Gas Dynamics

Compressibility: It is measure of change in density that will be produced in fluid

by specified change in pressure.

p   flow characteristics changes

In fluid flow,,V g

V K.E. T (Temperature changes are important in

compressible flow))

The study of these flows in which change in density and temperature are important is
known as compressible fluid flow or gas dynamics (Compressibility effect are
usually important only in gas flow)

Fundamental Assumptions:
1 Gas
1. G is i ttreated
t d as continuous
ti medium.
di (N
(Nott ttrue ffor rarefied
fi d flflow where
h d
density
it iis
very low e.g. flow over spacecraft flying at high altitudes.)
2. No chemical change occur in flow field. (No combustion or ionization of molecules)
3 Gas
3. G is i perfect
f t andd obeys
b perfect
f t gas law:
l p=ρRT RT (R ffor airi = 287 J / kkg K)
4. Specific heats are constant (Not for high Temperature flow OR if ∆T is high) i.e.
gas is calorically perfect.
5 Gravitational,
5. Gravitational Magnetic and Electrical effects are negligible.
negligible (Not for MHD etc etc. flows)
6. Overall effect of viscosity is small.
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 1
Streamtube: Streamtube is defined by considering a closed curve drawn in flow.
Series of streamlines will pass through this curve. Further downstream these
streamlines
t li can b
be jjoined
i db by another
th curve. SiSince th
there can b
be NO flflow normall tto
streamline, streamlines passing through curve define “walls” called as streamtube.

1- D flow: It is flow in which reference axis is chosen in such a way that velocity vector
1
has only one component e.g. flow in constant area duct.
Strictly speaking, flow in variable area duct is NOT 1-D;
but can be assumed 1-D if rate of change of area and
curvature are small enough such that one component
of velocity is dominant over other velocity components
e g flow in C-D
e.g. C D nozzle
nozzle. Such flow are referred as
“Quasi-one dimensional” flow.

Co se at o laws
Conservation a s for
o 1- D steady flow:
o
1. Continuity equation:
Since there can be NO mass transfer across streamtube,
m  const
 AV  (   d  )( A  dA)(V  dV )
Neglecting higher VAd    AdV  VdA  0
order terms
d dV dA
  0 (1)
Kuldhir Singh Bhati  V A 2
2. Momentum equation:
Net force in x-direction due to pressure and frictional forces acting on control surface is

Fnet  pA  ( p  dp )( A  dA)  pcurved Aprojected  dF

Pressure on curved surface
surface, 0 5  p  ( p  dp) 
pcurved  0.5
Projected area of curved surface, Aprojected  ( A  dA)  A
Fnet   Adp  pdA  ( p  0.5dp )dA  dF
Fnet   Adp  dF
(Neglecting higher order terms)
Byy Newtons
e to s 2nd law,
a ,

Fnet  m  (V  dV )  V 
Ad  dF   AVdV
 Adp (2)
If effect of friction is neglected, dp
 VdV  0 (3)

Kuldhir Singh Bhati 3
This is Euler equation for steady flow. (Bernoulli equation for incompressible flow
can be derived from this.)

3. Steady Flow Energy equation (SFFE):

V12 V22
h1   q  h2  w (h  c pT )
2 2
We will restrict our attention to flows in which NO work is done
done.

V12 V22
c pT1   q  c pT2  (4)
2 2
Applying this to control volume (shown in figure)

V2 (V  dV ) 2
c pT   dq  c p (T  dT ) 
2 2
c p dT  VdV  dq (5)
For adiabatic flow,
c p dT  VdV  0 (6)
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 4
4. Equation of State:
p   RT
Taking logarithm, ln p  ln   ln T  ln R
dpp d  dT
Differentiating
Differentiating,   (7)
p  T
5. Entropy consideration:
5
Entropy places limitation on which flow process is physically possible and which is NOT.
Subtracting equation 3 from 5,
dp
c p dT   Tds

dT dp
ds  c p R (8)
T p
T2 p2
Integrating, s2  s1  c p ln  R ln (9)
T1 p1
s2  s1 T2   1 p 2  R 
 ln  ln  c p = 
Kuldhir Singh Bhati
cp T1  p1    1  5
  1
 
s 2  s1  T 2  p1  
 ln   
cp  T1  p 2 
 
 1
T2  p 2   p2 1
For isentropic flow ∆s=0,   
T1  p1  p1  2

p2   2 
  (1 0 )
p1   1 
p
 co n st (1 1 )


This is true only if flow is also adiabatic (apart from being frictionless) i.e. for isentropic
flow because in momentum equation frictionless flow was already considered.

Example 1:
Consider isothermal flow of air through variable area duct. At certain section velocity,
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 6
pressure and temperature are given as 200 m/s, 25°C and 120 kPa respectively. If
velocity is decreasing at this section at rate of 30% per meter, find dp/dx, ds/dx & dρ/dx.
A
Ans: B
By equation
ti 55,
c p dT  VdV  dq  Tds
ds V dV
For isothermal ∆T=0 
dx T dx
It is given dV V ds 0.3V 2
 0.3
0 3 
dx dx T
From equation 3
3, dp
p dVV pV dV
V
  V 
dx dx RT dx
From
o equat
equation
o 7,, d 1 dpp

dx RT dx

This give dp/dx=-16.8 kPa

dρ/ ρ=-0.196 kg/m3
ds/dx=40.3 J/mK

Kuldhir Singh Bhati 7

1-D Steady Isentropic Flow:
Manyy flows in engineering
g g practice can be adequatelyy modeled by
y assuming
g them to be
1-D, steady and isentropic.
An isentropic flow is an adiabatic frictionless flow.

Variable area flow:

It is assumed that flow is quasi one dimensional and isentropic. We now first consider
effect of change of area on isentropic flow considering a control volume.
R
Recalling
lli equation
ti 1 1, 6
6, 7 and
d 11
11,

d dA dV
  0 (1)
 A V
c p dT  VdV  0 (6)
dp d  dT
  ((7))
p  T
p
 const (11)
 

Kuldhir Singh Bhati 8

 ln p   ln   0
dp d
 (12)
p 
Using eq 12 in 7
7, dT d
 (  1) (13)
T 
d
Using eq 13 in 6, c pT (  1)  VdV  0

d V 2 dV
(  1)  0
 c pT V
V2 a2M 2
  (  1) M 2 (14) (  a   RT )
But
c pT R
T
 1
d 2 dV
Hence  M ((15))
 V
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 9
Substituting this in equation 1,
dA dV
 ( M  1)
2
(16)
A V
dV 1 dA
= 2 (17)
V M 1 A
Using equation 15 in this, d M 2 dA
 (18)
 1 M 2 A
Using equation 12 in this
this, p  M 2 dA
dp
 (19)
p 1 M 2 A
O ce d
Once dA/A
/ iss known,
o , dV/V,
d / , dρ/ ρ a
and
d dp/p can
ca be ca
calculated
cu ated from
o abo
above
e relations.
e at o s
Isentropic relations in terms of Mach no.:
p
Byy equation
q 11,  const
 

T
Using equation of state,  const
  1

Kuldhir Singh Bhati 10

This gives isentropic relations:
 1
 1
T2  p 2    2  a 22
     2 (20)
T1  p1   1  a1
V12 V22
Byy equation
q 4, c p T1   c p T2 
2 2
Multiplying both side with 2/Cp
 V12   V22 
T1  2    T2  2  
 
c p T1   c p T2 
 
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 11
Using equation 14, T2 2  (   1) M 12
 (2 1 )
T1 2  (   1) M 22

p2  2  (   1) M 12    1
Using equation 20
20,   2 
(2 2 )
p1  2  (   1) M 2 
1
 2  2  (   1) M 12   1
  (2 3 )
 1  2  (   1) M 22 
Stagnation conditions:
Stagnation
Stag at o conditions
co d t o s are
a e those
t ose that
t at would
ou d e
exist
st if flow
o at a
any
y po
pointt in a fluid
u d st
stream
ea is
s
isentropically brought to rest. (To define stagnation temperature it is only necessary that
flow is brought to rest adiabatically.). Even if flow is non-isentropic, stagnation condition
at a p
point would be that if local flow is brought
g to rest isentropically.
p y
Substituting M2=0 in above equations,
T0  1
 1 M 2
((2 4 )
T 2
Likewise p0/p and ρ0/ ρ can be obtained.
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 12
 
p 0    1 2   1
 1  M  (25)
p  2 
Critical conditions:
Critical conditions are those that would exist if flow is isentropically brought to M2 = 1.
1
From eq 21 to 23, T * 2  (  1) M 2
 1
(26)
T1  1

p *  2  (  1) M 12   1
  (27)
p1   1 
1
 *  2  (  1) M 12   1
  (28)
1   1 
Substituting M1 = 0 in above equation,
 1
T* 2 p*  2   1 *  2   1 a* 2
     
T0   1 p0    1  0    1  a0  1
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 13
Pitot static tube:
Pitot tube place in subsonic compressible flow will register
stagnation
t ti pressure (In
(I case off supersonic
i flow,
fl shock
h k wave
produce ahead of tube and hence flow is not isentropic).
Since the disturbance produced by the tube is restricted to
stagnation point region
region, pitot tube can be used to measure
velocity using equation 25 as follow:

 
p0  p 1  p     1 2   1 
  1 M  1
    2  
 
1

  
 2
p0  p  1    1 2    1
 
V   2 
1 M  1  (29)
   M  2  
For incompressible
p flow by 
y Bernoulli’s

equation:
q

p0  p
V  2

In order to determine velocity in incompressible flow only the difference between p0 & p
has to be measured and not their individual values.
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 14
Example 2:
Pitot tube indicate pressure of 134.3 kPa when place in air stream of T=303K and static
pressure 101kPa.
101kP Fi Find
d flflow velocity
l it taking
t ki compressibility
ibilit effect
ff t iinto
t account.
t
Ans:
p
  1.16 kg / m3
RT
M 2   RTV 2
1
Using this in equation 29 
 
 2
p0  p    1 2
  1
 
V   RTV  1   RTV   1 
   2  
 
 0.5
 
1  24349V   1  69936.47
2  1

 
24349V 2  1  586.7
V  0.155 m / s
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 15
Example 3:
Air flows through converging diverging duct with inlet area of 5 cm2 and exit area of
3 8 cm2 .At
3.8 At inlet
i l t section
ti V,V p and
d T are 100 m/s,
/ 680 kPkPa & 333K
333K. Fi
Find
dVV,p,ρ & T att exit.
it
Ans:
A1
By continuity, 2 V 
2 1
V 1
A2
p2 A1 p1
M 2  RT2  V1  936.2 2
936 2 kg / m s
RT2 A2 RT1
p2 M 2 R
 936.2  13404.3 kg / m 2 s  c2
T2 
By isentropic relation, 
 T2   1
p2  p1  
 T1 
Substituting this in above equation,
M 2T23  13282812.5 K 3  c3

Kuldhir Singh Bhati

M 1  V1  RT1  0.273 16
From equation 21, 2  (  1) M 12 676
T2  T1  K
2  (  1) M 2 2  0.4
2 2
0 4M 2
Substituting this above equation,
3
 676 
M2  2 
 c3
 2  0.4 M 2 
M  5  M 2  363.4
2 3
2

M 26  125  15M 22 ( M 22  5)  363.4

363 4 M 2
M 26  15M 24  75M 22  363.4 M 2  125  0
From equation 21,
M 2  0.373
T2  329 K
V2  M 2  RT2  135.6 m / s
From isentropic relation,
p2  652 kPa,  2  6.9 kg / m3
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 17
Example 4:
At exit of rocket nozzle V & p are 3800 m/s & 100 kPa respectively. Nozzle exit has dia
30 cm. TTemperature
t off gas iin combustion
b ti area iis 2400°C
2400°C. Find
Fi d T att nozzle
l exit,
it pressure
in combustion area and thrust developed. Assume isentropic flow of gas which has molar
mass 9 and specific heat ratio 1.3
Ans: T01=2673 K K, V2=3800 m/sm/s, p2=100 kPa
kPa, R=8134/9=903
R=8134/9=903.8
8 J/kgK
J/kgK, γ=1.3
γ=1 3
From equation 24, T  (  1)V 2
01
 1 2

T2 2 RT2
2673 0.3*38002
 1
T2 2*1.3*903.8T2
T2  830 K

4.33
p01  T01   1  2673 
   
p2  T2   830 
p01  15823 kPa
Kuldhir Singh Bhati T  p2 A  100*  (0.15) 2 kN  7 kN 18
Effect of area on flow velocity:
From equation 16,
dA dV
 ( M  1)
2

A V
Because A and V are positive
positive,

Area Velocity
M<1 I
Increases D
Decreases Diff
Diffuser
(Subsonic) Decreases Increases Nozzle
M>1 Increases Increases Nozzle
(Super Decreases Decreases Diffuser
sonic)

dA A
 ( M  1)
2

dV V
If M = 1, dA/dV = 0 i.e . A become maximum or minimum.

dA  V 1
 A  
dV   RT V 
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 19
Differentiating this w.r.t. V,

d2A  1 1  A  V2  A
 A  2 2  1  ( M  1) 2  0
2

  RT V  V   RT
2
dV  V
Because second derivative is positive,
positive Area will be minimum at M = 1
1.

Effect of Area on Mach No.:

Now we would like to examine how Mach No
No. changes when area changes
changes.
First of all, we know that,

V  aM
Taking log and differentiating,

dV da dM
  (30)
V a M
By equation 13 & 15,
dT 2 dV
 (  1) M (31)
T V

Kuldhir Singh Bhati 20

Speed of sound,
a   RT
Taking log and differentiating, da 1 dT

a 2 T
Using equation 31 in this,
da    1  2 dV
  M
a  2  V
Substituting this in equation 30,

    1  2  dV dM
1   2  M  V  M
   
Multiplying this with equation 16,

    1  2  dA dM
1   2  M  A  ( M  1) M
2
(32)
   

Kuldhir Singh Bhati 21

Because A and M are positive,

Area Mach No.

No
M<1 Increases Decreases Diffuser
(Subsonic) Decreases Increases Nozzle
M>1 Increases Increases Nozzle
(Super Decreases Decreases Diffuser
sonic)

Kuldhir Singh Bhati 22

It follows that if a subsonic flow is to be accelerated to a supersonic velocity it must be
passed through convergent-divergent passage. The convergent portion accelerate flow
t supersonic
to i velocity.
l it At minimum
i i area section
ti (th
(throat)
t) we h
have already
l d saidid th
thatt M
M=1.
1
In such nozzle, pressure decreases continuously throughout. If end pressure is NOT
too low, flow will remain subsonic throughout as in Venturimeter i.e. supersonic flow
will not be generated in diverging section (will act as diffuser)
diffuser). In such case
case, it follow
from equation 32 that dM must be zero at throat (dA=0) i.e. M reaches maximum.

*Mach no. criterion for incompressible flow:

Change in velocity bring change in pressure, density and temperature, as can be seen
from eq 3, 15 and 31:

Note: Star (*) marked sections can be skipped

Kuldhir Singh Bhati 23
 dp V 2 dV
 (3)
p p V
dp 2 dV
Using a2=γp/ρ,   M (33)
p V
d 2 dV
 M (15)
 V
dT 2 dV
 (  1)) M ((31))
T V
At high Mach no. change in pressure, density & temperature are not negligible. Hence
Mach
ac no.o is
s pa
parameter
a ete tthat
at dete
determine
e flow
o is
s co
compressible
p ess b e o
or not.
ot
 ( V )
By continuity equation, 0
x Should be veryy small
V   V 
 V  0  V  f ( x ) i.e.  0
x x  x 
 V
In terms of magnitude, V 
Kuldhir Singh Bhati x x 24
 d dV
 V
Equation for speed of sound, d   dp a 2
ddp dV
 a2 V
By equation 3
3,
d   VdV
dp
Hence flow is incompressible if, VdV dV
a2 V
V2
1
a2
M2 1
Mach Waves:
M  0.3
Consider a point source of disturbance moving with a uniform velocity u through gas.
Consider only series of waves emitted at time interval t. As body is moving, origin of
These waves will be continuously changing.
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 25
Let u < a (speed of sound). In this case,
influence of disturbance will be observed
everywhereh iin space AND iin sequence
(i.e. 1st generated wave will be observed 1st).

Let u > a i.e. point is moving with supersonic

speed In this case wave pattern is as follow.
speed. follow

One can notice that here gas

within the cone is alone aware
of presence of particle.
Vertex angle of this cone is
termed
te ed as Mach
ac a angle
geα α.

a 1
sin   
u M
There will be jumps in values of
flow variable when flow reaches cone.
Cone is therefore termed as conical Mach wave.
This result is sometimes used in measurement of Mach no. of gas flow.
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 26
*Speed of sound:
Speed of sound is the rate of propagation of infinitesimal pressure pulse through a still
fl id It iis a th
fluid. thermodynamic
d i property
t off a flfluid.
id
Ratio of flow velocity to speed of sound is important dimensionless number known as
Mach number. M < 1 ; Subsonic flow
M ~ 1 ; Transonic flow
V
M M > 1 ; Supersonic flow
a M > 5 ; Hypersonic flow

Derivation of formula for speed of sound in fluid medium:

Consider an infinitesimal pressure wave initiated by slight movement dV of piston to right.
Wave will induce gas velocity dV behind it as it move through gas
gas. Let the observer be
traveling with (pressure pulse) wave front. By continuity eq.,
 a  (   d  )(a  dV )
 a   a  ad   (   d  )dV
dV  ad  (   d  ) (32)
a  dV  a  (   d  )
Applying Newton 2nd law along –ve
ve xx-direction,
direction,

Kuldhir Singh Bhati 27

  p  ( p  dp) A  m (a  dV )  ma

 Adp   Aa(a  dV  a)
dp  a  dV (33)
 1
Also
 dT   1 dp
d
Tp  
T  p
 dT  (  1)TdV / a (34)
Putting expression for dv from eq 32 to eq 33, dp  a 2  d  (   d  )
dp  d 
a 1  
d   
Temperature gradients in wave are small.  dp 
Hence ggas undergo
g isentropic
p p process a   (35)
while passing through wave  d  s
p
By equation 11,

 const

i.e.
Kuldhir Singh Bhati
ln p   ln   const 28
Differentiating,
dp d
 0
p 
 dp   p p
    a    RT ((36))
 d  s  
*Momentum equation for 1-D Steady Isentropic Flow:
Momentum equation is not used in above analysis because it will always give same
result as that of energy equation. This is proved as follow:
By equation 3 2 2 2
V2 V1 dpp
  0 (37)
2 2 1 
By equation 11, 1 p11/ 
 1/ 
 p 1
Integral become,
2
dp 1/  2
p  p 
1/  1
1
1
1

 
1/   
 1
p dp  1
 p2  p1 
1
 1 1
  1 1  

Kuldhir Singh Bhati 29

  1
 
2
dp  p1   p 2  

 
  
  1  1   p1 
 1

1
 
 1  1
   
dp  RT1   p 2  a1   p 2 
2  2 
 
 

 
  1  p1 
  1


 
  1  p1 
  1

1
   
Substituting this in equation 37
 1
 
2 a1   p 2 
2 
0
V 2  V1 
2 2
   1

  1  p1  
 
 1
 
2 a1   p 2 
2 
a 2 M 2  a1 M 1 
2 2 2 2
   1  0
  1   p1  
 
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 30
  1
2  
 a2  2  p2  
0
  M 2
 M 2
    1
 1
a
2 1
  1   p1 

Using equation 20
 
 1  1
 p2   2  p2   2
  M M 
2 2
   0
 p1 
2
  1  p1 
1
 1
 1
 p2    2 2  2
    M 2    M 2

 p1     1    1
1


p 2  2  (  1) M 12   1
 
p1  2  (  1) M 22 

This is same as equation 22. Hence it is not necessary to consider momentum equation
in 1-D steady isentropic flow, once you are considering energy equation and equation of
state because momentum equation was already used to derive isentropic relations.

Kuldhir Singh Bhati 31

Normal Shock Waves:
It has been seen experimentallyy that in supersonic flow, there may y be region
g of sharp
change; across which velocity decreases and pressure increases drastically. This
extremely thin region is called shock wave.
A shock wave is, in general, curved. However in practical situation many are straight.
If flow is at right angle to straight wave, it is called normal shock wave; otherwise oblique
shock wave.

Stationary shock wave is one which is not moving relative to coordinate system used.

How shock wave form:

Consider a piston cylinder arrangement in which gas is initially at rest. Piston is given
initial velocity dV causing pressure pulse to move with speed of sound. Increase in
pressure and temperature behind the wave is depicted by equation 33 & 34. Since
temperature increase across wave, speed of sound behind wave will be a+da.

Kuldhir Singh Bhati 32

Now if moving piston (with velocity dV) is suddenly again given velocity increase dV, its
velocity increases to 2dV causing another pressure pulse to move with speed a+da
relative
e at e to gas.
gas Its
ts velocity
e oc ty w.r.t.
t duct will be a
a+da+dV.
da d Hencee ce seco
secondd wave
a e is
s moving
o g
faster than first wave. If duct is long enough second wave will overtake first wave,
however, it cannot pass through first wave because gas ahead of first wave is has zero
velocityy and speed
p of sound is onlyy ‘a’. Therefore, two waves will merge
g together.
g If
piston is given series of step increase in velocity, all pressure pulse will merge together
forming a strong wave across which large change in pressure occur. This is called
shock wave. Since “back of wave” is always trying to move faster than front, wave will
remain thin. Pressure and temperature increase in flow direction of gas.

Kuldhir Singh Bhati 33

Stationary Normal Shock Waves:
Consider the control volume as shown in figure. (Even in variable area flow, area across
shock
h k wave ii.e. C
C.V.
V iis constant
t t as shock
h k wave iis very thi
thin).
) AApplying
l i conservation
ti eqs:

Continuity
m  1V1 A   2V2 A ((38))
V1  2
 
V2 1
Momentum p1 A  p2 A  m (V2  V1 )
p1  p2
Using eq 38, p1  p2  1V1 (V2  V1 )  V1V2  V  2
(39)
1
1
p1  p2
p1  p2   2V2 (V2  V1 )  V  V1V2 
2
(40)
Adding eq 39 & 40
2
2
 1 1 
V  V  ( p1  p2 )   
2 2
(41)
 1  2 
2 1

Kuldhir Singh Bhati 34

By equation 4,
V12 V22
c pT1   q  c pT2 
2 2
Flow through control volume is adiabatic (because control surfaces lie in region where
there are NO normal temperature gradients.

c pT01  q  c pT01  c pT02

Therefore, stagnation temperature doesn’t change across shock wave.
Using gas law,

V12   R  p1 V22   R  p2
     (42)
2    1  1 R 2    1   2 R

Equating this with eq 41 V 2  V 2 

 2   p1 p2 
   
   1   1  2 
2 1

 2   p1 p2   1 1 
      ( p1  p2 )   
Multiplying by ρ2/p1
   1   1  2   1  2 
 2    2 p2   p2    2 
      1     1
Kuldhir Singh Bhati
   1   1 p1   p1   1  35
Rearranging,
 2   2  2  p2 p2  p2   2
     1  1  
   1  1    1  p1 p1  p1  1
 2 p2   2  2  p2
 1   1   1
  1 p1  1    1  p1
   1  p2   1 p1
  1   
V1  2    1  p1 p2    1  p2
Using eq 38   = (43)
V2 1    1  p2 p1    1  p2
  1   p   1  
  1   p1
By gas law & eq 43,  1 p2

T2 p2 1   
1  p1
  (44)
T1 p1  2   1 p1
  
 1  p2
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 36
Ratio p2/p1 is often termed as strength of shock wave (always>1) and equation 43 & 44
as Rankine-Hugoniot normal shock wave relations.
B equation
By ti 9 9,
T2 p2
s2  s1  c p ln  R ln
T1 p1

 
   1 p2   1

   
 p1 
Using equation 44
s2  s1
 ln    1  p1   (45)
R  p2   1 p1  
    
  1  p2  
 
Variation of (s2-s1)/R with p2/p1 is plotted. As
p2/p1>1, s2>s1 i.e. entropy across shock wave
increase. Hence p2/p p1<1 is infeasible.
By equation 44 one can easily see that, for
p2/p1>1 T2/T1>1 (Numerator>Denominator).
Analyzing equation 43 we can say that ρ2/ρ1>1
and V2/V1<1

Kuldhir Singh Bhati 37

    1   p2  p2
  1   1  0  1 &  >1
   1   p1  p1
   1  p2 p2   1
    1  0
   1  p1 p1   1
   1  p2    1  p2
  1   
   1  p1    1  p1
   1  p2
  1
V1  2    1  p1
   1
V2 1    1  p2
  1   p
  1

We have seen that stagnation temperature across shock wave doesn’t change because
flow across it is adiabatic. To see how stagnation pressure is changing consider a
situation:

Kuldhir Singh Bhati 38

Example 5:
Gas flow from larger reservoir and expanded
i
isentropically
t i ll up tto M Mach h no M1, where
h shock
h k wave
occur. After the shock, flow is isentropically
decelerated until velocity is again effectively zero in
second reservoir
reservoir.
Applying equation 9 between a point in first reservoir
and a point in second reservoir:

T02 p02 p02

s02  s01  c p ln  R ln   R ln
T01 p01 p01
As flow is isentropic before and after shock wave, s01=s1 and s02=s2 . Also because flow
is adiabatic, T02=T01.
s2  s1 p02
  R ln
l
R p01
p02  s2  s1 
 exp    1
p01  R 
Because entropy increase across shock wave, stagnation pressure decrease. If no shock
is present, s2=s1 i.e. p02=p01.
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 39
Example 6:
Normal shock wave occur at a point where p & T are 30 kPa & 243 K. If pressure ratio
across shock
h k wave iis 2
2.7,
7 fifind
d p, V & T d
downstream
t off shock
h k wave. Al
Also fifind
d change
h iin
stagnation pressure.
Ans: p1=30 kPa, T1=243K, p2/p1=2.7 hence p2=81 kPa
V2 T2
From eq 43 & 44,  1.977,  1.366
V1 T1
T2  332 K
From eq 4,
4 V12  2c p (T01  T1 )
V22  2c p (T02  T2 )
T01  T1
 3.91
T02  T2
But T01  T02  T0
2.91T0  3.91T2  T1
T0  362 K
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 40
Flow is still isentropic on either side of shock wave. Hence isentropic relation apply on
both side independently i.e., 
p01  T01   1
    4.035
p1  T1 
p01  121 kPa

p02  T02   1
   1.354
p2  T2 
p02  109.6 kPa
p02  p01  11.4 kPa
Also V12  2c p (T01  T1 )  2*1006*(362  243) m 2 / s 2
V22  2c p (T02  T2 )  2*1006*(362  332) m 2 / s 2
V1  489.3 m / s, M 1  1.566
V2  245.7 m / s, M 2  0.673
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 41
Normal Shock Wave Relations in terms of Mach Number:

A l i conservation
Applying ti llaws,

Continuity m   1V1 A   2V 2 A
V1 a1 M 1 2
   (46)
V2 a 2 M 2 1
Momentum p1 A  p 2 A  mV 2  mV
 1
p1  p 2   2V 22   1V12
a12  1 a 22  2
Byy equat
equation
o 36,   1V12    2V 22
 
2 2
 a2  2  a2 
Dividing by a12/γ,  1   1 M 1
2
  2     2 M 2  
 a1   a1 
2
 a2 
 1 1   M    2   1   M 22 
1
2

Kuldhir Singh Bhati  a1  42

 2
 2  a1   1   M 12 
    (47)
1  a2   1   M 22 
a
46, 2 
Equating this and equation 46
M  1   M 2

2

1
2 
(48)
a1 M 1  1   M 2 
2 2
2 a 2 a
Using equation 36 in 42, V12  1  V22  2

 1  1
2 2
 a2   a2 
Multiplying by (γ-1)/a12, (  1) M  2  (  1) M    2  
1
2 2
2
 a1   a1 
2
 a2  2  (  1) M 12
   (49)
 1
a 2  (  1)
1)MM 2
2

2 2
Using equation 48,  M 2  1  M  2  (  1)) M 12
2

 
1
  
 1 
M 1   M  22
2
(  1) M 2
2

Kuldhir Singh Bhati 43

  M 22 1+2 M 12   2 M 14   2  (  1) M 22 
 M 12 1+2 M 22   2 M 24   2  (  1) M 12 
2M 22  (  1) M 24  4 M 12 M 22  2 (  1) M 12 M 24  2 2 M 14 M 22   2 (  1)M 14 M 24
 2 M 12  (  1) M 14  4 M 12 M 22  2 (  1) M 14 M 22  2 2 M 12 M 24   2 (  1) M 14 M 24
 2M 22  (  1) M 24  2 (  1) M 12 M 24  2 2 M 14 M 22
 2 M 12  (  1) M 14  2 (  1) M 14 M 22  8 2 M 12 M 24
(  1)(
)( M 24  M 14 )   2 (  1))  2 2  M 12 M 22 ( M 22  M 12 )  2(( M 22  M 12 )  0
( M 22  M 12 ) (  1)( M 22  M 12 )  2 M 12 M 22  2   0

(  1)( M 22  M 12 )  2 M 12 M 22  2  0  M 2  M1
 2 M 12  (  1))  M 22  (  1)) M 12  2
2  (  1) M 12
M2 
2
(50)
2 M 1  (  1)
2

Kuldhir Singh Bhati 44

Substituting equation 50 in 49,
2
 a2  2  (  1) M 12
  
 1
a 2  (  1) M 2
2  (  1) 1
2 M 12  (  1)
 2 M 12  (  1))   2  (  1)) M 12 

2  2 M 12  (  1)   (  1)  2  (  1) M 12 
 2 M 12  (  1)   2  (  1) M 12 

4 M 12  2(  1)  2(  1)  (  1) 2 M 12
      
2
 a2  T2  2 M 1
2
 (  1)   2  (  1) M 2
1 
    (51)
 1
a T1 (  1) 2
M 1
2

2
p2  2 T2  2  a2 
   
p1 1 T1 1  a1 
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 45
Using equation 47,
p 2 1   M 12 1   M 12
 
p1 1   M 2 2
2  (  1) M 12
1 
2 M 12  (  1)
1   M 12   2 M 12  (  1) 

2 M 12  (  1)  2   (  1) M 12
1   M 12   2 M 12  (  1)) 

2 M 12    1   2 M 12   M 12
1   M 12   2 M 12  (  1) 

 (1   M 12 )  1   M 12
p 2 2 M 12  (  1)
 (52)
p1  1
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 46
 p2  2 T2
By gas law, 
p1 1 T1

2 M  (  1)  2 
2 2 M 1
2
 (  1) 
 
 2  (  1) M 2
1 

Using eq 51 & 52, 1

 1 1 (  1) 2 M 12
2 (  1) M 12
 ((53))
1 2  (  1)M 12
Applying concept from example 2, flow is isentropic on either side of shock wave.

p02 p02 / p 2 p 2

p01 p01 / p1 p1

 2  (  1)M 22   1 p 2
Using
g equation
q 25,  2 
 2  (  1) M 1  p1

Using equation 52,  2  (  1) M 22   1 2 M 12  (  1)
 2 
Kuldhir Singh Bhati  2  (   1) M 1   1 47
Using equation 50, 
 2  (  1) M 12   1
p02  2  (  1) 2 M 2  (  1)  2 M 2  (  1)
 1  1

p01  2  (  1) M 12   1
 
 

 4 M 2  2(  1)  2(  1)  (  1) 2 M 2   1 2 M 2  (  1)
 1 1

1

  2  (  1) M 1   2 M 1  (  1)  
2 2
 1

 (  1) M 1
2 2   1
 2 M 1  (  1)
2
 
  2  (  1) M 1   2 M 1  (  1)  
2 2
 1
 1
p02  (  1) M 12   1  2  1   1
 2   M1 
2
((54))
p01  2  (  1) M 1     1   1 
Equation 50 to 54 give property ratio across shock wave in term of upstream Mach no.
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 48
From example 5,
s2  s1 p02
  R ln
l
R p01
Using equation 54,

 1
 
s2  s1  2   1   (  1) M 1  
  1 2   1
 R ln  M1 
2
  2   (55)
R    1   1   2  (  1)) M 1  
 
This variation is plotted in figure. Since s2-s1>=0, it
follows from figure that M1> >=11. From eq 50
50, M2<1 ii.e.
e
flow is always subsonic downstream & supersonic
upstream of normal shock wave (since 1<γ<2).
For
o st
strong
o g sshock
oc wave,
a e, M2>>1. Eq q 50 to 53 g
give:
e
(by substitution 1/M2=0)
  1 T 2 (  1) M 2
M 22  , 2  1
,
2 T1 (  1) 2

p2 2 M 12  2   1
 , 
p1   1 1   1
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 49
Weak shock wave: Since for shock wave to exist, M1>=1. Hence limiting case of shock
wave will that in which M1->1. Substituting this in equation 50, 51, 52 & 55 we get M2->1,
T2~T
T1, p2~ p1, s2~s1 i.e.
i iin weakk shock
h k case flflow iis iisentropic
t i across th
the shock.
h k
1 1
Using eq 20 & 36 in 46, M 1 a2  T2   1 T2  T2   1
     
M 2 a1  T1  T1  T1 
 1

Using eq 21 in this, M 1  2  (  1) M 12  2(  1)

 2 
M 2  2  (  1) M 2 
This equation give value of downstream Mach no
corresponding to upstream Mach no for a very weak
sshock
oc wave
a e ((M2->1).
)

Moving shock wave:

The required
q results can be obtained
from those that were derived above for
stationary shock wave by noting
velocities relative to coordinate system
fixed to shock wave as shown in figure.
V is induced velocity in still air.
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 50
Pitot tube in supersonic flow:
Shock wave interact with expansion wave, decaying rapidly to Mach wave. Thus pressure
d
downstream
t off vicinity
i i it off nose off pitot
it t ttube
b i.e.
i p2 is
i again
i equall tto p1.
p  p02  p1
p02 p02 p01

p1 p01 p1
Using eq 25 & 54:  1 
p02  (  1) M   1  2
2
 1   1
   1 2   1
 2 
1
 M1 
2
1  2 M 1 
p1  2  (  1) M 1     1   1 
 1
p02  (  1)) M 12   1  2  1   1
   M1 
2

p1  2    1  1
Same can be obtained directlyy from Normal shock table.

Kuldhir Singh Bhati 51

Operating characteristic of nozzles:
Consider the flow of gas from a large reservoir through some duct. Because reservoir is
l
large, stagnation
t ti conditions
diti exist
i t in
i it
it. Fl
Flow iis analyzed
l dbby assuming
i it as quasii one
dimensional and isentropic.
By equation 4, V2
c pT1  1
 c pT0
2
Momentum equation lead to same result in isentropic flow
(as discussed earlier)
earlier), hence not used
used.
 T1 
V  2c pT0  1  
1
2

 T0 
Using isentropic relations (eq 18),
 1  1
   
  p1  
  R p0   p1   
V1  2c pT0 1     2 1  
  p0     1  0 R   p0  
   
 1
 
2 p0   p1   
V1  1   (56)
  1 0   p0  
 
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 52
Using this eq in continuity:  1
1
 
1  p1   2 p0   p1   
m   0 1 1  0 
AV  A1 1   
0  p0    1 0   p0 
 
 1
2
 
2  p1    p1  
 
m  A1 p0  0   1     (57)
 1  p0    p0  
 
This give mass flow rate in terms of pressure, area of a section and stagnation condition.
Since mass flow rate is constant in steady state, writing eq 57 for two different sections:

 1  1
 2
 2
 
2  p1    p1  
  2  p2    p2  
 
A1 p0 0   1     A2 p0 0   1   
 1 
 p0    p0     1  p0    p0  
   

Kuldhir Singh Bhati 53

This gives,  1
 p1  
1 1  
A2  p1    p0 
   1
(58)
A1  p 2 
 p2  
1  
 0
p
This relates pressure at any two section of duct to the areas of these section.
It is convenient to choose conditions at some specific point for reference. Convenient
point for this purpose is a point where M = 1.
1 There may NOT actually be real point
in flow where M =1, but conditions at such point are convenient to use as reference.
Conditions at point where M=1 are known as critical conditions.
Taking
a g sect
section
o 1 as ccritical
t ca sect
section
o aand
d

Using p *  2   1
  (59)
p0    1 
eqs 56 to 58 become:
2 p 0   2  
V 
*
1   
  1 0     1 
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 54
Using this in eqs 56 to 58,
2 p 0
V a 
* *
(60)
  1 0
2
2  2   1  2 
m  A *
 p0  0   1    1 
 1    1   
 1
 2  2(  1)
m  A *
 0 p0   (61)
  1
1
 2   1
2
  1
A   1  1
*
 1  1
A
 p   p  
  1  
 0
p  0
p
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 55
  1 1/ 2
1
 2

A  2   1   1  p    p  

      (62)
A   1
* 
  1  p0   p0  
 
We study the effect of change in upstream and downstream pressure on nature of flow
and mass flow rate through nozzle. For this purpose following conditions are assumed
to be prevailing i.e. upstream chamber is kept at stagnation condition and downstream
chamber conditions are varied
varied. Pressure in downstream chamber is termed as back
pressure.

Convergent Nozzle:
Consider the following figure. If back pressure pb is initially equal to supply pressure p0,
there will be no flow through nozzle. As back pressure pb is decreased, subsonic flow
starts.
sta ts Till Me<1,, p
pressure
essu e at e
exitt p
plan
a pe iss equal
equa to pb a
and
d
reduction in pb produce increase in mass flow rate.
When pb is reduced to critical value p* given by equation 59,
exit Mach No. Me=1. Further reduction in pb has no effect on
pe ,Me and mass flow rate & nozzle is said to be chocked.
However expansion from pe to pb happen outside the nozzle.

Why reduction in pb has no effect on mass flow rate once exit Mach No. reaches unity? It
is because effect of changes in pb are propagate up into nozzle at sonic speed w.r.t. fluid.
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 56
Hence once Me=1, effect of changes in pb cannot propagate up into nozzle. This mean
that reduction in pb (below p*) is not “sensed” by nozzle. Therefore, mass flow rate does
nott change.
h We
W have
h two
t cases:
a) Me<1 (pb > p*)
Velocity at exit and mass flow rate are given by equation 56 & 57 i.e.
p e  pb
 1
 
2 p 0   p e   
Ve  1   
  1 0   p0 
 
 1
2

2  pe  
  pe  

m  Ae p0  0    1   
 1  0   0 
p p
 
b)) Me=1 (pb <= p
p*))
pe  p *
pe ,Ve and mass flow rate are given by equation 59 to 61.

Convergent-Divergent Nozzle:
As pb is varied, four separate flow regime can be identified.
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 57
a) If back pressure pb is initially equal to p0, there
will be no flow through nozzle.As back pressure pb
i d
is decreased,d subsonic
b i flflow continue
ti till th
throatt
pressure pt>p*.Mass flow rate increases when pb is
Decreased. Because nozzle is designed for sonic
flow at throat
throat, area of throat will be equal to critical
area A*. Equation 58 gives,
 1
 pt  
1 1  
Ae  pt    0
p
*
   1
(63)
A  pe   pe  
1  
 0
p
b)) If pb is further reduced, pt=p*.
p Byy equation
q 63,
1  1 1
Ae  pb crit    pb crit    2   1  1
  1     ( p e  pb crit )
A*  p0   p 0     1   1
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 58
Mach no. at throat will reach unity but diverging section will still be operating as diffuser.
Further reduction in back pressure will not be able to effect upstream condition and
mass flow
fl rate.
t Nozzle
N l iis, th
therefore,
f chocked
h k d once bbackk pressure iis ddecreased d tto pb crit.

c) As back pressure is reduced below pb crit, region of supersonic flow start developing
downstream of throat
throat. Because back pressure is still high enough
enough, this region of
supersonic flow is terminated by normal shock wave. With reduction in back pressure,
shock wave move down the diverging portion of nozzle.

d) Eventually, pb drop to value at which shock wave is on exit plane of nozzle. Flow in
nozzle is now isentropic throughout. If pe & pb are pressure before and after shock wave,
pe can be found using isentropic relation (eq 62):

Kuldhir Singh Bhati 59

 2  1  1 2
 pe   pe 
   2   1
  1   A 
*

        
 p0   p0     1   2   Ae 
Once pe is known, Me can be obtained by this relation:
 1
1
 pe   Te    1 2 
    1  Me 
 0
p T0  2 
i.e.
 1
 
2   p0  

Me     1
  1   pe  
 
pb can be calculated from Normal shock result
e) With decreasing pb, pe remain
unchanged
g but shock wave move outside
the nozzle. Compression from pe to pb
take place through series of oblique
shock waves outside the nozzle and
nozzle is said to be “over-expanded”.

Kuldhir Singh Bhati 60

Oblique shock wave in discharge flow become weaker & weaker as difference between
pb and pe become smaller and smaller. When pb = pe, nozzle will be operating at
it d
its design
i condition
diti andd th
there iis no wave iinside
id or outside
t id th
the nozzle.
l
f) If pb is reduced below pe, expansion from pe to pb take place through series of
expansion waves outside the nozzle.

Characteristic of convergent divergent nozzle is summarized as:

In preceding discussion we have considered situation where supply pressure p0 is kept

constant and back pressure pb is varied. Flow changes that occur when p0 is varied for
fixed value of pb can also be deduced easily.
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 61
Oblique Shock Waves:
Oblique shock waves are straight g but at an angle
g to upstream flow and in g general, they
y
produce change in flow direction.
Consider a control volume as shown. δ is change in flow direction. Because there is no
change in flow variable in direction parallel to wave, there is no net force and hence no
change in momentum in this direction.
L 1 = L2 = L
If coordinate system is moving parallel to wave front with L
velocity,
l it oblique
bli shock
h k willill b
be reduced
d d tto normall shock.
h k SiSince
scalar flow properties are unaffected by coordinate system,
normal shock relations must apply to normal shock as well.
Obli
Oblique shock
h k wave relation:
l ti
Applying conservation equations  N   N (93)
1 1 2 2
to N1 and N2:
p1  p2   2 N 22  1 N12 (94)
2 p1 2 p2
 V12   V22
  1 1   1 2
( V 2  L2  N 2 )
2  p2 p1 
    N 2
 N 2
(95)
Kuldhir Singh Bhati
  1   2 1  1 2
62
These equations are identical to normal shock relations except that N1,N2 replaces
V1,V2 respectively. Hence from equation 43 and 44,

 1 p1   1 p1
 
N1  2 p2   1 p2  T  1 p2
    (96) and 2  (97)
N 2 1 p1   1

p2  T1   1  p2
 1   1
 p1  p1
From velocity diagram,
i 
N1  V1 sin
N 2  V2 sin(    )
Substituting this in equations 93 to 95, we get equation identical to normal shock
equations except that V1sinβ & V2sin(β-δ) appear in place of V1 and V2 respectively.
Hence oblique
q shock relation in term of Mach no are obtained from equation
q 50 to 53 by
y
replacing M1 by M1sinβ and M2 by M2sin(β-δ) .
Further it was proved using entropy consideration that for normal shock p2/p1>=1. Using
equation 52,
p2 2 M 1  (  1)
2
 1
p1  1
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 63
 2 M 12  (  1)    1
2 M 12  2
M1  1
ii.e.
e upstream conditions has to be supersonic if shock wave appear
appear. For oblique shock
this condition is
M 1 sin   1
1
90    sin 1

M1
For minimum shock wave angle β, shock wave is mach wave as p2=p1.
Now let us see how δ changes between these two limits. From velocity diagram;
N1 N2
tan   & tan(    ) 
L1 L2
Using this and equation 93,

tan(    ) 1
  X (let )
tan  2
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 64
 tan   tan 
 X tan 
1  tan  tan 
tan   tan   X tan   X tan 2  tan 
(1  X ) tan   (1  X tan 2  ) tan 
((1  X ) tan 
tan  
1  X tan 2 
2 cot  ( M 12 sin 2   1)
tan   (98)
2  M 1 (  cos  )
2 2

For limiting case of β i.e. 90° and sin-1(1/M1), there is no turning of flow.
Lookingg at p
plot one can say y that there is maximum angleg throughg which g gas can be
turned at given M1. For flow over body involving greater angle than this, a detached
shock occur which is curved in general. If a body involving a given turning angle,
accelerate from a low to a high Mach number, shock can be detached at low Mach and
become attached at higher Mach. If δ< δmax there are two possible values of β at given
M1. Solution giving larger β is termed as ‘strong shock’ solution.
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 65
Example 7:
Air is flowing over a wedge. Mach no, pressure and temperature in air stream are 3,
50 kP
kPa and d -20
20 °C respectively.
ti l If wedge
d iincluded
l d d angle
l iis 4° which
hi h llead
d tto th
the
formation of an oblique shock wave, find the Mach number, pressure and temperature in
the flow behind the shock wave.
Ans: Solving equation 98 iteratively for M1=3 and δ=4
δ=4°,
We obtain weak shock solution β=22.54°.

M N 1  M 1 sin   11.15
15
From normal shock table
MN2=0.8751, p2=68.82 kPa, T2=277.4 K
i (   )
M N 2  M 2 sin(
M 2  M N 2 sin(    )  2.752

Reflection of oblique shock wave:

Reflection of oblique
q shock from p plane wall is
considered. An oblique shock is assumed
to be generated from body that turns the flow
through angle δ. However flow adjacent to lower
flat wall must be parallel to wall. This is only
possible if reflected wave is generated.
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 66
For given M1 and δ, determine M2 and p2/p1 from eq 50,52:

2  (  1) M 2
sin 2

M 2 sin (    ) 
2 2 1
2 M 12 sin 2   (  1)
p2 2 M 12 sin 2   (  1)

p1  1
From M2 and δ, determine M3 and p3/p2 .In real fluids, boundary layer exist on wall where
velocity start from zero. Hence flow is subsonic adjacent to wall and cannot sustain
pressure discontinuities due to shock
shock. This cause spreading out of pressure distribution
distribution.
This interaction can also cause local separation bubble in boundary layer.

Another
ot e popointt co
concerning
ce g reflection
e ect o o of sshock
oc wave
a e is
s
that for a given M1 there is maximum angle through
which shock wave can turn flow and this angle δmax
decreases with Mach no. Therefore it is p possible for
a situation to arise that δmax for M2 is less than angle
required to bring flow parallel to wall. In such case
Mach reflection occur near the wall.

Kuldhir Singh Bhati 67

In above discussion it was assumed that shock was
reflected off a flat wall. If wall is changing direction
sharply
h l att ththe point
i t off shock
h k iimpingement,
i t flflow
downstream of reflected shock must be parallel to
wall downstream of reflection.
Turning angle produced by reflected wave is δ1- δw .
If δ1= δw , no reflected wave will occur. If δ1>δw ,
expansion wave will be generated.

Interaction of Shock wave:

We have seen that oblique shock wave always decreases the mach no. and shock angle
for a given turning angle increases with decreasing mach no
no. Hence for a flow as shown
in figure, oblique shock waves generated at each step converge into a single shock wave
which is stronger than any of initial wave.
Now
o ttheeppressure
essu e aand
d flow
o ddirection
ect o must
ust
be same for all streamlines downstream of
last wave. But two or more weaker wave
cannot pproduce same change g as single
g
strong wave hence “reflected shock” must
be generated. These reflected wave can
not equalize velocity, density and entropy.
Hence sliplines exits, across which there is
jump in these properties.
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 68
Shock Polar:
For given values of V1 and a1 we can plot all possible solutions for V2 downstream of
th shock.
the h k Following
F ll i figure fi does
d this
thi in
i velocity-component
l it t coordinates
di t Vx and d Vy,
with x parallel to V1. Such a plot is called a hodograph. The heavy dark line which looks
like a fat airfoil is the locus, or shock polar, of all physically possible solutions for the
given Ma1. The two dashed-line
dashed line fishtails are solutions which increase V2; they are
physically impossible because they violate the second law.
Examining the shock polar we see that a
given deflection line of small angle θ
crosses the polar at two possible solution:
the strong shock, which greatly decelerate
the flow,
flow and the weak shock shock, which cause
a much milder deceleration. The flow
downstream of the strong shock is always
subsonic,
subso c, whilee tthat
at o
of tthe
e weak
ea sshock
oc iss
usually supersonic but occasionally sub-
sonic if the deflection is large. Both types of
shock occur in p practice. The weak shock is
more prevalent, but the strong shock will
occur if there is a blockage or high-pressure condition downstream. Since the shock
polar is only of finite size, there is a maximum deflection θmax, which just grazes the
upper edge of the polar curve.

Kuldhir Singh Bhati 69

Expansion Waves:
Prandtl-Meyer Flow:
Previously we have considered supersonic flow over a concave corner i.e. a corner
involving positive angular change in flow direction. It was indicated that the flow over
such a corner was associated with a oblique shock wave. Now consider the flow around
a convex corner. To determine whether an oblique shock wave also occur in this case, it
is assumed that it does occur.
A th
As there iis no nett fforce in
i direction
di ti parallel ll l tto shock
h k wave,
L1=L2 and since V2 must be parallel to the downstream wall,
geometrical considerations show that N2>N1 (Draw lines
along
l V1, V2 & N1, and d fit L1, L2 to
t it).
it) But
B t N1 & N2 mustt be
b
related by the normal shock wave relations, and N2 cannot be
greater than N1 as “expansive shock” violate second law of
thermodynamic Therefore the flow over convex corner cannot take place through
thermodynamic.
oblique shock.
Considering a flow turned through differentially small angle dθ, producing small change
in flow variables,
variables it can be proved that
dM    1 2  (d )
 1  M  (99)
M  2  M 2 1
dM  d , dV  d , dp  d , d   d , ds  0
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 70
Thus if flow around a corner consist of an infinite number differentially small angular
changes it follows that for negative angular change waves diverge thus generating a
region
i consisting
i ti off M
Machh waves and d flflow remain
i iisentropic
t i th throughout.
h t S Suchh flflows are
called Prandtl-Meyer flows. As equation 99 apply locally at all points within the expansion
fan, this is integrated to give relation between flow properties dθ.
For initial condition θ=0 when M=1 give (dropping negative sign before -dθ dθ since θ is
negative for Prandtl-Meyer flow to exist):

  1 1   1 2
 tan ( M  1)  tan 1 M 2  1
 1  1
The value for θ are listed in isentropic tables. To calculate the flow change produced by
Prandtl-Meyer expansion adopt the following procedure:
1. Find
d θ co
corresponding
espo d g to M1. This s is
s equ
equivalent
a e t to assu
assumingg tthat
at tthe
e initial
t a flow
o was
as
generated by an expansion around hypothetical corner from a Mach no. of 1 (reference
Mach no) to M1.
2. θ2= θ1+δ
3. Find downstream Mach no. M2 corresponding to this value of θ2.
4. Any other downstream property is obtained by noting that expansion is isentropic.
5. Boundaries of expansion wave is calculated by noting that they are Mach lines i.e.

Kuldhir Singh Bhati 71

 1 1
1  sin 1
,   sin 
1

M1 M2

Reflection of expansion wave:

If θ1 is Prandtl-Meyer angle corresponding to initial flow condition, then θ2 = θ1 + δ. Since
flow in region 3 must again be parallel to wall
wall, the
reflected wave must also turn the flow through an
angle of δ so that θ3 = θ2 + δ = θ1 + 2δ. Once this
angle is determined
determined, Mach nono. in region 3 can be
found. Region of interaction of incident and reflected
waves is known as non-simple region.
Flow
o is s isentropic
se t op c tthroughout.
oug out

Kuldhir Singh Bhati 72

Frictionless flow in duct with heat transfer:
Effect of heat transfer is discussed here when viscosityy effect is negligible.
g g This is
adequate assumption when large amount of heat is transferred such as in combustion.
It is also assumed that gas composition and hence specific heat ratio does not change.
This may not be true in some combustion systems. Also heat addition in constant area
duct is considered.

Flow in constant area duct:

C
Compressible
ibl ffrictionless
i ti l flflow iin constant
t t area d ductt with
ith h
heatt ttransfer,
f assuming i
constant momentum and mass flow but variable stagnation enthalpy is known as
“Rayleigh flow”.
C ti it and
Continuity dM Momentum t equations
ti will
ill remain
i same ii.e. equations
ti 1 and
d33,
d dV
 0 (100)
 V
dp VdV
 (101)
p p
For energy balance we will use equation 5

c p dT  VdV  dq  c p dT0
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 73
“Equation of state” is given by equation 7:
dp d  dT
 
p  T
Using equations 100 & 101 in this:

 V dV dV dT
  
p V T
dT dV V dV
 
T V RT
dT  T 1   M 2 dV
V
Using this in energy equation
 V2  dV
dq  c p T  1   M 2
 
 c pT
  V
d  c p T 1  M 
dV
dq 2
 c p dT0
V
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 74
If heat is added at M<1, velocity increases while at M>1 heat addition cause decrease
in velocity. As dT0 has same sign as dq, T0 is maximum at M=1 as shown in below figure.

Applying momentum equation between two sections of duct:

Net Force = rate of change of momentum:
( p1  p 2 ) A   1 A V1 (V 2  V1 )

Using continuity equation ρ1AV1= ρ2AV2:

p1   1V1 2  p 2   2V 22
Since γp/ ρ=a2,
p1 (1   M 12 )  p 2 (1   M 22 )
p 2 1   M 12
 (102)
Kuldhir Singh Bhati
p1 1   M 22 75
Using equation 25,

p 02 p 2  1  (   1) M 22 / 2   1
   (103)
p 01 p1  1  (   1) M 12 / 2 
T 02 T 2  1  (   1) M 22 / 2 
  
T01 T1  1  (   1) M 12 / 2 
2
T 02  p 2  M 22  1  (   1) M 22 / 2 
    (104)
T01  p1  M 12  1  (   1) M 1
2
/ 2 

T0 is maximum at M2=1.
1  M  2 2
T 0 m ax 1 1

T 01 2(1   ) M 12 1  (   1) M 12 / 2 

1  M  2 2
*
T 1 1
0

T 01 (   ) M 12 1  (   1)) M 12 / 2 
2(1
Stared values (M=1) are taken as reference value.
Kuldhir Singh Bhati 76
Adiabatic flow in duct with friction:
Effect of viscosityy has been neglected
g in precedingg discussion. This is often adequate
assumption when dealing with flow through nozzle or short duct. However for long duct
effect of fluid friction at wall can be dominant. Friction cause pressure drop along flow
direction. This cause density change in compressible flow and hence velocity change.

Flow in constant area duct:

Compressible adiabatic flow in constant area duct with frictional effect is known as
“F
“Fanno flflow”.
”
Applying momentum balance for small portion of duct:
Net Force = Mass flow rate*Change in velocity
pA  ( p  dp ) A   w Pdx   AV (V  dV  V )

Dividing by ρAV2:
dp w P dV
  dx 
V 2
V A
2
V
Using a2=γp/ρ

dV 1 dp w P
  d 0
dx (64)
V  M p V A
2 2

Kuldhir Singh Bhati 77

Continuity, energy equation and equation of state remain same i.e. equation 1, 4, 7:

d dV
 0 (1)
 V
c p dT  VdV  0 (4)
dp d  dT
  (7)
p  T

Kuldhir Singh Bhati 78

Kuldhir Singh Bhati 79