Steels in aeronautics = high strength steels (usually with yield strength above 200 ksi

= 1378 Mpa) (1 ksi = 6.89 MPa)

The main advantages of high strength steels are their extremely high strengths
and stiffness (lembrar diagrama tensão x deformação).

This is extremely important in landing gear applications where it is critical to minimize

the volume of the gear components.

F16
These steel alloys have a modulus of elasticity of 28–29 msi (192-200 GPa),
which allows landing gears to maintain their shape during hard landings. (1 msi =
6.89 GPa)
While high strength steels normally account for only about 5–15% of the air-
frame structural weight, they are often used for highly critical parts such as
landing gear components,
Turbine (engine) shafts,
and helicopter shafts and transmissions.
The disadvantages of high strength steels are primarily
their high densities and susceptibility to brittle fracture.

Also, as a result of their high strength levels, they are susceptible to hydrogen
embrittlement and stress corrosion cracking, both of which can cause sudden
brittle failures.

composites steels
Four types of high strength steels will be covered:

Medium carbon low alloy steels

High fracture toughness steels

Maraging steels

Precipitation hardening stainless steels

Metallurgical Considerations
Steels are alloys of iron and carbon that contain the BCC crystalline structure at room
temperature. Since steels contain the BCC structure, their formability is not as good as
metals with an FCC structure but better than those with the HCP structure.
As shown in the iron–carbon phase diagram, when steel alloys are sufficiently
heated they transform to the FCC austenite structure.
On slow cooling, the structure transforms back into the BCC ferrite structure, along
with cementite Fe3C, to form a structure called pearlite.
The transformation to austenite forms the basis for heat treatment by quenching
and tempering.

If the steel is austenitized at a temperature sufficiently high for some period of time
and then rapidly quenched to room temperature, it does not convert to the normal
BCC structure. Instead, it converts to a body centered tetragonal (BCT) structure
called martensite.
The BCT martensite structure is essentially a BCC structure distorted by interstitial
carbon atoms into a tetragonal structure. The distortion severely strains the
crystalline lattice and dramatically increases the strength and hardness.

Unfortunately, it also makes the steel extremely brittle; therefore, the steel is
reheated, or tempered, at intermediate temperatures to restore some ductility and
toughness, although the strength also decreases as the tempering temperature is
increased.
A key variable in heat treating alloy steels is the cooling rate during
quenching. The quench rate that will provide the desired hardness for a
given thickness is determined primarily by alloying additions. Some alloys
require a water quench, others an oil quench, and some are so highly alloyed
that they can be air cooled to room temperature to form a martensitic structure.

Since the cooling rate is

also dependent on section size, the
quench may have to be changed as the
thickness increases, for example, a steel
that could be through-hardened with
an oil quench at a thickness of 1/2 inch
may have to be water quenched when the
thickness is increased to an inch.
Medium Carbon Low Alloy Steels
Medium carbon low alloy steels contain carbon in the range of 0.30–0.50%, with
alloying elements added to provide deeper hardening and higher strength and
toughness.

Typical alloying elements include manganese, silicon, nickel, chromium, molybdenum,

vanadium, and boron.

Medium carbon low alloy steels are identified by the American Iron and Steel Institute
(AISI) four digit system of numbers. The first two digits identify the specific alloy group
while the last two digits give the approximate carbon content in hundredths of a
percent. For example, the designation 4130 would indicate that the steel is from the
41XX series of steels that are chromium–molybdenum steels, and the 30 would
indicate that the carbon content is 0.30%.
The 41XX series of alloys are classified as chromium–molybdenum steels containing
0.5–0.95% chromium and 0.13–0.20% molybdenum.

Chromium and Mo is added to increase hardenability and strength; however, the

addition of chromium can also make this series susceptible to temper embrittlement.

Due to its low-to-intermediate hardenability, 4130 must be water quenched. It has

good tensile, fatigue, and impact properties up to about 371 °C; however, the
impact properties at cryogenic temperatures are low.

Nickel is added along with chromium and molybdenum to form the 43XX class
of alloys. Their composition is about 0.5–0.8% Cr, 0.20% Mo, and 1.8% Ni.

Nickel in combination with chromium improves strength and provides greater

hardenability, higher impact strength, and better fatigue resistance. The addition
of molybdenum further increases hardenability and minimizes the susceptibility to
temper embrittlement.

The 4340 is the benchmark by which other high strength steels are judged. It
combines deep hardenability with high strength, ductility, and toughness. It also
has good fatigue and creep resistance. It is often used where high strength in
thick sections is required.
When the silicon content of 4340 is increased to 2%, the strength and toughness
increases. (4340 + 2%Si = 300M)
The increased silicon
content provides
deeper hardenability,
increases solid
solution
strengthening, and
provides better higher
temperature
resistance.

The increase in
toughness is
attributed to silicon
retarding the
precipitation of
cementite from
retained austenite
during tempering and
to the stabilization of
carbides.
The 300M steel is produced by vacuum melting process to reduce both the
quantity of dissolved gases (hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen) and the non-metallic
inclusions.
Dificuldades com diferentes taxas de resfriamento:

•Empenamento

•Trincas

•Resistência limitada
204 °C
315 °C
426 °C
649 °C
High Fracture Toughness Steels

The three high fracture toughness steels, HP-9-4-30, AF1410, and AerMet 100
have somewhat lower carbon contents than the medium carbon low alloy steels
4340 and 300M.

The lower carbon content significantly contributes to their better ductilities and
higher fracture toughness. In addition, these alloys have high nickel contents
that provides deep hardening and toughness and cobalt that helps to prevent
retained austenite (problemas dimensionais).

To obtain the desired fracture toughness, all of these steels are vacuum melted.
These alloys are not corrosion resistant and parts must be protected with a
corrosion resistant coating.

The 9Ni-4Co family of steels were developed as high fracture toughness steels
capable of being heat treated to high strength levels in thick sections. The highest
strength of these alloys, HP 9-4-30, contains nominally 0.30% carbon, 9% nickel,
and 4% cobalt. It is capable of being hardened in sections up to 6 in thick to an
ultimate tensile strength level of 220–240 ksi (1ksi = 6.89 MPa) while maintaining
excellent fracture toughness and good weldability. HP-9-4-30 is available as billet
(tarugo), bar (barra), rod (vergalhão) , plate (placa), sheet (chapa), and strip
(tiras).
The AF1410 (air force steel) was developed specifically to have high strength,
excellent fracture toughness, and excellent weldability when heat treated to 235–255
ksi (1ksi = 6.89 MPa) ultimate tensile strength.

Its nominal composition is 14% cobalt, 10% nickel, 2% chromium, 1%

molybdenum, and 0.15% carbon.

AF1410 maintains good toughness at cryogenic temperatures and has high strength
and stability at temperatures up to 800 °F (426 °C).

The general corrosion resistance is good (similar to the maraging steels).

The alloy is highly resistant to stress corrosion cracking compared to other high
strength steels.

AF1410 is produced by VIM followed by VAR.

It is available as billet, bar, plate, and die forgings (forjados).

AerMet 100 is a nickel–cobalt (11% Ni, 13% Co, 3% Cr, 1.2 % Mo and 0.23% C)
high strength steel that can be heat treated to 280–300 ksi (1ksi = 6.89 MPa)
tensile strength while exhibiting excellent fracture toughness and high
resistance to stress corrosion cracking.

AerMet 100 is replacing older steels such as 4340, 300M, HP 9-4-30, and AF1410
in many applications due to its good combination of strength and toughness.

Other advantages include good toughness at cryogenic temperatures, and an

operating temperature up to 750 °F (398 °C).

It is highly resistant to stress corrosion cracking compared to other high strength

steels of the same strength level.

AerMet 100, produced by VIM followed by VAR, is available as billet, bar,

sheet, strip, plate, wire (arame), and die forgings.
While some steels are hardened by the conversion of austenite to martensite
through a quench and temper process, others, such as the maraging and
precipitation hardening steels, are strengthened by precipitation hardening.

PRECIPITATION HARDENING

The strength and hardness of some metal alloys may be enhanced by the
formation of extremely small uniformly dispersed particles of a second phase
within the original phase matrix; this must be accomplished by phase
transformations that are induced by appropriate heat treatments.

The process is called precipitation hardening because the small particles of the
new phase are termed “precipitates.” “Age hardening” is also used to designate
this procedure because the strength develops with time, or as the alloy ages.
Two requisite features must be displayed by the phase diagrams of alloy systems
for precipitation hardening:
• an appreciable maximum solubility of one component in the other, on the order of
several percent;
• and a solubility limit that rapidly decreases in concentration of the major component
with temperature reduction.
 View previous
phase diagram

(aging)

Most precipitation-hardened alloys are limited in their maximum service temperatures.

Exposure to temperatures at which aging occurs may lead to a loss of strength due to
overaging.
Maraging Steels
Maraging steels are a class of high strength steels with very low carbon contents
(0.03% maximum) and additions of substitutional alloying elements that produce
age hardening of iron–nickel martensites.

The term “maraging” was derived from the combination of the words martensite and
age hardening.

Maraging steels have high hardenability and high strength combined with good
toughness.

The maraging steels have a nominal composition of 18% nickel, 7–9% cobalt, 3–5%
molybdenum, less than 1% titanium, and very low carbon contents.

Carbon is actually viewed as an impurity and kept to as low a level as possible to

minimize the formation of titanium carbide (TiC), which can adversely impact strength,
ductility, and toughness.

During air cooling from the annealing or hot working temperature, maraging steels
transform to a relatively soft martensite (30–35 HRC) which can be easily machined or
formed. They are then aged to high strength levels at 850–950 °F (454-510°C) for
times ranging from 3 to 9 h.
The maraging steels, with nominal nickel contents of 18% and carbon contents of
only 0.03%, will form martensite on air cooling from the austenitizing temperature.

Even very slow cooling of heavy sections produces a fully martensitic

structure. However, this low carbon martensite is not the high strength
martensite that forms in the higher carbon alloy steels.

The low carbon martensite that is formed is a tough and ductile iron–nickel
martensite. The strength in the maraging steels results during age hardening at
850–950 F to form precipitates of Ni3Mo and Ni3Ti.

Since the carbon content is extremely low, maraging steels are characterized by a
combination of high strength, ductility, and excellent toughness.

O compartimento de
motores de foguetes e
mísseis é feito em Aço
Maraging.

Eixos de alta
performance também são
feitos com este aço
Due to their extremely low carbon content, the fracture toughness of the maraging
steels is considerably higher than that of conventional high strength steels.

Maraging steels can be used for prolonged service at temperatures up to 750 °F (400
°C).

Maraging steels are also more resistant to hydrogen embrittlement than the medium
carbon low alloy steels.

Although they are susceptible to stress corrosion cracking, they are more resistant than
the medium carbon low alloy steels.

Processing techniques that improve the fracture toughness, such as vacuum melting,
proper hot working, and keeping residual impurities low, also improve the resistance to
stress corrosion cracking. The alloys are available in the form of sheet, plate, bar, and
die forgings. Most applications use bar or forgings.

Aerospace grades are tripled melted using air, vacuum induction and vacuum arc
remelting, to minimize the residual elements carbon, manganese, sulfur, and
phosphorous and the gases oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen. Carbon and sulfur are
the most deleterious impurities because they tend to form brittle carbide, sulfide,
carbonitride, and carbosulfide inclusions that can crack when the metal is strained,
lowering the fracture toughness and ductility.
Heat treatment consists of solution annealing, air cooling, and then aging.
Solution annealing is usually conducted at
1500 °F (815 °C) for 1 h. Since the nickel
content is so high, austenite transforms to
martensite on cooling from the austenitic
temperature. The martensite start
temperature Ms is about 310 °F (154 °C) and
the martensite finish temperature Mf is about
210 °F (98 °C).

The formation of martensite is not affected by

cooling rate and thick sections can be air
cooled and still be fully martensitic. Since the
martensitic transformation involves only
an austenite-to-martensite transformation
of iron–nickel and does not involve
carbon to any considerable extent, the
martensite formed is relatively ductile.

Before aging, maraging steels have yield

strengths in the range of 95–120 ksi (1ksi =
6.89 MPa).
(1ksi = 6.89 MPa)
Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels (lower than 0.1 % C)

There are two main types of PH stainless steels: semiaustenitic and martensitic.

Important properties of the precipitation hardening (PH) stainless steels are ease of
fabrication, high strength, good ductility, and excellent corrosion resistance.

The semiaustenitic grades are essentially austenitic in the solution annealed

condition. After fabrication operations are completed, they can be transformed to
martensite by an austenite conditioning heat treatment that converts the
austenite to martensite followed by precipitation hardening.

The martensitic types are already martensitic in the solution annealed condition
and only require precipitation hardening after fabrication.

The semiaustenitic alloys are generally supplied from the mill in the solution annealed
condition (Condition A). 17-7PH (17% Cr + 7% Ni) has approximately the same
chromium and nickel contents as austenitic type 301 stainless but also contains 1.2%
aluminum for precipitation hardening.

Because of their relatively high hardness in the solution annealed condition, the
martensitic types are used principally in the form of bar, rod, wire, and heavy
forgings, and only to a minimum extent in the form of sheet.
The martensitic precipitation hardening steels, before aging, are similar to the
chromium martensitic stainless steels (e.g., 410 or 431) in their general fabrication
characteristics.

The conditioning treatment for the semiaustenitic alloys consists of heating to a

high enough temperature to remove carbon from solid solution and precipitate it
as chromium carbide Cr23C6.

Removing carbon and some chromium from the austenite matrix makes the
austenite unstable and on cooling to the Ms temperature, the austenite
transforms to martensite.

As shown next, 17-7PH is conditioned at 1400 F and then cooled to 60 F to produce

the T condition. During PH, aluminum in the martensite combines with some of the
nickel to produce precipitates of NiAl and Ni3Al.

Since the martensitic PH grades are martensitic after solution annealing, they do
not require conditioning but only a precipitation hardening treatment. As shown
next, 15-5PH is solution annealed at 1950 F followed by air cooling. PH during aging at
925 F produces the H-925 condition.
 semi-austenitic
martensitic

semi-austenitic
17-7PH = 17% Cr + 7% Ni

martensitic
Manufacturing considerations for high strength steels

Medium carbon low alloy steels

Formability

They are only slightly more difficult to forge than carbon steels.

Forging is often selected for critical components because it creates a grain

flow that increases ductility, impact strength, and fatigue strength. Forging
breaks up casting segregation, reduces the as-cast grain structure, heals
porosity, and helps to homogenize the structure.

The selection of the forging temperature is based on carbon content, alloy

composition, temperature range for optimum plasticity, and the amount of
reduction required to forge the workpiece.
The section thickness, complexity, and size are often limited by the cooling that occurs
when the hot part comes in contact with the cold dies; therefore, hammer forging with
its short contact times is often used for forging intricate shapes. However, large
landing gear components are usually forged in hydraulic presses due to their large
sizes and the slow controlled strain rates that can be achieved in hydraulic presses.

Medium carbon low alloy steels are usually formed in the annealed condition.

Their formability depends mainly on the carbon content and is generally slightly
less than for unalloyed steels of the same carbon content. They can be cut,
sheared, punched, and cold formed in the annealed condition and then heat
treated to the desired hardness.

Because of their high strength and limited

ductility, forming operations are not
conducted in the quenched and tempered
conditions.

Large Landing Gear Forging

Machinability

During machining, the higher hardness of these steels

requires lower speeds and feeds than those used for the
plain carbon steels. The machinability ratings of 4130,
4140, 4340, and 300M compared to cold rolled 1212
steel (machinability = 100%) are 70, 65, 50, and 50%
respectively, indicating that these materials are
considerably harder to machine and require lower
speeds and feeds.

To improve machinability, medium carbon low alloy steels are normalized at

1600 -1700 °F (871 °C - 926 °C) and then tempered at 1200 -1250 °F (648 - 676
°C) prior to machining to produce a partially spherodized microstructure.
Highly alloyed steels should be machined before hardening to martensite.

Due to their extreme strength and hardness, high strength steels are often finished
by grinding to provide precise dimensions, remove any nicks or scratches,
and provide smooth surfaces. Finishing is usually carried out after hardening
to achieve better dimensional control.
Improper or abusive grinding can result in
grinding burns in which the surface is heated
above the austenitizing temperature and the
austenite formed converts to untempered
martensite on cooling (high heat extraction
rate due to mass factor).

This untempered martensitic surface layer is

brittle and susceptible to forming a network of
fine cracks that can reduce the fatigue
strength by as much as 30%.

Even if the grinding temperature does

not produce austenite, it can result in
overtempered martensite on the
surface that is lower in hardness
and strength.
Weldability

The best condition for welding is either the normalized

or the annealed condition.

To avoid brittleness and cracking, preheating and interpass

heating are used, and complex structures should be stress
relieved or hardened and tempered immediately after welding.

Since the weld joint cannot usually develop the high strength levels required in the
as-welded or stress relieved condition, medium carbon low alloy steels are usually
reaustenitized and then quenched and tempered after welding.

The medium carbon low alloy steels are also susceptible to hydrogen-induced
cracking; therefore, every effort must be exerted to minimize any possible
absorption of hydrogen gas. For some steels, such as 300M, welding is not
recommended.
Many high strength steels (specially those with very low Cr content) are susceptible to
stress corrosion cracking when placed in service.

Surface coatings, such as cadmium or chromium plating, are normally used to prevent
access to the environment and sacrificially corrode instead of the base metal. Hard
chrome plating is often used where wear surfaces are involved.

However, both of these plating methods can cause hydrogen embrittlement so it is

important to stress relieve before plating and then bake immediately after plating to
remove any hydrogen.
Shot peening before chrome plating
can significantly improve the fatigue
life. Shot peening induces a
residual stress pattern near the
surface that helps prevent plating
cracks from propagating into the
base metal.
High Fracture Toughness Steels

They have lower carbon contents than the medium carbon low alloy steels 4340 and
300M.

Formability

The lower carbon content significantly contributes to their better ductilities and
higher fracture toughness (good formability).

Machinability

Also due to the lower carbon content, it has better machinability compared to
medium carbon low alloy steels.

Weldability

Their weldability is also considered good and usually no pre-heating prior to welding
is needed (lower carbon content).
Maraging Steels

Maraging steels are a class of high strength steels with very low carbon contents
(0.03% maximum) and additions of substitutional alloying elements that produce age
hardening of iron–nickel martensites.

Conformability

The maraging steels are readily hot worked by conventional rolling and forging
operations. As the titanium content increases, hot working becomes more
difficult due to increased hot strength and either higher loads or higher temperatures
are required. They also have good cold forming characteristics in spite of
relatively high hardness in the annealed condition.

Machinability

During air cooling from the annealing or hot working temperature, maraging steels
transform to a relatively soft martensite (30–35 HRC) which can be easily machined or
formed.
Weldability

As a result of their very low carbon contents, weldability is excellent.

The maraging steels can be readily welded in either the annealed or the aged
conditions.

Welding of aged material should be followed by aging (usually at 900 °F)

to strengthen the weld area.
Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels

Conformability

Stainless steels are more difficult to forge than alloy steels because they
maintain greater strength at elevated temperatures, and they have to be forged
at lower temperatures to avoid microstructural damage, and the PH grades
are the most difficult of the stainless steels to forge.

For example, the PH grades require about 30–50% greater pressures than the 4340;
therefore, heavier duty equipment is required.
Machinability

Although stainless steels do not scale as badly as carbon or alloy steels, they
form a hard and abrasive scale that should be removed prior to machining or
cutting tool life will be adversely affected.

Stainless steels are difficult to machine because of their high strength, high
ductility and toughness, high work hardening rates, and low thermal
conductivities. They are often characterized as being “gummy” during
machining, resulting in reduced tool life and degraded surface finishes.

The chips removed during machining exert high pressures on the nose of the tool,
and these pressures, when combined with the high temperature at the chip-tool
interface, cause pressure welding of portions of the chip to the tool (from time to
time the chip takes away parts of the tool with it). In addition,
their low thermal conductivities contribute to a continuing heat build-up.
Weldability

These alloys can be easily welded by the conventional methods used for the
austenitic stainless steels.

Inert gas is recommended to prevent the loss of titanium or aluminum (oxigen will
conbine with Ti and Al if allowed and less of these materials will be left to form
precipitates).

Post-weld annealing is recommended for some grades (martensitic).

FIM