite floors with voids

I,. 18.1 6 BSC Corrugated metal forms
t 1
75
470
65

Fig. 14 Centre Point, London

AP

I
Precast concrete W$%$unit
floor unit
(2590mm wide)

10
 1.1 Floors

Composite: lattice girders Fig. 15 Lattice girder floor systems - reinforced

e) Placing decking units

The lattices facilitate lifting.

11
 Fig. 16 Car park at Citta di Torino International Airport, Italy

a) Floor slabs during construction

Precast
permanent
formwork
! (or predolles)

I I I I I

Fig. 17 Lattice girder floor units - prestressed with void formers

units
Section A A

Prestressed decking
Section B - B unit/beam soffit

L 2400 .
Section C C

12
 1.1 Floors
Composite: precast units Fig. 18 Composite hollowcore floors

Fig. 19 The Resdec system

I
Topping concrete Edge
penetrations formwork Formwork
nominal 60mm

c 350
Resdeck
beam
Hodiform /
permanent formwork

Composite: precast ribs Fig. 21 Broadwalk House, London

- - --- - -~~
Here, ribs are assumed to be at between
600 mm and 4,000 mm centres, spanning
onto beams or walls. Terminology tends
to vary and ribs may be called ‘beams’
or ‘joists’, or, where rib centres are more
than about 1500 mm, ‘skip joists’. As
illustrated later, true beams that
support floor slabs can be partly
precast, but these tend to be much
heavier sections and specifically
manufactured for the particular project.
The webs of ribbed floors can be
precast to give a lightweight long-span
floor that is quick and easy to construct.
Ribs can be reinforced or prestressed.
During construction, the rib supports
conventional formwork, precast soffit
slabs or decking. The precast rib is a) Schematic of floor slab construction
generally designed to take the construc-
tion loads and eliminate temporary
propping completely. To improve span/
depth ratios further, the precast rib can
be propped, eg at mid; third- or quarter-
points, during construction.
13
 In-situ floor s l a b Prestressed
i precast concrete
: beam m-1
/

Expandable joist Prop ’

shore

pre-tensioned
beams are jacked
u p before pouring

14
 1.1 Floors
Fig. 25 PBC composite ribbed floor

Bridge beams Fig. 26 Bridge beams

a) U-beams c) T-beams

b) M-beams

Fig. 27 Southend office: plan and section

72000
k

Beams @ 1500 crs.

Precast soffit /
Precast
planks
p r e s t r e s s e d bridge
beam

15
1.2 Beams
Precast beams (non-composite) Fig. 28 Precast beams
Precast beams are an essential part of
precast concrete frame construction.
Although a wide range of precast beams
and preferred sizes is available, they
can always be made to order, reinforced
or prestressed, with the option of being
post-tensioned on site. While beams are
usually designed as simply supported,
continuous design is becoming more
commonplace.

c) Beam-to-beam connections

a) Internal beams - typical sizes

For i n hcanrs, the most con~nm shape is the
inverted-T (or double hoot) which accommodates
the thickness of a hollowcore floor u n i t Rectangu-
lar beams are less e f f i c i e n t structurally but are
simpler to manufacture and may be more
economical where depth is not critical.

b) Edge beams-typical sizes

Perirf7etrr beams are r7ormally a s y m e t r i c a n d

therefore more difficult to prestress L-beams with

large upstands (spandrel beams) structurally
efficient and provide some protection for following
trades and a permanent form for any in-situ
concrete floors or i n f i l l Architecturally spandrel
beams can provide a continuous j&padcami a large
e) Continuous beam-to-column connection
choice of finishes.
This detail emanates from Australia.

16
Fig. 29 Bracken House, London

Fig. 30 Precast ground beams

17
Composite: reinforced beams Fig. 31 T-beam construction
As with composite ribbed floors, the
webs of beams can be partially precast.
The precast beams can be either
normally reinforced, prestressed or
post-tensioned. During construction
they can be used to support conven-
tional formwork, precast floor units or
decking, and are designed to take the
temporary construction loads with or
without temporary propping. The
width of the beam may be increased to
reduce total depths but shallower sec-
tions are more likely to require prop-
ping. In the permanent case, the beam is
designed as, and acts as, a composite T
beam. They are often designed as
continuous beams, thereby reducing
overall depth.

b) Elevation during construction

Prestressed concrete

18
 1.2 Beams

L ,

b) Assembly prior to casting in-situ concrete

Here, flat beams are used in conjunction with
pre stressed ribs to give a hybrid floor. Temporary
falsework is required for the flat beams and, in this
a r r a n g e m e n t , the ends of the ribs. The system is
adaptable to most building configurations.

Fig. 34 Quickfloor system

Fig. 35 Proposed system: schematic

Fig. 36 Prestressed concrete with additional prestressing on site: Spanlight system

Reinforced edge beam
In-situ pint
\ to prestressed
Prestressed

UJ ’ Prestressing strands
tensioned before
casting In-situ joint
 Fig. 37 Prestressed concrete with post-tensioning on site: Ekon system

Permanent formwork Fig. 38 Prestressed soffit slabs Fig. 39 Post-tensioned support strips
4~ “,X -c 1 -. _ ~~~~ ~ _..____ ,
Permanent forms are used to:
- speed construction, especially of
downstand beams
- provide high-quality finishes
- increase accuracy.
The units can act solely as permanent
formwork, ie they may be designed for
construction loads only without any
contribution to the strength of the
completed beam. More efficiently, they
can act compositely with the in-situ
concrete. Indeed, some beams in
seismic areas are designed to act both
compositely and non-compositely in
the same span.
Permanent forms can be normally
reinforced or can be prestressed. Thin
sections often require propping and, in
the case of thin shell C, U or L forms,
they may need temporary side support.
Nonetheless, they are quick and easy to Fig. 40 OCE Netherlands NV building
install and lead to great accuracy. j , iI:>
1 _ ~~~ ~~
Planar permanent forms normally
incorporate lattice girders for tempo-
rary strength.
Very often permanent forms for
exposed positions will incorporate thin
veneers of expensive materials or very
high-quality finishes. Otherwise, the
concrete finish is made suitable for
painting.

20
 1.2 Beams

Non-composite formwork Fig. 41 Precast permanent formwork to spandrel beams

formwork

formwork

Fig. 42 City Corp Centre, Sao Paulo

a) Elevation d) Precast L-form being lifted into position

used in the curved elevation.
 Fig. 44 Precast composite beam shell strengthened with lattice girders

Fig. 45 12-storey office block in Illinois, USA

6 at 7620 = 45720 690

a) Floor plan
Styrofoom voids

L--+___ . ..I [ Prestressed1

beam shells
1170
----1

b) Section
Prestressed composite beam shells were used.

22
 1.2 Beams
Fig. 46 Melbourne Cricket Ground, Southern Stand

Composite/non-composite Fig. 47 Composite/non-composite U-beams

b) Manufacture
1.3 Columns
Precast columns Fig. 50 Precast column details
Precast columns have been used
extensively in in-situ framed buildings
for speed and quality of finish.

Fig. 51 RMC Limited Headquarters, Thorpe

 Fig.. 52 Napp Laboratories, Cambridge

Fig. 53 Bangor District General Hospital

~~ _~~~~~. ~~ ~~ __~

b) Demoulding precast elements

c) On-site precasting yard

26
 1.3 Columns

Partial precasting Fig. 55 Islamic Cultural Centre, Rome _

27
 Fig. 56 Lloyds building, London

b) During construction
.I”
;
I!
L

I Precast yoke d) Schematicof floor

Structural Prestressed and column
topping Inverted construction

Thick-walled tubes Fig. 57 Sprayed precast hollow columns

a) Columns

28
 1.3 Columns

Tie needed at
back (eg form-
board flxed
Temporary to Inserts
formwork in unit)
Shells need to be held
Provide bond toaether bv Internal
between connections or external
precast unit walings and ties
and In-situ
concrete Provide bond
with in-situ
\ concrete
\

permanent seal at permanent

formwork all joints formwork

29
 Fig. 59 Precast permanent L-form

Fig. 60 Australia Square, Sydney

Fig. 62 Cladding panels as formwork

30
 Fig. 63 The Cauelec Centre, Rockhampton Australia

1.4 Walls and cladding

Structural precast walls
Precast walls can fulfil a number of
functions within a building. They can
be used internally or externally,
structurally or non-structurally, to
provide stability, support, weather-
tightness, finish, insulation, fire
barriers or physical division.
The decision to go precast is often
influenced by the need to speed
construction.

Infill wall with horizontal joint, and

c) Infill wall with vertical joint

Structural cladding Fig. 65 Delftse Poort office complex, Rotterdam
Precast concrete cladding can be chosen
for its vertical and lateral load-carrying
capability. Precast T-, double-T and
hollowcore floor units have all been
used for structural external walls. To
allow for windows, structural cladding
is more often provided as T- or H- frame
elements. Along with tilt-up construc-
tion, these types of wall are illustrated
under Frames on page 40.

Precast wall
element

In-situ concrete Reinforcement

.\ \

element
spanning 14.4m

Non-structural cladding Fig. 66 Broadwalk House, London

Precast concrete is extensively used to
provide non-structural cladding to
precast concrete, in-situ concrete and
steel frames. It is is very durable, quick
to erect and usually incorporates high-
quality finishes. Precast cladding offers
the opportunity for almost unlimited
architectural expression, with colour
and texture, form and modelling,
aggregate and addictive e selection
mechanical and chemical surface a) The hybrid frame being clad
See Fig.2
treatments, polishing and applied
materials providing an enormous
choice. The more recent notable
examples in London include
Broadwalk House and Vauxhall Cross.

b) Detail of curved corner bay

32
 1.4 Walls and cladding
Fig. 67 Vauxhall Cross, London

a) In-situ frame beingclad b) Completed building

Other precast walls Fig. 68 Structural modules: Pre-trial Detention Facility, Jacksonville, Florida

a) Aerial view
Theperimeter structureofeach storeyofthis
prison consists of ‘three packs’- two precast cell
units and a similar mechanical duct unit stacked
together-placed side by side. The internal
structure is conventional precast construction.

c) Precast prison cell being lifted into

position
Doorframes, windowframes, bunks and other
fittings were cast in. The units werepainted after
erection.

b) ‘Three-pack’ test assembly

The front and back walls of the units take vertical
loads in thefinished structure.

Fig. 69 Exchange Tower, London Fig. 70 Jupiters Hotel, Surfer’s Paradise

.?
.

The inner leaf of the perimeter stair and the lift

towers on Exchange Tower was precast to save time
and cost over masonry by removing the need for an
external scaffold. Aerated concrete wall units are
often used to replace conventional blockwork.
Typical of a number of Australian hotel projects,
non-loadbearingprecast concrete bathroom shells
and dividing walls were used to speed construc-
tion. These units required apaintfinish only.
33
Permanent formwork Fig. 71 Precast flat panels, non-composite

Fig. 72 Sagrada Familia, Barcelona

34
 1.4 Walls and cladding
Non-composite: large panels Fig. 73 Australis Centre, Adelaide

Fig. 74 Office building, California

..
OUTSIDE VIEW

a) Isometric of cladding panel

b)) Schematic elevation

35
Composite Fig. 75 KTW Kaiser Omnia plate wall system
Water bar
as required

Continuity and
starter bar
reinforcement

Precast lattice Temporary props

girder walls

a) The instant wall

\ \\ I ’ j,‘\ i

..: ,’ \
__ ’ j ,/ f ?lacecast bedinto
i
b) Casting sequence

Fig. 76 Forticrete Stepoc system

36
1.5 Stairs and terraces
Fig. 77 Precast stairs

b) Precast stair flight being lifted

Fig. 78 Terraces: Murrayfield, Edinburgh

b) Unit being lifted into position

37
1.6 Roofs
The choice offered by precast concrete
and precast/ in-situ hybrids is large and
depends much on span and aesthetic
requirements.
Flat roofs
The various forms of in-situ and precast
concrete floor construction illustrated
earlier can equally be applied to flat
roofs. However, over large spans, the
high ratio of dead load to live load can
make other forms of construction more
economic.
Pitched roofs
Low pitched roofs can again be achieved
using the various forms of floor construc- situ joints. I’restressing prccdst members
tion illustrated earlier with suitable
build-ups of insulation and/or screed.
Fig. 79 Folded plate slabs
Folded slab
II
Prismatic barrel
Triangular panels
38
Onenotablc,,idJiti~)n to the rdngc is
sadcileb,~ckdouble-T units for roof spans
between 15 m and 3 I III-J ran~~‘ofs~wns
also covered by precast portal frames.
Larger spans can be achieved with post-
tensioned trusses and girders made up
from prec;lst elements.
Folded plates and shells
In extremely long spans, concrete is most
e f f i c i e n t structural forms that take
advantage of its monolithic character
particularly three-dimensional forms
such as folded plates, double curved
slabsand shells. In the main, such roofs
consist of large precast mcnibcrs with in-
or post-tensioning on site reduces
thickness considerably.
Prismatic barrels
”
Folds and counter folds
 Fig. 80 Factory unit, Honduras

b) Prestressed folded slab roof units being

delivered and erected

Fig. 81 New Mint, Munich

I I \

Conical and spherical roofs Fig. 83 Clinker silo, Pordonone, Italy

a) During construction

39
 Fig. 84 London Planetarium

1.7 Frames
Precast systems Fig. 85 Precast frames
Extending the use of hybrid concrete 1~ Internal rectangularbeam
construction into whole structural I
Hollow-core unit
frames opens up a wide spectrum of
Gable spandrel beam
possibilities.
Maln spandrel beam

talrcase and landlng

II lW
I
Landing support beam

\
Internal beam ’ Ground beam

Maln edge spandrel beam

b) Typical
commercial frame

40
 Fig. 86 Trade Group offices, Canberra

Structural cladding Fig. 87 Centre Point, London

a) A landmark in the West End

Besides its nestiwtlc qualitws, pr~ast cor~crctc
clnddi,lgca,l hechow~for its ucrtical m~dlnternl
load-cnrryitl;ycapahility.

Fie. 88 St. Johns College, Oxford

r I

b) Completed building

41
Precasting on site: tilt-up
Precasting can also take place on site.
Today, systems such as tilt-up and lift
slab have their place.
Fig. 89 Tilt-up construction
Final location of panel
Continuous or pier footing
/ Floor slab
Walll panel as cast on floor

Tilt-up wall panel lifted by crane

Tilt-up panel set in place

Temporarily bracing for

’ Permanent roof structure

in place
Temporary bracing removed

Fig. 90 Tilt-up business unit, California

Fig. 91 Form, shape, texture and colour

42
 1.7 Frames
Fig. 92 First Deposit National Corp. Building, Pleasaton, California.

Lift slab Fig. 93 Lift-slab construction

Lifting rods at full extent
\

Post-tensioned slab Reinforcing bars welded

to collar to transfer
bending moments
Grout \ \

/
Local fire protection
Lifting rods Inserted through
\ hole cast in concrete slab
Shear block
Typical connection Typical collar

c) Typical project during construction

main nnzrarltu~eycof’lift-slah coristvlrctiorl is tllut
st~~~~fitfi,rrtrlclorkis co~rf~~lctc/~~e/i~~rirfutr~rf.

d) Accommodation block, University of

Aston, Birmingham
Mixed in-situ and precast Fig. 94 Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

b) Walkway for female students

Horizontal division Fig. 95 The Messetiirm, Frankfurt Fig. 96 Justice Centre, Portland, Oregon
Buildings can be divided either hori-
zontally or vertically between precast
and in-situ concrete.
For instance, the structure of Caledo-
nian Paper Mill at Irvine is in-situ up to
operating floor level, to cater for high
loads, and then entirely precast concrete
above. Comparative initial cost studies
showed minimal cost differences when
compared with other forms of construc-
tion, but the client preferred concrete’s
durability, low maintenance costs,
in-built fire resistance and sound-
deadening qualities”‘.

Two floors of precast structure w e r e s a n d w i c h e d

Here a precast pyramid frame was used to crow
the top of the 250 m high in-situ concrete tower
between in-situ reinforced c o n c r e t e c o n s t r u c t i o n
above and below.Using precast for the second a n d
third floors reflected the functional requirements o f
the building. Precasting cell units m a d e it possible
to attain the required finish and durability with
substantial savings in construction time and cost.

Vertical division

44
 Fig. 98 Lloyds building, London

t-.. --_.-.--I -1 b) Service tower

During construction

Mixed precast and in-situ Fig. 99 Royal Concert Hall, Glasgow

r
Precast slabs

Precast slabs

Steel roof girders

Anti-vibration
mountings

45
 Fig. 100 The auditorium of the new Glyndebourne Opera House
Precast ceiling units

Precast ceiling units

Cantilever units
In-situ column

Barsconnected

Integrated systems Fig. 101 The Dy-Core system

Perhaps more exciting and innovative Precast soffit beam
In-situ continuity reinforcement and concrete
are framing systems that incorporate (1200mx200m
the ideas for floors, beams, walls and deep) temporarily
supported by steel
columns into integrated systems. These angles off column.
systems require a greater degree of Permanently
supported by R.C.
gearing up and organization, but the beam within topping
rewards are increased speed, quality
and economy. They encourage integra-
tion of the design and construction
processes.
 1.7 Frames
Fig. 102 World Trade Centre, Melbourne
Precast beam shell

Fig. 103 Office building, Japan

Place ducted columns Place precast beams

Reinforced and concrete Install soffit slabs

Fig. 104 Office building, Japan

1 Soffit slabs Beam shell

47
 Fig. 105 Apartment construction, Japan

In-situ joints

In-situ topping

,
\

Precast wall units Soffit slabs

Precast balcony units

Fig. 106 Hotel construction, Australia

48
 1.7 Frames
Fig. 107 Car park at Lakeside Shopping Centre, Thurrock

b) Overview during construction

7-1

c) Pouring the in-situ beam.

Post-ffmionirig tfmkv7s ir7 $7ccarfd sirt7pksrrffd

rails. Post-tensioning reduced potential cracking in

the slab and therefore will increase service life.

49
1.8 Services integration
Hybrid precast and in-situ structures can the hollow columns in La Rotunda in
be used as an integral part of the services Mestre (see Fig. 32) which are used for
provision for buildings. An example is communications networking.

Fig. 108 Leicester University Library: floor/column detail

Column ducts

Fig. 109 Core ducting

50
 2.0 Concrete and
steelwork
Many buildings are a combination of
concrete and structural steel. Founda-
tions, substructures and basements to
steel-framed buildings are almost always
in-situ concrete. Steelwork and concrete
are completely compatible and comple-
mentary. They have almost the same
coefficient of thermal expansion, while
concrete is efficient in compression and
steel in tension. Concrete protects steel
2.1 Floors
Shearheads Fig. 110 Shearheads
against corrosion and fire, and can
restrain slender steel sections from
buckling.
Composite steel construction, in
which in-situ concrete works compos-
itely with steel beams and decking, is
already a familiar form of construction.
However, there are many other ways in
which the two materials can complement
each other.
51
Profiled steel decking Fig. 111 Permanent formwork: Bracken House, London

Fig. 112 Composite decking: Centre West, Hammersmith

b) Section through
floor beam and floor
Decking spans betzoeen
precast half-beams and
acts compositely with
the in-situ topping.
Cast-in tags were used
to secure the decking to
the precast beams

52

Fig. 113 Traydec system
2.2 Beams
Composite steel construction consists of
steel beams and composite concrete
floors. The bottom flanges of the steel
beams act in tension and the concrete acts
in compression in the composite sections.
Welded shear studs avoid, or at least
reduce, slippage between the two
materials so that composite action can be
assumed. Typically, the beams are
designed as simply supported and are
unpropped during construction.
Plate bonding Fig. 114 Plate bonding
2.2 Beams
Precast
beams
Precast -y
spandrel
beams
Adequate anti-crack reinforcement
should be provided over interior beams.
Concrete is often used to encase steel
beams to provide fire or corrosion
protection, or to simplify details for
fixing cladding. Other than reducing the
tendency for the beam to buckle, the
concrete is not usually structural.
Encasement can be undertaken on-site
or, more usually, off-site.
53
2.3 Columns
Columns in steel structures Fig.115 Murrayfield, Edinburgh

Fig. 116 Concrete columns in steel structures in Japan

54
 2.3 Columns
Composite steel columns Fig. 117 Liftform: sequence of construction
Steel columns are encased with concrete
to provide fire resistance or to reduce
slenderness of the steel section. The
concrete may or may not be designed to
take load. In the same way, hollow steel
sections may be filled with concrete. By
using reinforcement instead of nominal
fire mesh, the load capacity of the
combined section may be increased.

55
2.4 Frames
Horizontal/vertical division
Precast concrete/steel frames
Fig. 118 Steel roof frame to an in-situ concrete-framed building
In commercial buildings, the roofs of rehforced
comretefrarmi cm be in structural s tee1 to suit
requirenleu ts_for a low superinlposed load arrdfire
mtiq. Asteel roof zetas adopted oJJ this ht4ildirJy to
Fig. 119 Precast frames
b) Typical industrial building
Perrrmretzt stability may be aclziewd by my of
comectiov details, or by usiJJg stru t or cross
bracirlg or shear walls. L
c) Guildford Business Park
Clitws arui,fixi~lgsfor structural sfeelzoorkor
CmzCretC con7po~ic~zts. MitJorfixiJJgs are more
suit tl~ccyco~r~rtryar~~lscqfrcrzccof~r~~~f~~~.
Ottrerfuctors c& dictate 17 cowblmh~r~ c!filr-situ
comrete md steelzoork. For ~JJS far7cc, k~p-dozcvl
corzstruction is con~n~orzly adopted fo d/ou~ s~wl
szcperstrircturc’s to ~~cjh~Jrf~~d l7rJd erwted 7olJilc
rei+wf colzcrctebasc~nlf~rz~s alldsfrb~trrrc~llv~s
areexcaz~ate~n~z11~~~~zst~t~ctrd. Slip-forrnfd
concretecores are oflcrr usedfor stnbili(tjitl stccl-
framed, multi-store!/ hrildiugs to S~JLW~
consfructiotz and rdrrce UJc s/~me required f;,r
steelwork hrncing. Attother n~t~flzmf ofprozGdirzg
lateral stability iu hi@J-rise blrildirJ& pf7rticJrlarly
in seismic mus, imolz~es sJf rroJ4udiJ2S a
pin-join ted s teelfravic zclith f7 pcrirrrctcr iu-sib
reinforced coucrefefrnrrze (or Mw).
d) British Rail car park at Reading
Steel plate cross-brflciug irr 17 prccnstfrarrred cJ7r
park.
 2.4 Frames
In-situ concrete and steel Fig. 120 Royal Life Headquarters, Peterborough
 Fig. 121 Concrete’tents’, Janadriyah complex, Riyadh

Stadia Fig. 122 Bari Stadium, Italy

Fig. 123 Melbourne Cricket Ground, Southern Stand

Fig. 124 East Stand, Twickenham, during construction

59
 3.0 Concrete and
other materials

Possible combinations of materials are circumstances. New materials and new

almost limitless and many are beyond
the scope of this publication. However,
most structures are hybrids of different
materials, and part of the designer’s art
is to combine them efficiently to suit the
ideas using traditional materials are
under constant development and are
bound to find applications in structures
of the future.

3.1 Stone
Fig. 125 Stone

Precast panel __

-_______.
- - - - - - - - - -~---.
-----

_----_
_ _ _ _ - -- --- - --.
- - - . ._~.

---_---_---~---
________--------

Note
Vertical load token on separate
angle fixing

60
 ii--

This system allows concrete slabs to work

compositely with timber joists. It has applications

3.3 Plastics
Fig. 127 Nestehaus, Porvoo, Finland
a) Exterior
The Nes tehaus was
built to test the
potential of plastics in
housing. Plastics are
finding increasing
applications as a
structural m e d i u m
Polypropylene fibres
are often incorporated
in to concrete,
particularly for
industrial floors to
reduce cracking and
abrasion.

As well as being used to form voids and in beam-

and-block composite floors, expanded polystyrene
can act as permanent formwork to walls. Such
construction is popular in the north European
domes tic market. The expanded polystyrene
provides lightweight thermal insulation, while the
concrete reduces noise transfer and eliminatesfire
bridging. Cable and pipe runs can be easily chased
or routed into the polystyrene before plasterboard
and decorative finishes are applied.

61
 4.0 Conclusions

General
The examples show how hybrid concrete
construction can provide economy,
speed, flexibility and buildability while
giving high-quality and aesthetically
pleasing structures. Versatility is one of
the great virtues of hybrid construction.
The illustrations in this publication are
by no means exhaustive, but are included
as examples of principles that can be
adopted and adapted to suit. The reasons
for considering hybrid concrete construc-
tion are compelling. With all these
potential benefits, hybrid concrete
should be considered alongside more
traditional forms of construction.
It is hoped that, for arriving at opti-
mum solutions, this publication will
prove useful as a source of ideas.

The benefits
For the client : For the designer:
cost savings versatility
increased speed of construction simplicity
improved quality standardization
precision discipline of repetition
rigidity, continuity and robustness ease of design
minimum storey heights. architectural freedom
in-built fire resistance large spans
thermal reservoir efficient structures
innovation factory control of units
variety of finishes
For the contractor: high-strength concrete options
buildabilitv prestressing options
less formwork post-tensioned options
less site labour high-quality cover concrete
ease of erection
repetition For the user:
reduced floor cycle times P ease of adaptation
reduced temporary works + rigidity and robustness
greater team spirit B quality
less finishing B durability

The potential
* Economy *vFlexibility
Efficiency $ Safety
Speed o Aesthetics
Quality e Decoration
Accuracy Creativity
Durability P Innovation

62
 5.0 References

General
Information has been gleaned from many
sources which, where possible, are noted
below. The British Cement Association’s
Centre for Concrete Information (Tel. (+44)
(0) 1344 725700) holds copies of all the
publications referred to, and will provide
photocopies where allowable and
possible. This service is provided free to
members of the Centre for Concrete
I n f o r m a t i o n under the C o n c q u e s t scheme.

Text references
1 C H Goodchild RCC Cost Model Study. Crowthorne 4
RCC/British Cement Association, 1993
2 S Green and P. Popper Value Engineering, Chartered 5
Institute of Building, Occasional paper No 39, Ascot,
CIOB, 1990
h

-Figure references and countries of origin

1 UK*. a) Costain Dow Mac Brochure, 2/88. b) Bison Floors I4
Ltd brochure c) [Germany] T Koncz Precast Concrete
MultIstory Buildings. Betonwerk+ Fertigteil +Technik, 15
Y/Y? d) Bishop Auckland Precast Concrete Ltd brochure
e) Bison Floors Ltd brochure f) RCC Engineering
Package g) Costain Dowmac Brochure 2/88.
2 Yugoslavia. S-G. Low, M K Tadros & J C Nijhawan
Minimization of Floor Thickness in Precast Prestressed
Concrete Multistory Buildings PCI Journal 7-8/91 pp 16
75-92
3 Brazil. M. Frnnco. The Citicorp Centre skyscraper in Sao
Paulo Brazil, L'industria Italiana del Cemento, 5/91 17
Architect and photos: Mario Franco.
4 UK:M Maddison Lloyd's aim for quality at Chatham.
Concrete, April 1978 Photo: Arup Associates
5 Germany. Author’s correspondence with CRIC
(Concrete Research & Innovation Centre), London. I8
6 UK: A E J Morris. Precast Concrete in Architecture. Geo 19
Godwin 1978 20
7 UK:T Harrison Permanent GRC soffit formwork
Slough, Cement&Concrete Association, ITN 9,2/86.
8 Italy I’. Cocomello & L. Palozzi Technological aspects 21
and reinforced concrete precasing tor the construction of
the Rome Mosque L'industria Italiano del Cemento IO/
92. Architect and photos. Vittorio Gigliotti. 22
9. Hungary: L. Vegh & I’ Vegh A new type of structural 23
material FIP symposium Budapest 5/92, pp 591 et seq.
10 Germany J.Calavera. Beam-block Floor System
Betonwerk+ Fertigteil Technik 10/90 24
I I. UK’ a) Tarmac structural Concrete Ltd brochure
b) [Netherlands] T Koncz. Precast Concrete Multistory
Buildings Betonwerk+ Fertigteil+Technik, 9/93
I2 Netherlands J Groenveld & G H Welbergen 25
Prestressed flat slabs with various types of execution. FIP 26
Notes, No 3, 1989 pp 13-21.
27
I3 USA: M Fintel & S. Ghosh. Economics of long-span
concrete slab systems for office buildings Stokie, Illinois,
Portland Cement Association

63