Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Introduction
1.1Background
Again in Power System, Frequency is one of the most important and sensitive
parameter in power system. Any variation in power system is eventually
reflected the change in frequency. A change in frequency leads to change in
system reactance and the operation of several relays such as reactance relay is
2
affected. Frequency is a measure of mismatch between power generation and
load demand. If load demand is greater than power generation under
frequency situation arises and if generation is greater than load demand over
frequency situation arises, in either case change in frequency poses a threat to
efficiency, safety of entire system and increase in chances of system collapse,
thus frequency is an integral part of power system protection, power quality
monitoring, and operation and control of devices using digital technology.
Hence the accurate estimation and tracking of system frequency is of utmost
important. Due to development of several electronics and other non linear
devices, the present power system is subjected to several undesirable
conditions such as presence of noise and harmonics etc. Keeping in mind
several undesirable conditions and also taking into account the dynamic
phenomenon of frequency variation conventional frequency estimation based
on constant frequency assumption are not suitable for achieving accurate
frequency estimation.
3
current control technique, Hysteresis current control, Fuzzy logic controller
are also reviewed.
Duric, M.B et al; [3] proposed a new approach to the design of a digital
algorithm for network frequency estimation. Derivation of the proposed
algorithm is based on Fourier and zero crossing technique. Fourier method is
used as digital filter and zero crossing technique is applied to the cosine and
sine components of the original signal which can be corrupted by higher
4
harmonics. Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) is used by many researchers for
frequency estimation of a signal, the conventional DFT shows excellent
performance when the signals contains fundamental and integer harmonics
component [4]. presence of decaying dc component in a signal and the implicit
data window in DFT, introduce fairly large errors in the estimation when
frequency deviates from the nominal value.[5] To improve the performance of
DFT, some approaches has been mentioned by some authors [6-8] like
feedback loop by turning the sampling interval, adjusting the data window
length, changing the nominal frequency used in DFT iteratively, correcting the
gains of orthogonal filter and tuning the weighted factor recursively
respectively. Theoretically the decaying component can be completely
removed from the original waveform once its parameter can be obtained.
Some of the authors added some samples to calculate the parameter of the
decaying component based on this idea. The effect of DC components by DFT
is eliminated by using the outputs of even-sample set and odd-sample set.
Some authors estimate the parameter of the DC of decaying component by
using the phase-angle difference between voltage and current.
Sidhu et al; [12] proposed a revised digital algorithm called Smart Discrete
Fourier Transforms to estimate the frequency of a sinusoidal signal with
harmonics in real time. This algorithm smartly avoids the errors which are
coming due to the deviation of frequency from nominal frequency and always
associated with all the advantages of DFT [4], although this approach is
suitable for measurement of frequency over a wide-range, the on-line
application requires a trade-off between the accuracy and computational
complexity.
T.Lobes et al; [13] Proposed Prony estimation technique along with Discrete
Fourier Transform (DFT) which is a static state algorithm for power system
frequency estimation with a variable data window to eliminate the noise and
harmonics associated with a signal. Least square algorithm along with
orthogonal FIR digital filter presented by the same author [13] for
measurement of frequency in the operating condition of a power system.This
algorithm is capable of producing a correct and noise free estimate for near
nominal, nominal and off nominal in very short duration.
Arghya Sarkar, [16] proposed a novel digital signal processing algorithm for
online estimation of the fundamental frequency of the distorted power system
signals. The basic algorithm relies on the development of an efficient variance
reduction algorithm and design of a new stable band pass infinite impulse
response (IIR), second-degree digital integrator (SDDI) with reduced
approximation error. Compared with the well-established technique such as
the enhanced-phase-locked-loop (EPLL) system, the proposed algorithm
provides higher degree of immunity and insensitivity to harmonics and noise
and faster response during step frequency change.
YiliXial et al; [21] proposed a novel technique for online estimation of the
fundamental frequency of unbalanced three-phase power systems based on
Clarke’s transformation and widely linear complex domain modeling, the
proposed method makes use of the full second-order information within three-
phase signals, thus promising enhanced and robust frequency estimation. The
proposed method is also less sensitive to the variations of the three-phase
voltage amplitudes over time and in the presence of higher order harmonics.
8
Least Mean Square (LMS) [22] algorithm is adopted where the formulated
structure looks very simple and it has been observed that this algorithm is
found to be accurate under various systems changing condition to estimate
correct measure of frequency. Pradhan et al; [23] proposed a Least Mean
Square algorithm in complex form to estimate the frequency of a power
system. This estimation of frequency is verified in the presence of noise, with
frequency jump and data collected from real time system. The presence of 3 rd
harmonic in the signal does not affect the performance of the algorithm as the
3rd harmonic component is eliminated during Clarks transform. But the
presence of 5th harmonic component affects the performance of the algorithm,
so a Butterworth Filter used for pre filtering shows the correctness of the
estimation with less error.
A Variable Step Size LMS (VSSLMS) has been proposed [24] to get more
accurate and better convergence in estimation over conventional LMS
algorithm. Disturbances exist in a signal do not affect the estimation
performance using VSSLMS algorithm. Step size of this algorithm is adjusted
by autocorrelation of square of time averaging estimate error and previous
error. The auto-correlation error is a good measure of the proximity to the
optimum and it rejects the effect of uncorrelated noise sequence in the step
size update. However, this VSSLMS provides faster convergence at early
stages of adaptation while there is little deviation in the later stage.
9
fixed [25] This step size, in general depends inversely on input power, i.e, it
takes more time to learn about its input when step size is small and vice versa.
Time-varying step size is usually employed to overcome this poor
convergence problem. If the LMS of the error is only considered as the cost
function to be minimized, with respect to the dynamic variation the linear
weights of the filter may go unbounded or take longer time to respond because
of the stalling effect [26]. In order to avoid the drifting of weight involved in
the estimation mechanism, B.Subudhi et.al proposed a variable leak
adjustment technique in which a variable adaptation step size is incorporated
to attain faster convergence. To enhance the convergence characteristics and to
reduce the error of the LMS algorithm in power system frequency estimation
Ray proposed Extended Least square [27]
Soliman Abdel-Hady [28] proposed a new application for linear Kalman Filter
algorithm for power system frequency estimation. The filter uses the digitized
samples of the three-phase voltages or current waveform signals. These three
phases are transformed into two phases, using the well-known αβ –
transformation matrix. Having obtained the signal of the two new phases, a
complex phasor is constructed using the new two-phase voltages. Kalman
filter is then applied to extract the frequency and phase angle of the
fundamental component of the complex phasor.
10
frequency estimation due to its rapid convergence rate. This algorithm
recursively finds the coefficients that minimize a weighted linear least squares
cost function related to the input signals. When compared with other
algorithms, the RLS algorithm exhibits the feature of rapid convergence rate.
However, this benefit comes at the cost of high computational complexity.
A.Pradhan et al, [23] Presents an arc cosine function –free technique for
frequency estimation to reduce the burden of computation with little decline in
frequency estimation accuracy. A leak factor updatation algorithm has been
proposed for variable leakage factor in VLLMS [24]. This leak adaptation in
the proposed VLLMS has the advantage of using measurable signals in the
system to perform the adjustment of the leak factor.
This section describes some of the recent developed soft computing methods
applied for frequency estimation in power system signal.
Neural Network and Genetic Algorithm (GA) have been used in [31], for
estimation of power system frequency. In this proposed algorithm, the learning
of weights of NN was carried out by GA. Authors have compared the
performance of this proposed technique with the conventional error back
propagation and LMS algorithm. But they found that the proposed algorithm
outperforms over the other two. They have judged the performance using
simulation only and also observed that though the algorithm gives better
performance still it suffers from problem in training of the network.
13
estimators’ track the power system signal in different cases such as signal
corrupted with noise, in presence of harmonics and in presence of sub
harmonics and inter harmonics. Evolutionary Computation technique [36] is a
population based search algorithm; it works with a population of strings that
represent different potential solutions. It enhances its search capability and the
optima can be located more quickly when applied to complex optimization
problems. An EC technique called Bacterial Foraging Optimization (BFO) is
developed and it is combined with RLS and Adaline [38] to power system
frequency estimation. BFO is one of the recent bio-inspired computing used
by many researchers in different areas of optimization.
14
signal. Sampling frequency effects, data window size and degree of fuzziness
on the estimated parameters has been investigated and presented.
The frequency and the rate of frequency change are estimated by the non
recursive Newton-type algorithm [40, 43] using generator swing equation, the
recursive algorithm form is improved with a strategy of sequential tuning of
the forgetting factor. By this, the algorithm convergence and accuracy are
significantly improved.
Rosendomacias J.A. et al; [62] Presented the basic theory of the STDFTand
kalman filter approach as well as the kalman filter models available for
harmonics estimation, STDFT shows quite a uniform convergence within a
period to the proper value of the harmonic, despite the presence of higher
16
harmonics. However it can not deal properly with the presence of decaying
DC Component, which produces ripple around the correct harmonic
magnitude.
Yilmatz et al; [67] suggested parametric spectral estimation methods for the
estimation of harmonics, inter-harmonics and sub-harmonics, Co-Variance and
Modified Co-Variance methods are applied for estimation of harmonics. A
Mother Wavelet Transform based approach for the study of time-varying
power system harmonics has been developed where time frequency
localization chacteristics are embedded in Wavelets. Mandel [68] suggested
Ensemble Kaman Filter (EnKF), is a new version of the Kalman Filter and is
an important data assimilation component of ensemble forecasting. This ref.
described the derivation and practical implementation of the basic Version of
EnKF [68] this paper suggested that EnKF can be implemented without access
to the observation matrix but only an observation function is required.
Soft computing is a concept that has come into prominence in recent times and
its application to power system analysis is still more recent. This section
explores the application of soft computing techniques in the area of power
system harmonics estimation, soft computing as opposed to conventional
“hard” computing, is a technique that is tolerant of imprecision, uncertainty,
partial truth and approximation. Some of the important branches of soft
computing (SC) are Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs), Fuzzy Logic (FL),
Genetic Algorithm (GA), and BFO etc.
Das P.K. et [125] proposed a technique on Fuzzy LMS for estimation of
harmonics voltage and current signals in power network using fuzzy gain
18
scheduling method for the adjustment of step size to provide faster
convergence and noise rejection for tracking fundamental as well as
harmonics components from signals.
If there is any frequency drift in signal, then conventional FFT based on fixed
measurement window is unable for effective power system monitoring.
However, Lie et al. [70] applied the Least Square technique with ANN to
harmonics extraction in time varying situation. This proposed method is
capable of dealing simultaneously the measurement of varying frequency,
amplitude and any harmonic components present in the power system.
Mori et al. [81] presented a method based on back propagation learning for
feed-forward neural network for harmonics prediction. S. Ghodratollaht et al.
[72] presented an adaptive neural network based on Genetic Method called
GAP (Genetic AdalinePerceptrons) for tracking the harmonics components of
current and voltage waveforms in faulted power system, at each iteration of
Adaline, GAP uses GA for selection of optimized value for learning
parameter.
19
Bettayeb and Qidwai [73] presented a new algorithm for estimation of
harmonics using GA’s. The proposed algorithm estimates phase of power
system signal using GA. After the estimation of phase, amplitude has been
estimated using Least Square (LS) algorithm. Signals taken across load from a
two-bus three-phase system with a full-wave six-pulse bridge rectifier were
applied to this algorithm.
20
harmonics of the voltage obtained across the inverter terminals of a prototype
Photo-Voltaic (PV) system. From the obtained results, it is confirmed that the
proposed Adaline-BFO algorithm provides superior estimation performance
when compared with the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT), Kalman Filter
(KF) and BFO algorithms.
Current harmonics are produced by [97, 120] nonlinear load such fluorescent
lighting with electronic ballasts, switch mode power supply (SMPS), battery
chargers, rectifiers, inverters, three phase power converter fed drives, arc
furnaces, arc welding, discharge lighting and saturable reactors etc. in the
power system leading to current and voltage waveform distortion. All these
loads draw the non-sinusoidal currents resulting in current harmonics and are
21
injected back into the supply system through the Point of Common Coupling
(PCC), which causes severe deterioration of power factor and other adverse
effect such as overheating of transformer, increase in R.M.S value of supply
current, losses, over loading in the system, unnecessary tripping and
interference with telecommunication lines and poor power system efficiency
etc. [98, 122]
22
A comprehensive review of active filter (AF) configurations, control
strategies, selection of components, other related economic and technical
considerations and their selection for specific applications are presented. The
most important configuration widely used in active filtering applications for
current harmonic reduction and power factor improvement is the Shunt Active
Power Filter. A SAPF consists of a controllable voltage or current source
inverter. The voltage source inverter (VSI) based shunt APF is the most
commonly used type, due to its well known topology and straight forward
installation procedure. SAPF acts as harmonic current source which injects an
anti-phase but equal magnitude of the harmonic and reactive current as that of
nonlinear load. As a result components of harmonic currents contained in the
load current are cancelled and the source current remains sinusoidal and in
phase with the respective phase to neutral voltage, Series APFs are less
common than the shunt APF. This is because of the fact that they have to
handle high load currents which will increase their current rating considerably
compared SAPF especially on the secondary side of the interfacing
transformer. This increases the I2R losses. However, the main advantage of
series APF over shunt APF is that they are ideal for voltage harmonics
elimination [101]. It provides the load with a pure sinusoidal waveform, which
is important for voltage sensitive devices such as power system protection
devices. With this feature, series APF is suitable for improving the quality of
the distribution source voltage
The Controller is the most important part of the active power filter and
recently a lot of research is being conducted in this area [99].Mostly a
Proportional- Integral (PI) controller is used to control the DC link capacitor
voltage as well as to estimate peak value of reference source current for both
single phase and three phases APF [103-105]. The output of PI controller is
multiplied with unit vector of source voltage to generate reference source
current. Unit vector implies a sine wave having unit peak value with phase
same as that of source voltage. As PI controller has large impact on source
current harmonics, a low pass filter is connected at the output of PI controller
to reduce the source current THD. Some advance technologies, such as Fuzzy
Logic, Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and Genetic Algorithm have been
used in literature [106-108] to generate reference source current. P. Kumar and
A. Mahajan [106] compares different soft computing techniques for
generating reference source current. They found that with application of soft
computing technique, APF give very good response under frequent load
variation. In [107] comparison of PI controller and Fuzzy Logic Controller is
done for controlling the DC voltage of capacitor. The generation of reference
current using the combination of ANN and Fuzzy Logic is explained in [128].
In this literature all the analysis have been carried out in discrete time domain,
the main benefit of this controller is that it can handle nonlinearity.
Harmonics are estimated using neural network [108] and real power loss by
24
circuit elements of APF is estimated using PI controller. Both PI controller and
NN are used to generate reference source current. A three phase shunt active
power filter was proposed by H. Akagi using instantaneous active and reactive
power theory [109]. In this control strategy, reference source currents are
calculated instantaneously using instantaneous source voltages and load
currents. Further development in this strategy was done by S. Bhattacharya,
who calculated d-q (direct-quadratic) components of instantaneous three
phase currents [129]. This literature gives concept about synchronous
reference frame and calculated reference source current instantaneously
without sensing the source voltage. A modified reference current extraction
method [130] is proposed using both p-q(active –reactive) and d-q theory . In
[130], reference source current is calculated using real power balance of the
system. The peak value source current required to balance the real power loss
of the circuit elements is calculated. The peak value of source current required
to provide real power to nonlinear load is calculated. Finally both the peak
values are added to give the peak value of reference source current.
Fig.1 (a) Source Current (b) Unipolar Modulation (c) Bipolar Modulation
The current control with a fixed hysteresis band has the disadvantage that the
switching frequency varies within a band because peak - to - peak current
ripple is required to be controlled at all points of the fundamental frequency
wave. Kale et al [111] have proposed an adaptive band controller for APF. The
adaptive hysteresis band controller changes the hysteresis bandwidth as a
function of reference compensator current variation to optimize switching
frequency and THD of supply current. This paper proposes a fuzzy-adaptive
hysteresis band control, where the hysteresis bandwidth can be easily
calculated with the help of a fuzzy logic controller (FLC). Another important
task in the active filter design is the maintenance of constant DC voltage
across the capacitor connected to the inverter. This is necessary because there
is energy loss due to conduction and switching power losses associated with
the diodes and IGBTs of the inverter in APF, which tend to reduce the value of
voltage across the DC capacitor.
29
1.5 Motivations of the Work
Several System identification techniques such as Least Square(LS),
Recursive least square (RLS), Extended least square (ELS) , Least
mean square (LMS) and Kalman Filter (KF) have been applied to power
system frequency estimation. To increase the speed of convergence, to
reduce computational and settling time, an immediate motivation is to
apply some improved recursive techniques to power system frequency
estimation.
Different harmonics estimation technique based on Recursive least
square (RLS), Least Mean Square (LMS), Kalman filter (KF) and
variants of Kalman Filter such as Extended Kalman Filter (EKF),
Unscented Kalman Filter (UKF) and Ensemble Kalman Filter (EnKF)
have been studied but the motivation is to develop an efficient
harmonics estimation technique which will be capable of estimating the
harmonics components at different critical situations of power system
signal such as variation in frequency, amplitude in presence of inter
harmonics and sub harmonics and also for the case of dynamics signal.
31
1.6 Problem Statement
The problem addressed in the thesis comprises of the following three sub
problems such as frequency estimation, harmonics estimation and harmonics
elimination described below.
PC
Non linear
C
Load
Source Load
current current
PD
PG
In the present day modern power systems, fast and accurate frequency
estimation has become quite vital. Any mistake in accurate estimation of
frequency may threaten the frequency stability or at least lead to system
operation problems. The fundamental frequency is one of the most important
32
and sensitive parameters of a power system. Any imbalance between the
system load and generation directly affects the frequency and leads to
frequency deviations. So it is necessary to maintain frequency at its nominal
value or as close as possible to that value within a narrow limit. Deviation of
frequency from its rated value is an indication of imbalance between real
power generation and load demand. Any mistake in accurate estimation of
frequency could cause inadequate load shedding by frequency relays, which
would eventually be resulted in a major grid collapse in a power system, Thus
the frequency estimation problem is concerned with developing efficient
algorithms with a view to obtain accurate estimation of frequency of the
resulting distorted power system voltage signal.
34
1.7 Objectives
35
designing active power filter to power system harmonics elimination
problem.
To validate the proposed estimation and elimination technique on data
obtained from laboratory experimental set up using fast processors such
as arduino duo microcontroller, dSPACE 1104 and also from industrial
set up.
36
Chapter 3 Suggests a New estimation techniques that is Variable Leaky
Least Mean Square (VLLMS) applied to power system Harmonics estimation
problem, after the presentation of estimation of frequency in the previous
chapter, estimation of harmonics is carried out in this chapter. For the purpose,
power system signal modeled in a parametric form. Then the weight of the
unknown parameter is updated using VLLMS algorithm. From the updated
weights of unknown parameter, fundamental as well as harmonics components
of amplitude and phase are estimated. The performance of the proposed
VLLMS algorithm is compared with other existing algorithms such as
Recursive Least Square (RLS) and Least Mean Square (LMS), for different
critical cases that may arises in a power system such as sudden change in
amplitude of signals and also dynamics signal.
The experimental prototype hardware setup is designed in the Labortary.
Finally Harmonics estimation of Labortary generation signal i.e. across the
output of a single phase PWM inverter, using arduino due microcontroller is
also presented.
Chapter 4 Describes two hybrid algorithms such as KF-MGA and KF-
BFO for estimation of harmonics components of a power system. In chapter 3
only application of signal processing technique have been discussed for
estimation of harmonics but in this chapter we have switch over to
combination of signal processing and optimization technique for the
improvement of percentage error in estimation,processing time in computation
and performance in presence of inter and sub harmonics component. A
comparative harmonics estimation performance of two proposed strategy is
made to show the superiority between them. A labaratory proto type is also
37
developed for generation of power system data inorder to validate the efficies
of the proposed algorithm.
Chapter 5A novel controllers that uses an indirect current controller in
conjunction with Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC) with different fuzzy rules has
been implemented for harmonic elimination in a single phase system, A SAPF
is designed using combined synchronous detection and two level hysteresis
current controller techniques for elimination of harmonics in a three phase
distribution system. A prototype experimental setup is designed in dSPACE
platform for verification of proposed elimination technique.
38
Chapter 2
Power System Frequency Estimation Using Signal Processing
Techniques
2.1 Introduction
The remaining of the chapter is organized as follows. Section 2.2 presents the
frequency estimation using the existing signal processing technique. Section
2.3 shows the proposed algorithm and formulation of equations. Section 2.4
describes the frequency estimation based on the proposed algorithm. Section
2.5 discusses the simulation results of the proposed algorithm. Section 2.6
presents some experimental setups and test results for the data obtained from
them. Section 2.7 concludes the chapter.
41
2.2 Frequency Estimation using existing signal processing
Techniques
2.2.1 Recursive Least Square (RLS) Algorithm applied to
Frequency Estimation
Let a distorted power system signal buried with noise is represented by the
following structure
A(t ) A1 sin t + 1 + (t ) (2.1)
To estimate the signal A(t ) , the amplitude ( A1 ) , phase (1 ) and frequency ( f ) ,
equ (2.1) can be written in discretize form as
42
(k - 1) Past value of estimate
K (k ) Kalman Gain
The error in the measurement is given by
e k A k - h k (k - 1)
T
(2.5)
(2.6)
A1 2 + 2 (2.8)
tan 1
1 tan -1 (2.9)
43
Once the estimates of amplitude and phase are obtained, then fundamental
frequency ( f ) can be estimated as follows. f is given by f can be
2
evaluated from the noisy measurement A(k ) using equation (2.1) as given
below
A(k )
sin(kT + 1 )
A1
A( k )
kT + 1 sin -1
A1
1 A(t )
f [sin -1 - 1 ] (2.10)
2kT A1
(2.13)
(2.15)
For the generic model (2.15), a suitable vector of unknown parameters is
given by
x [ A0 , , , A1 ,....., AM , 1 ,....., M ]T (2.16)
Where A0 is the magnitude of the decaying dc Component at t 0 , 1 / T , T
being the time constant , M is the highest order of harmonics present in the
signal, is the fundamental angular velocity i.e equal to 2 f , f being
frequency , AK is the magnitude of the k th harmonics. The number of
unknowns, i.e., the model order, is
n 2M + 3 (2.17)
45
The Model (2.15) can be simplified, e.g., containing only the fundamental
harmonic. This is due to the fact to reduce the order of the system and our
requirement i.e. determination of frequency can be met with that
simplification. The Model selection depends on the application, i.e., on the
features of the input signal processed. The vector of unknown model
parameters (2.16) can be estimated by applying non recursive NTA numerical
algorithm (2.16) given by
xˆ k +1 xˆ + j kT J k -1
j kT A - h xˆ k (2.18)
time, particularly when the model order is high. The real time computation can
be significantly reduced by applying the following recursive form of NTA
algorithm. So performance of computing using IRNTA becomes improved.
^ ^
x k +1 x k + Pk +1 J k +1 ( Ak +1 - h( x k )) (2.19)
Pk +1 1 / k +1 (( Pk - ( Pk j k +1 j kT+1 Pk ) /( k +1 + j kT+1 Pj k +1 ))
(2.20)
Where j mT j1 j2 j3
is the m-th row of the Jacobian matrix. For example, the third element (i.e., the
first derivative of angular velocity) is given by the following equation
46
M
j3 h( x) / Ak kt cos(kt + k ) (2.21)
k 1
Normally, one selects near 1.0 e.g., 0.95 . Here, is tuned to the dynamics of
the input signal processed.
1e : Estimated Phase, The signal model in regressor form can be written as
47
Jacobin matrix is given by
Algorithms PI
RLS 100 0.96
KF 100 0.96
IRNTA 100 0.96
49
53 RLS
KF
IRNTA
52
F req u en cy in Hz.
51
50
49
48
47
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sample No.
50
-3
x 10
5
RLS
KF
4 IRNTA
3
MS E
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sample No.
51
51
RLS
KF
F re q u e n c y [H z ]
50.5 IRNTA
50
49.5
49
48.5
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sample No.
2
A m p litu d e in P .U .
1.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sample No.
52
Fig. 2.4 Single phase signal during change of amplitude at 40th Sample
51
RLS
KF
50.5 IRNTA
F req u en cy in H z.
50
49.5
49
48.5
48
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sample No.
1
A m p litu d e in P .U .
0.5
-0.5
-1
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sample No.
53
Fig. 2.6 Single phase signal during change of phase at 40th Sample
80
RLS
75 KF
IRNTA
70
F req u en cy in H z.
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sample No.
54
1
0.5
Amplitude in P.U.
-0.5
-1
10 20 30 40 50
Sample No.
75 RLS
KF
70 IRNTA
F req u en cy [H z]
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sample No.
55
2.5. 6 In presence of Sub and Inter harmonics
The performance of the proposed algorithm is then evaluated when sub and
inter harmonics are present in a signal. The frequency, amplitude and initial
phase of the sub and inter harmonics considered here are as 20 Hz, 0.4 p.u.
and 650 and 130 Hz, 0.3 p.u. and 550 respectively. Estimation of Fundamental
frequency of the signal using the three algorithms is shown in Fig. 2.10. In this
case also proposed algorithm estimates better compared to other two.
80
RLS
75 KF
IRNTA
70
F req u en cy [H z]
65
60
55
50
45
40
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sample No.
G 11KV
Generator Rating
Excitation Current-12.5Amp
Input: 0-1
Connection-Star Transducer AOutput: 4-20mA
Phase-3 Phase A.C
Bus Bar
Frequency-50Hz
Digital
DDCMIS
Distributed
Control
Monitory
Information
system
3 Phase Current
Fig. 2.11 shows the schematic diagram for the data collection set up that
involves current transformer to facilitate the measurement. The generated
57
voltage is fed to 11KV/132KV Generator transformer, the output of GT fed to
the bus bar. For acquiring digital current data, the generator is connected to
400Amp/1Amp CT. The output of CT is fed to the Transducer of output range
4-20 mA. Current signal of mA range is fed to DDCMIS (Digital Distributed
Control monitory information system) which consists of several components
such as panel terminal block, Analog input card (AT-810), Communication
interference, Profibus Communication, Controller (ABB 800m), Server, etc.
DDCMIS provides digital data of generator MW, MVA, pf, voltage and
current. In the present work, we obtained three-phase digital current data from
the output of DDCMIS. The data almost corresponds to 50Hz signal with
noises. Since the captured signal does not have any typical visually dectable
feature, we omit its presentation. From these three-phase digital current data,
frequency of the system is estimated using the three algorithms (RLS, KF and
IRNTA). Fig. 2.12 shows the performance of the algorithms and it is observed
that the KF generates largest error of more than 0.2 Hz. Whereas IRNTA
closely follow the actual frequency with errors less than 0.02 Hz. So error in
estimation in case of IRNTA is minimum and hence more effective.
50
49.8
49.6
Frequency [Hz]
49.4
49.2 RLS
KF
IRNTA
49
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Sample No.
58
Fig. 2.12 Estimation of Frequency from industrial data
59
data points, PC Connectivity- 9 pin female port and PC Communication
software.
5. Voltage Probe: A 10X voltage probe is used to capture the distorted
signal from the
6. PC: 1.46 GHz CPU and 1GB RAM, desktop computer. It stores the data
in the form of discrete form with the help of pc communication
software, which is captured by the DSO.
The waveform is stored in the Digital Storage Oscilloscope and then through
the Open Choice PC Communication software it is acquired in the personal
computer. From the digital voltage data, Estimation of Frequency is carried
out using proposed algorithm. As per International Electro-technical
Commission 61000-4-30 [9], for computing the power quality parameters, 10
cycles in a 50-Hz system which is 200-ms windowing at a sampling time of
0.4 ms has been used. The variation of estimated frequency with the proposed
algorithm is shown in Fig.2.15, which shows that the estimated value closely
approaches the actual value of 50 Hz.
SINGLE
Auto ISOLATION PHASE R-L
Transformer TRANSFORMER (1:1)
FULLWAVE LOAD
DIODE
BRIDGE
RECTIFIER
230V,50 HZ
SUPPLY
DSO PC
60
Fig.2.14 Schematic Diagram of Experimental Data collection
F re q u e n c y in H z .
50.4 RLS
KF
50.2 IRNTA
50
49.8
49.6
49.4
49.2
49
48.8
48.6
61
but also superior in terms of convergence rate and computational aspect as
compared to RLS and KF.
Chapter-3
Real time Harmonics Estimation of Distorted Power System Signal
3.1 Introduction
Estimation of power system harmonics is now a day’s one of the important
issues of power system engineers. Due to significant growth of nonlinear loads
in power systems, mostly power electronic equipments, uninterruptible power
supplies, arc furnaces and controlled motor drives, current and voltage signals
of power system become highly distorted. Main sources of inter harmonics
and sub harmonics in power system are power electronics devices (Cyclo
converters), arcing loads (e.g., welding machines and arc furnaces), which are
widely used in rolling mills and linear motor drives [80]. Recently, grid
integration of Renewable energy sources based on power electronic converters
also contribute to the increasing concern for the betterment of power quality
[124-125]. The aim of this work is to develop efficient harmonics estimation
technique and to design filter for removal of unwanted harmonics distortion in
power system.
In literature [83, 69, 72], so many algorithms have been applied for
power system harmonics estimation. The fundamental one is based on the Fast
Fourier Transform (FFT). But it fails in presence of inter-harmonics and
variations in system fundamental frequency, because of leakage and picket-
fence effects [53-55],some methods [55, 34] are provided to improve these
drawbacks. Kalman Filter (KF) [58, 63] is the right choice for estimation of
62
harmonics contained in a power system signal [59-61]. However, to optimize
estimations, the higher-order terms in the Taylor’s expansion for this method
were neglected because of a nonlinear function including the formulation of
measurements. As a matter of fact, estimation of distorted signals may occur
incorrectly or take longer to converge and even diverge.A popular method for
parameter estimation is Least Square (LS) algorithm [65]. The algorithm is
very powerful in estimating system parameters and is widely used for
estimating harmonics and their deviations in a signal. But online estimation is
not possible in this case because of it’s batch processing methodology.
At the same time, soft computing techniques, e.g. Fuzzy Logic, Neural
Networks, Genetic Algorithm and simulated annealing have also been used for
harmonics estimation [74, 91, 121]. However, such soft computing approaches
suffer from poor convergence rate and larger computational burden. Artificial
Neural networks have also been extensively studied as a means of harmonic
extraction [121].But, the initial choice of weight vector and learning
parameters affect the convergence characteristics of the Neural type Estimator.
If the Lest Mean Square of the error is considered as the cost function to be
minimized, then due to the dynamic variation of signal, the linear weights of
the filter may go unbounded or it may take longer time to respond due to the
stalling effect [23]. To overcome this, one may employ the leaky LMS
algorithm that incorporates the magnitude of the weights in the cost function
to avoid the parameter drifting or the stalling problem [24]. One may,
however, make the leak adjustment as a variable one so that it converges
slowly along the worst-case eigen direction (the direction of the eigenvector
corresponding to the smallest eigenvalue of the error auto-correlation matrix)
64
as opposed to the best-case eigen direction (the direction of the eigenvector
corresponding to the largest eigen value) [92-93]. Although such leaky LMS
algorithm has been employed in stereophonic acoustic echo cancellation
problem [53], effectiveness of the same in estimating power system harmonics
appears to be not investigated so far. Moreover, the frequent dynamical
changes in a power system motivate one to implement such an algorithm for
efficiently estimating power system harmonics.
65
the comparative simulation results of the proposed algorithm. Section 3.5
presents some experimental setups and test results for the data obtained from
them. Section 3.6 concludes the Chapter.
N
y (t ) An sin( n t + n ) + Adc exp(- dc t ) + (t ) (3.1)
n 1
N
y (k ) An sin(n kT + n ) + Adc exp(- dc kT ) + (k ) (3.2)
n 1
Invoking Taylor series expansion of the dc decaying term, Adc exp(- dc t ) and
retaining only first two terms of the series
y (k ) can be obtained as
N
y (k ) An sin( n kT + n ) + Adc - Adc dc kT + (k ) (3.3)
n 1
66
For estimation amplitudes and phases Eq.(3.3) can be rewritten as
N
y (k ) [ An sin( n kT ) cosn + An cos( n kT ) sin n ] + Adc - Adc dc kT + (k ) (3.4)
n 1
y (k ) H (k ) X (3.5)
(3.6)
(3.7)
The VLLMS algorithm [141] is applied to estimate the state. The algorithm
minimizes the square of the error recursively by altering the unknown
parameter Xk at each sampling instant using equation (3.8) given below
X k +1 (1 - 2 k k ) X k + 2 k ek yk (3.8)
67
Rk Rk -1 + (1 - )e k e k -1 (3.11)
Where is an exponential weighting parameter and 0 1 , and (0 1)
and 0 control the convergence time. The variable leakage factor k [132]
can be adjusted as
k +1 k - 2 k ek yk X k -1 (3.12)
After the updating of the vector of unknown parameter using LMS algorithm,
amplitudes, phases of the fundamental and nth harmonic parameters are
derived as
An X 2
2N + X 22N -1 (3.13)
X
n tan -1 2 N (3.14)
X 2 N -1
The step size k is varied for better convergence of the LMS algorithm in
the presence of noise.
k +1 k + Rk2 (3.16)
68
Where Rk represents the autocorrelation of ek and ek -1 . It is computed as
Rk Rk -1 + (1 - )ek ek -1 (3.17)
Where is an exponential weighting parameter and 0 1 , and (0 1)
and 0 control the convergence time.
Error in measurement is
e( k + 1) y ( k + 1) - H ( k + 1) T X ( k ) (3.19)
The gain K is related with covariance of parameter vector
69
(3.13)-(3.14)
Start
Initialize,,,,, , and
Update Step Size, Leakage Factor and Weight Vector on minimizing error
from (3.10), (3.12) and (3.8)
No
Is final iteration
reached?
Yes
70
Estimate Amplitudes and Phases for Fundamental and nth Harmonics using
(3.13) and (3.14)
Stop
Fig.3. 1 shows the flow chart of the estimation scheme of VLLMS algorithm
y (t ) 1.5 sin(t + 800 ) + 0.5 sin(3t + 600 ) + 0.2 sin(5t + 450 ) + 0.15 sin(7t + 360 )
+ 0.1sin(11t + 300 ) + 0.5 exp(-5t ) + (t )
(3.
22)
The above signal is corrupted by random noise (t) 0.05randn having normal
distribution with zero mean and unity variance. All the amplitudes, given are
in p.u. values. Different parameters [17,207,208] used in the simulation
71
studies are selected on the basis of series of experiments performed during the
implementation of this method and are given in Table. 3.1
Parameter
Initial Initial max min Initial
W
P0
actual
RLS
2 LMS
VLLMS
1
-1
-2
0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Time in sec.
Fig.3.2. Actual and Estimated signal using RLS, LMS and VLLMS
A m p litu d e in p . u .
1.6
1.4
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
RLS
0.2 LMS
VLLMS
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
Fig.3.3a. Estimation of amplitude of fundamental component of signal
72
P h a s e in d e g .
80
75
70
65
60
RLS
55 LMS
VLLMS
50
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
Time in sec.
Fig 3.3b. Estimation of phase of fundamental component of signal
0.4
A m p litu d e in p .u .
RLS
0.35 LMS
VLLMS
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
Fig.3.4a. Estimation of amplitude of 5th harmonic component of signal
A m p litu d e in p .u .
80
RLS
60 LMS
VLLMS
40
20
-20
-40
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
Fig. 3.4b Estimation of Phase of 5th harmonic component of signals
73
A m p litu d e in p .u . 0.4
RLS
0.35 LMS
VLLMS
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
100
RLS
LMS
P h a s e in d e g .
VLLMS
50
-50
-100
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
Fig.3.2 shows actual vs. estimated value of signal using three different
algorithms. Actual vs estimated signal almost matches with each other with
very less deviation in case of LMS algorithm. Figs.3.3a and3.3bshow the
tracking of fundamental amplitude and phase of signal in presence of random
74
noise and decaying dc components using RLS, LMS and VLLMS algorithms
Fig.3.4a and3.4b presents the comparative estimation of 5 th harmonic
amplitude and phase of signal. Figs.3.5a and3.5b shows the estimation of 11 th
harmonic amplitude and phase of signal respectively. In the above estimation
process, proper choice of co-variance matrices optimally tune RLS algorithm.
The RLS algorithm exhibits oscillations in the estimated amplitude of
fundamental and harmonics components in the presence of a distorted signal
and noise. These results are quite significant in tracking steady-state both
fundamental as well as harmonics components of a power system over a
period of 24 hour for the assessment of power quality and harmonics
distortions. Fig.3.6 compares Mean Squared Errors in the estimation of signal
using three different algorithms such as RLS, LMS and VLLMS. It is found
from Fig.6 that MSE is in the order of 10-3.Fig. 3.7 presents a sensitivity
analysis of estimation of power system harmonics using VLLMS algorithm. It
gives an idea regarding variation of estimation error in signal with respect to
variation of sampling frequency in estimation. It is found that estimation error
in signal is very much reduced with increase in sampling frequency and the
minimum estimation error is 0.001 at a sampling frequency of 3 kHz. From
this Figs.3.1-3.7, it is seen that estimation accuracy using VLLMS is more as
compared to other two such as RLS and LMS.
75
Fig.3.7. Variation of Estimation error with sampling frequency
Table 3.2 shows the amplitude and phase estimates of all harmonic
components using VLLMS in presence of noise and dc decaying components.
On comparing the actual values of parameters, it is found that VLLMS is a
good estimator so far as estimation accuracy of harmonic components is
concerned.
76
0.8
A m p litu d e in p .u . RLS
0.7 LMS
VLLMS
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
77
85
80
P h a s e in d e g .
75
70
65
60
55
RLS
50
LMS
45 VLLMS
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
Fig.3.9. Estimation of sub-harmonics having phase 75 deg.
0.35
A m p litu d e in p .u .
RLS
0.3 LMS
VLLMS
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
Fig.3.10. Estimation of inter-harmonics having amplitude 0.1 p.u.
78
N
( y (k ) - y (k ) ) 2
k 1
N
100 (3.23)
y(k )
k 1
2
Where y (k ) and y (k ) are actual and estimated signal respectively. In this case
the significance of the performance index is that it provides the accuracy of
the estimation algorithm. Small value of corresponds to more accurate
estimation and vice versa.
The performance indices of all the three algorithms are given in Table 3.3
from which it can be seen that VLLMS achieves significant improvements in
terms of reducing error for harmonics estimation in comparison to other two
algorithms. VLLMS exhibits superior estimation performance and is more
robust as compared to RLS and LMS owing to the fact that unlike in RLS, the
performance of the VLLMS is not influenced by the initial choice of
covariance matrix used in RLS.
79
3.3.4. Harmonic Estimation of a Dynamic Signal
To examine the performance of VLLMS algorithm in tracking harmonics and
its robustness in rejecting noise, a time-varying signal of the form
(3.24)
80
matches with the actual with more accurate estimation using VLLMS
algorithm.
0.22
A m p litu d e in p .u .
0.21
0.2
0.19
Actual
0.18
RLS
LMS
0.17 VLLMS
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
81
1. The 9 V step down Transformer: Since we will be measuring 230 V ac it
has to be stepped down to a suitable voltage range to be operated on and
also the Transformer provides sufficient isolation necessary to keep
ourselves as well as the sophisticated electronics from harm’s way.
2. Voltage Divider (1/10): The output of the Transformer, when unloaded
can give up to 14-17 volt Peak. Which can be further reduced by using a
Voltage divider which divides it 10 times which is the ratio of the
resistances 10K and 100K
3. Voltage Offset Adding Circuit: The voltage after the voltage divider has
both a positive and negative peak, which is not suitable for our ADC.
Therefore, we add an OFFSET using the Rail to Rail swing OPAMP
LM358.
4. The OPAMP functions as a voltage follower, and buffers the mid-point
voltage that appears at the junction of R3 & R4. This significantly
reduces the impedance of the voltage source, resulting in enhanced
performance.
5. The Final Voltage Divider: Since the original circuit gives out a signal
in the range of 5 V, but since we have used a microcontroller, which has
an ADC capable of only measuring a signal in the range of 3.3 Volt, a
final Voltage divider has been used to keep the voltage in range suitable
for the ADC.
3.4.2 Voltage Supply Circuit (230 V ac to 5 V dc) of the
microcontroller:
1. 230 / 6 V Step-Down Transformer: It steps down the voltage to 6 V to
be used by our power Supply Circuit for the microcontroller as well as
the voltage offset circuit.
82
2. Diode Bridge Rectifier: A bridge rectifier made of four diodes rectifies
the 6 V ac of the transformer secondary, i.e. only positive parts of the
signals i.e. dc
3. Smoothing Capacitor: A 1000uF 25 V smoothing capacitor smoothes
out the voltage coming from the bridge rectifier.
4. CD7805 Voltage Regulator: It eliminates any ripple present in the
voltage supply after the capacitor so that a maximum allowable ripple
of .005 Volts is present, i.e. the Output is close to pure dc suitable for
the sensitive microcontroller.
3.4.3. Arduino Due (Atmel SAM3X8E ARM Cortex-M3 CPU):
83
Fig.3.12. Experimental setup of Arduino Due Microcontroller based hardware for implementing the
proposed algorithm
100
-100
-200
-300
-400
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
300
A m p litu d e in v o lt.
200
100
-100
Funda
-200 3rd
5th
-300 7th
11th
-400
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
400
Funda
350 3rd
5th
300
7th
250 11th
200
150
100
50
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
85
Fig.3.16. Estimation of Fundamental and other harmonics amplitudes of real data
100
P h a s e in d e g .
50
Funda
-50 3rd
5th
7th
11th
-100
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
86
algorithm becomes faster. Improved harmonics estimation performance has
been achieved by using the VLLMS algorithm as compared to other two
existing methods such as RLS and LMS. Several computer simulation tests
have been conducted to estimate harmonics in a power system signal
corrupted with random noise and decaying dc offsets. The performance index
of estimation of VLLMS in case of distorted signal at 20 dB noise has been
found as 0.41 %. The above value is 0.1% for the case of experimental data.
These are the minimum value as compared to other estimation methods. The
simulation results in various cases of power system signal at SNR 20 dB and
experimental results show the robustness of the proposed VLLMS for
effective harmonic estimation.
Chapter 4
Development of Hybrid Algorithms for Power System Harmonics
Estimation
4.1 Introduction
88
update the weights adaptively so that the estimated output converges to the
desired output of the signal.
In this research work, two hybrid approaches of KF-MGA and KF-BFO are
proposed for the improvement in percentage error in estimation, processing
time in computation and performance in presence of inter and sub-harmonic
components. A comparative study of two proposed strategy for estimation of
harmonics in distorted power signals is made to show the superiority in
performance. A laboratory prototype is developed for generation of power
system data in order to validate the efficacies of the proposed algorithm
The chapter is organized as follows. Section 4.2 provides idea about power
system harmonic estimation problem. Section 4.3 gives the structure of two
hybrid estimation schemes applied to power system harmonics. Section 4.4
and 4.5 describes methods of individual KF-MGA and KF-BFO schemes for
harmonics estimation. Section 4.6 shows the simulated results for different
cases of harmonics estimation. Section 4.7 describes the experimental set-up
developed to validate the efficacy of the proposed algorithm. Section4. 8
conclude the chapter.
frequency; μ(t) is the additive Noise; Adc exp(- dc t ) is the probable d.c.
decaying Term.
N
y (k ) An sin( n kTs + n ) + Adc exp(- dc kTs ) + (k ) (4.2)
n 1
The nonlinearity arises in the model is due to phase of the sinusoids. From the
discrete signal
Weight updating
using KF
(4.5)
N [An sin(nkTs) cosn + An cos(nkTs )sinn]
y( k )
+ A - A kT + (k )
n1 dc dc dc s
91
x (k + 1) I ( 2 N + 2 )( 2 N + 2 )
[ x1 (k ) x 2 (k ) ... x 2 N -1 (k ) x 2 N (k ) x 2 N +1 (k ) x 2 N + 2 (k )]T (4.6)
y (k ) H (k ) x(k ) + (k ) (4.7)
Measurement matrix
H (k ) [sin(1kTS ) cos(1kTS ) ... sin( N kTS ) cos( N kTS ) 1 - kTS ]T
(4.9)
And
x [ A1 cos(1 ) A1 sin(1 ) ... An cos( n ) An sin( n ) Adc Adc dc ]T
(4.10)
Error in measurement is
(k + 1) y (k + 1) - H (k + 1)T x (k ) (4.13)
Here the model relating the measurements to the states is obtained using the
first principle modeling. Deterministic behavior of the model is found from
this modeling. Based on this consideration process noise covariance is
neglected and so process noise covariance Q is taken as zero. The updated
covariance of parameter vector using matrix inversion lemma
P( k + 1) [ P( k ) - K ( k + 1) H ( k + 1)T P( k )] (4.15)
These equations are initialized by taking some initial values for the estimate at
instants k H(k)and P. As the choice of initial covariance matrix is large it is
taken P=αI where α is dc decaying parameters are derived as
x
n tan -1 2 N (4.17)
x 2 N -1
Adc x 2 N +1 (4.18)
x
dc 2 N + 2 (4.19)
x 2 N +1
Because
93
BFO or MGA is employed to optimize the initial weights x given in equation
Ns Ns
J (i, n, m, l ) (t ) [ y (t ) - y (t )]2
2
(4.21)
t 1 t 1
4.4Modified GA (MGA)
The following two modifications have been proposed Modification in parent
selection Modification in crossover mechanism
The first parent in each reproduction is the string having the best fitness value.
The second parent is selected from the ordered population using normal
selection technique.
4.4.2Proposed Crossover
Crossover is an algorithm for artificial mating of two individual chromosomes
with an expectation that a combination of genes of individuals of high fitness
value may produce an offspring with even higher fitness. It represents a way
of moving in the solution space based on the information derived from the
94
existing solutions. This makes exploitation and exploration of information
encoded in genes.
95
Fig 4.2.
Middle Point
a7 a6 a5 a4 a3 a2 a1 a0
Exploration Exploitation
Fig.4.3Example of Crossover
97
Start
Replace these for the least fit chromosomes of the existing population
Yes
Check
Done
Convergence
No
No
Done Is gen<
MAX gen?
Yes
Gen = Gen+1
4.5BFO Algorithm
The survival of species in any natural evolutionary process depends upon their
fitness criteria, which relies upon their food searching (foraging) and motile
behavior. The E. coli bacteria that are present in our intestines have a foraging
98
strategy governed by four processes, namely, chemo taxis, swarming,
reproduction, and elimination and dispersal [178]
4.5.2 Swarming
For the bacteria to reach at the richest food location (i.e. for the algorithm to
converge at the solution point), it is desired that the optimum bacterium till a
point of time in the search period should try to attract other bacteria so that
together they converge at the solution point more rapidly. This can be
achieved by using a penalty function based upon the relative distances of each
bacterium from the fittest bacterium.
4.5.3. Reproduction
The original set of bacteria, after getting evolved through several chemotactic
stages reach the reproduction stage. Here, the best set of bacteria gets divided
into two groups. The healthier half replaces the other half of bacteria, which
gets eliminated, owing to their poorer foraging abilities. This makes the
population of bacteria constant in the evolution process.
99
4.5.4. Elimination and Dispersal
In the evolution process a sudden unforeseen event can occur, which may
drastically alter the smooth process of evolution and cause the elimination of
the set of bacteria and/or disperse them to a new environment. Most ironically,
instead of disturbing the usual chemo tactic growth of the set of bacteria, this
unknown event may place a newer set of bacteria nearer to the food location.
J 2 t Y t - Yˆ (t )
Ns Ns 2
t 1 t 1
J last J SW (i, n, m, l )
This results in an adaptable step size in the direction of tumble for set of
solution of parameter i
d) If minimum (J) is less than tolerance limit then break all the loops.
5. If J N C , go to 4, In this case continue Chemot axis since the life of
bacteria is not over.
6. Reproduction
a) For the given m and l ,and for each i=1,2,3…..S,
N C +1
Let J health J
j 1
SW (i, n, m, l )
For i=1,2,…..S, with probability Ped ,eliminate and disperse each set of
parameters
101
Start Y
Z
Cost functionJ(i,j)
Initialize Initialize
unknown para of
Variables
KF as output
ofBFO
No
Elimination and Dispersal J(i,j)<J(i,j-
Loop Counter E=E+1 1) Update
unknown
i=i+1 parameters
Yes using KF
Yes
SL=SL+1
Z N<Nf
No
No
Reproduction Loop SL<Ns No
Counter R=R+1
Yes
End
K>Nc
No
102
Fig 4.5 describes the proposed KF-BFO estimation scheme. This algorithm
has two distinct parts, in first part BFO is applied to optimize the unknown
parameters and in second part optimized output of BFO is again updated using
KF algorithm. As a result the error between the desired and the estimated
output is minimized.
The signal is corrupted by random noise having normal distribution with zero
mean and unity variance. In the simulation work, in harmonics estimation, the
values of different parameters taken during both simulation and
experimentation work are given in Table 1. The no. of parameters to be
optimized, =12 (without inter and sub- harmonics case), =18 (with inter and
sub-harmonics case) are taken. During simulation, an initial value of
Measurement noise covariance is taken as and process noise covariance is
taken as zero. Where is an identity matrix The Genetic Algorithm parameters
used in the present research work are tabulated in
103
Table 4.1 Values of parameters used for simulation and experimental work employing BFO
2
KF-BFO
1.5 KF-MGA
1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.
Ampl., P .U.
0.6
KF-BFO
0.5 KF-MGA
0.4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.
Ampl., P .U.
0.25
KF-BFO
0.2 KF-MGA
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.
104
0.16
A m pl., P .U .
0.155
0.15
0.145 KF-BFO
KF-MGA
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.
0.12
A m pl., P .U .
KF-BFO
KF-MGA
0.11
0.1
0.09
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.
82
KF-BFO
80 KF-MGA
78
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.
P hase,deg.
65
KF-BFO
60 KF-MGA
55
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.
P hase,deg.
50
KF-BFO
45 KF-MGA
40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.
105
Figures 4.6 and 4.7 compare the estimation of fundamental, 3rd, 5th, 7th and
11th harmonics components of signal respectively using both KF-BFO and KF-
MGA algorithms. Comparison shows that KF-MGA outperforms over KF-
BFO in each case of estimation. Figures 4.8 show a comparative estimation of
phases of fundamental, 3rd and 5th, harmonics components signal using both
KF-BFO and KF-MGA algorithms. KF-MGA gives more correct estimation
compared to KF-BFO in this Figure 4.9.
1.2
KF-BFO
KF-MGA
1
0.8
MSE
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Sample No.
Table 4.3 compares the simulation results obtained by the proposed KF-MGA
algorithm with KF-BFO, Genetic Algorithm (GA) and BFO [70]. The final
harmonics parameters obtained with the proposed approach exhibit the best
estimation precision where the largest amplitude deviation is 2.6 occurred at
106
the 11th harmonics estimation and the largest phase angle deviation is 1.53580
occurred at the 3rd harmonics estimation. The computational time of estimation
using KF-MGA is the smallest (8.642 sec.)
107
To evaluate the performance of the KF-MGA algorithm in the estimation of a
signal in the presence of sub-harmonics and inter-harmonics, a sub-harmonic
and two inter-harmonics components are added to the original signal. The
frequency of sub- harmonic is 20 Hz, the amplitude is set to be 0.505 p.u. and
the phase is equal to 75 degrees. The frequency, amplitude and phase of one of
the inter-harmonic is 130 Hz, 0.25p.u. and 65 degrees respectively. The
frequency, amplitude and phase of the other inter-harmonic is 180 Hz, 0.35p.u.
and 20 degrees respectively.
0.6
Ampl., P.U.
0.5 KF-BFO
KF-MGA
0.4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.
0.4
Ampl., P.U.
KF-BFO
0.3 KF-MGA
0.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.
0.4
Ampl., P.U.
KF-BFO
0.35 KF-MGA
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.
108
much perfect with most of the sample converge towards the reference value in
each case of estimation.
N
( y (k ) - y (k )) 2
k 1
N
100
y (k )
k 1
2
Where y (k ) and y (k ) are actual and estimated signals, respectively. In this
case, the significance of the performance index is that it provides the
accuracy of the estimation algorithm. Small value of corresponds to more
accurate estimation and vice versa.
109
set on normal working day of the laboratory as per the experimental setup
shown in Fig. 4.11.
110
Rheostat
415 V Rectifier Load
100, 5A (Three Phase
1500 rpm
Diode Bridge)
DG Set
20
A m p litu d e in v o lt.
actual
15 KF-BFO
KF-MGA
10
-5
-10
-15
-20
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Sample No.
Chapter 5
Development of Control Strategies for Harmonics Elimination using
Shunt Active Power Filter
5.1 Introduction
112
In recent decades, there are many studies about the issue of Harmonics and its
mitigation technique in power system. Due to the Vast application of non
linear load such as Ballasts used in Fluorescent tubes, static power converters,
AC voltage governors (low power) used for light dimmers and small induction
motors correct phase angle, Metal diminution operation, HVDC utilize large
power converters, Switch mode power supplies(SMPS), small uninterruptible
power supplies(UPS) units, Three phase loads (Variable speed drives, ,Large
UPS Units) etc, causes harmonics in the distribution system [97-98][120] and
the harmonics currents causes over heating of transformer, over loading of
neutral, un necessary tripping of circuit breaker, over-stressing of power factor
correction capacitors, skin effects etc. [100], and hampers the quality of
power, So the improvement of power quality is necessary at the present age.
Initially Passive filters, capacitors banks are used for harmonic elimination
and power factor improvement respectively. But it has associated with some
disadvantages like large size, bulky nature, resonance phenomenon etc. To
overcome this disadvantages power engineers developed several types of APF
[100][122]. A brief discussion of several types harmonics filter used for
harmonics mitigation and its principle of operation discussed here.
5.2Types of Harmonics Filter
The power system needs harmonics filter to avoid the harmonics and to
increase the system efficiency. Harmonics filters are mainly classified in to
three types.
1. Passive filter
2. Active filter
3. Hybrid filter
Tuned filters:
To filter out the particular harmonics frequency from the system Tuned filters
are used
114
Fig.5.2. Double tuned filter
High pass filter: High pass filter posses the characteristics of offering low
Fig. 5.4 shows a C-type high pass filter in which a capacitor is connected in
series with the inductor to provide low impedance path for low frequencies.
115
Fig.5.4 C-type high pass filter
Pure active filters can be classified into two types according to their circuit
configuration
In CSI based APF, a CSI is connected at PCC through second order low pass
filter made up of LF and CF as shown in Fig. 5.6. Current source of the inverter
is replaced by a high DC side inductor [123]. In CSI all the semiconductor
switches must support unipolar current and bipolar voltage. Earlier researchers
were using Gate Turn-Off (GTO) thyristor with reverse blocking capabilities.
But recently to enhance research on CSI, Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
(IGBT) with a series diode is used.
117
Fig.5.6 Block diagram of VSI based shunt active power filter
The series active filter is series connected with the power supply. This filter
controls on the basis of “Feedback” manner. The block diagram of a series
active power filter is shown in the fig.5.8.
118
Fig.5.8. Schematic diagram of series active filter
Hybrid filters are based on the combination of active filters and passive filters.
Such a combination with the passive filter makes it possible to significantly
reduce the rating of the active filter. The task of the active filter is not to
compensate for harmonic currents produced by the thyristor rectifier, but to
achieve “harmonic isolation” between the supply and the load As a result, no
harmonic resonance occurs, and no harmonic current flows in the supply.
Series connection of active filter and passive filter to form a hybrid filter is
shown in the Fig.5.9 and series connection of active filter and shunt passive
filter is shown in Fig.5.10. To provide viable and effective solutions to
harmonic filtering of high-power rectifiers However, they have difficulty in
finding a good market because of the necessity of the transformer and the
complexity of the passive filter. A schematic diagram of the Harmonics
mitigation filter and principle operation of Shunt active power filter is shown
in the Fig.5.11 and Fig.5.12 respectively.
119
Fig.5.9 Series connection of an active filter and a passive filter
Fig. 5.10 Combination of series active filter and shunt passive filter
120
Harmonics Mitigation Filter
C-Type High
pass filter
Shunt APF
Single Tuned Double Tuned
121
1-Phase or 3- Interfacing Inductor/Transformer Non linear load
Phase Supply
System Variable
Power Circuit Interference
Detection
Reference
Over all System Controller
Signal
Estimator
122
In this Chapter, First a novel controller that uses an indirect current controller
in conjunction with Proptional Integral (PI) controller or Fuzzy Logic
Controller (FLC) with different fuzzy rule has been adapted. The indirect
current controller with FLC is used to estimate peak reference current besides
maintaining the DC side capacitor voltage of the inverter nearly constant.
Current Controller based pulse width modulation (CCPWM) is used to
generate the switching signals of voltage source inverter. A two-level
Hysteresis Current Control (HCC) in conjunction with synchronous detection
technique is applied to SAPF in a three-phase distribution system. In order to
mitigate harmonics produced by the nonlinear load connected in a three-phase
distribution system, a three-phase insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)
based current controlled voltage source inverter (CC VSI) with a dc bus
capacitor is used as an Active Power Filter. The first step is to calculate SAPF
reference currents from the sensed nonlinear load currents by applying the
synchronous detection method and then the reference currents are fed to the
proposed controller for generation of switching signals. Various simulation
results are presented to verify the good behavior of the SAPF with proposed
two levels HCC. For verification of Shunt Active Power Filter in real time, the
proposed control algorithm has been implemented in laboratory developed
setup in dSPACE platform
123
5.3 Proposed Shunt Active Filter For Single Phase System
D2
Ls D1
source
D4
D3
The basic components of a shunt active power filter are a single-phase full-
bridge voltage-source PWM Inverter, a DC bus Capacitor and an Inductor
.The Inverter is connected to the power supply network through the inductance
of the inductor which ensures first the controllability of the currents in the
active filter and secondly it acts as a first-order passive filter attenuating high
frequency ripples generated by the inverter. The proposed model for our work
is given in Figure 5.13 and the magnitude of the parameters associated with
the proposed filter is given in Table 5.1.The SPSAPF is connected parallel
with the single phase line where the non –linear load is connected, due to the
non-linearity behavior of the load harmonics are generated in the system and
124
the filter cancels the effect of harmonics by generating the same magnitude of
harmonics current but having opposite phase with it.
125
developed to use as controller for many power electronics system and active
power filter application [106-108].
5.4.1 Reference source current generation
V*dc
Sin θs +
PI or Fuzzy
Logic Vdc
Controller
-
+
i*
Multiplier Low pass filter 2 Multiplier s
iL
+
Triangular Wave
-
S1
i*
s
Not S4
+
Current Control Limiter
- S3
+ -1
- Not S2
+
is
126
The frequency domain methods include, Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT),
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), sliding DFT (SDFT) and Recursive Discrete
Fourier Transform (RDFT) based methods. The frequency domain methods
require large memory and computation power .On the other hand, the time
domain methods require less calculation and are widely followed for
computing the reference current. Mostly used time domain methods are
synchronous reference (d-q-0) theory, instantaneous real-reactive power (p-q)
theory [109], Multiplication with sine function [108] etc. The systematic steps
adopted for indirect control technique in conjunction with PI controller and
Fuzzy Logic Controller used for Extraction of current references shown in the
fig.5.14.
Now we can see that the load current consists of two parts Fundamental load
current and load current with harmonics again the fundamental load current
consists of two parts
I L S I Lf + I Lh (5.3)
I Lf =Fundamental Part of the Load current,
127
I Lf Consists of two parts i,e active part and reactive part
Signal respectively
The Fundamental active Current
I Lfa I L1Cos1Sin S (5.5)
The design of dc bus voltage Vdc is used in control loop and should be
regulated at a set Value Vdcref .The dc side capacitor voltage is sensed, then
compared with a reference value .The signal error of comparison between the
sensed voltage ( Vdc ) and its reference ( Vdcref ) is the input signal of the fuzzy
regulator. The output of this regulator is considered as the peak value of line
current ( I SMax ).
128
5.4.2 PI Controller
A Proportional- Integral (PI) controller is used to control the DC link capacitor
voltage as well as to estimate peak value of reference source current for the
proposed Shunt active power filter (SAPF). The DC side capacitor voltage is
sensed and compared with a reference voltage. This error e Vdc , ref - Vdc at the
nth sampling instant is used as input for PI controller. The error signal is
passed through Butterworth design based Low Pass Filter (LPF). The LPF
filter has cutoff frequency at 50 Hz that can suppress the higher order
components and allows only fundamental components. Its transfer function is
represented as H S K P + K I / S , where, K P is the proportional constant that
determines the dynamic response of the Dc-side voltage control and KI is the
integration constant that determines the settling time. The steady state error in
the DC-side voltage is eliminated by the Controller.
Fuzzy logic control is derived from fuzzy set theory introduced by Zadeh in
1965. It is one of the soft computing tools that can take automatic decisions
like human beings. In order to implement the control algorithm of a shunt
active filter in closed loop, the dc side capacitor voltage is sensed and then
compared with a reference value. The obtained error ( e Vdcref - Vdc ) and
Change of error signal ce( n) e( n) - e( n - 1) at the nth sampling instant are
used as input for the fuzzy processing. The output of the fuzzy controller after
a limit is considered as the amplitude of the reference current I S max .For
controlling the DC voltage fuzzy logic based controller has been adopted for
our work, Shunt active power filter dc bus capacitor voltage is an Important
129
parameter to be controlled, if this control is not done properly, source current
will deteriorate and lapse from sinusoidal wave form and affect the system
seriously, Since fuzzy control rules are derived from a heuristic knowledge of
system behavior,[106], [107] Mathematical modeling and complex
computation are not needed,[128], [140] Simplicity of fuzzy control is based
on using human like linguistic terms in the form of IF-THEN rules to capture
the non-system dynamics,[140] The fuzzy logic controller which is used to
regulate the dc bus capacitor voltage is sensed using a voltage sensor and
compared with the set reference voltage (v dc Ref),Input variables of the fuzzy
controller are capacitor voltage error (e),and change in voltage error (∆e) at
the kth sampling time, The rule table for the designed fuzzy controller is given
in the Table 5.1&5.2 respectively, which is used in our works followed by
[160]. For two inputs we took seven membership functions, derived 49 rules
and for the same two inputs we took five membership functions and derived
25 rules. The block diagram of the systematic operation of Fuzzy Logic
Controller is shown in the Fig.5.15.
Knowledge Base Rule Base
Reference
Output
e Fuzzification Inference Defuzzification Plant
Sensor
Below Figures 5.15-5.17 shows the Input variable, Input variable error, output
variable and fuzzy structure for 7/7 rule
130
Fig5.15 7/7 input variable
∆e
NB NM NS ZE PS PM PB
e
NB PB PB PM PM PS PS ZE
NM PB PM PM PS PS ZE NS
NS PM PM PS PS ZE NS NS
ZE PM PS PS ZE NS NS NM
PS PS PS ZE NS NS NM NM
PM PS ZE NS NS NM NM NB
PB ZE NS NS NM NM NB NB
Below Figures 5.18-5.20 shows the Input variable, Input variable error, output
variable of fuzzy structure for 5/5 rule.
131
Fig.5.18 5/5 input variable
∆e NB NS ZE PS PB
e
NB NB NB NB NS ZE
NS NB NB NS ZE PS
ZE NB NS ZE PS PB
PS NS ZE PS PB PB
PB ZE PS PB PB PB
132
This section presents the details of the simulation carried out to demonstrate
the effectiveness of the proposed control strategy of the shunt active filter for
harmonics elimination and reactive power compensation, the test system
consists of a single-phase supply connected to a non-linear load with series
RL, SPSAPF is cconnected to the test system through an inductor L, the
values of the circuit elements used in simulations are given in Table 5.1.
MATLAB/SIMULINK is used to simulate the test system and the proposed
active filters. The simulation was conducted under three different conditions
that is Without APF, with Hysteresis current control and hysteresis fuzzy
combined control along with different fuzzy rule, the Comprehensive
simulation results are presented below.
133
40
Il(A m p) 20
-20
-40
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
200
100
V s(V olt)
-100
-200
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Time in Sec
Fig.5. 21 without active power filter
134
hysteresis current control technique is shown in Fig.5.24, the THD is reduced
from 20.64% to 7.63%.
20
il [A ]
-20
40 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
20
is [A ]
-20
-40
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
200
V s [V ]
-200
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
Time [s]
135
fuzzy hysteresis combined current control technique along with 5/5 fuzzy rule
is shown in Fig.5.26, The THD is reduced from 20.64% to 5.24%.
20
il [A ]
-20
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
20
is [A ]
-20
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
200
V s [V ]
-200
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
Time [s]
Fig.5.26 FFT Analysis of Source current of the simulated wave form of SAPF with Fuzzy Logic Controller
(5/5) rule
5.5.4 Simulation results of shunt Active Power Filter (SAPF) with
hysteresis fuzzy combined control technique (7/7) fuzzy rule.
The load current I L , Compensating current IC , Supply current IS and Supply
voltage VS are shown in Fig.5.27.The harmonic spectra of the supply current
136
of shunt active filter with fuzzy hysteresis combined current control technique
along with 7/7 fuzzy rule is shown in Fig.5.28, The THD is reduced from
23.6% to 1.48%.
20
il [A ]
-20
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
20
is [A ]
-20
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
200
V s [V ]
-200
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
Time [s]
Fig.5.27 Simulated wave form of SAPF with Fuzzy Logic Controller (7/7) Rule
Fig.5.28 FFT Analysis of Source current of the simulated wave form of SAPF with Fuzzy Logic Controller
(7/7) Rule
Table 5.4: Comparison of THD reduction for each order of harmonics
137
5th 1.967 1.456 0.6222 0.1542
139
produce bad harmonic performance, by varying the hysteresis band its
performance can be improved to get a fixed switching frequency.
There are different types of Hysteresis current controllers available like two-
level hysteresis current controller and three-level hysteresis current controller.
This work covers two-level hysteresis current controller for the proposed
active power line conditioner. The hysteresis current control (HCC) scheme
[116-117] is based on a nonlinear control as shown in Fig.5. 30. The actual
currents i ca , icb , icc injected by the inverter are compared with the reference
currents (ica , icb , icc ) Resulting
* * *
a error current, which is fed to the hysteresis
comparator in order to produce six switching gate pulses as shown in Fig.5.31,
The error current swings between the upper and lower hysteresis bands as
presented in Fig.5.32, During the up and down movement of the actual
current, when it touches the upper hysteresis limit of comparator-a, let the
comparator output is 0 and the switching state of phase-a is being assumed as
S1= 0 and S2 =1. Similarly when the actual current reaches the lower
hysteresis limit of the same comparator, the switching state of the phase-a
reverses, similar procedure can be followed for switching state of other two-
phases as shown in Fig.5.30.
The switching frequency of this control strategy can be determined as follows.
Referring to Fig.6.3, at any point of time if we resolve the rate of change of
phase current can be written as
dI I 2V IL
dc t (5.10)
dt t L 2Vdc
140
In the equation (5.10) 2Vdc depends on switching state of inverter, rate of
change of inverter current is represented as I ,rate of change in current in
time period is t .In the hysteresis band complete switching cycle is from
0 t1 T
+ IL
t1 (5.11)
2Vdc
- IL
T - t1 (5.12)
- 2Vdc
By combining both the equations, total switching time can be written as:
2
1 V V
f s dc f max dc (5.13)
T ILV dc IL
141
Fig.5.30 Block diagram of the hysteresis current control
142
compensation. The following steps are used for generation of reference signal.
The three-phase Source voltage can be given as:
I Lb (t ) I bn sin(t - bn - 120 0 )
(5.18)
N
I Lc (t ) I cn sin(t - cn - 240 0 )
n 1 (5.19)
Step 1:
The 3-phase instantaneous power (P3∅) in the proposed system can be written
as
v sa i La + v sb i Lb + v sc i Lc p a + pb + p c Vma sin t I an sin(t - an ) + Vmb sin(t - 120 0 ) I bn sin(t - bn - 1
n 1 n 1
+ Vmc sin(t - 240 0 ) I cn sin(t - cn - 240 0 )
n 1
(5.20)
Step-2:
The instantaneous power is passed through low pass filter (LPF), which blocks
higher order frequency component and only fundamental component is
obtained from the output of LPF.
Pfund Vma sin tI a1 sin(t - a1 ) + Vmb sin(t - 120 0 ) I b1 sin(t - b1 - 120 0 ) + Vmc sin(t - 240 0 ) I C1
Vma I a1
sin(t - c1 - 240 0 ) cos a1 - cos(2t + a1 ) + Vmb I b1 cos b1 - cos(2t + b1 ) + Vmc I c1
2 2 2
cos c1 - cos(2t + c1
(5.21)
143
Step 3:
The average fundamental power in 3-phase is given by
T
1 Vma I a1 V I V I
Pav
T P
0
fund dt
2
cos a1 + mb b1 cos b1 + mc c1 cos c1
2 2
(5.22)
Step 4:
Using equation (5.23), the average power per phase can be written as
VI
Pav ph cos 1 (5.24)
2
Let I cos 1 I m Maximum amplitude per phase fundamental current
2 Pav ph
Im (5.25)
V
Step 5:
The Load current contains Fundamental, reactive and harmonic parts; if the
active power filter can be able to compensate the total reactive and harmonics
parts then the source current waveform will be Sinusoidal.
The fundamental component of the load current can be given as
I Fa I m sin t (5.26)
I Fb I m sin(t - 120 0 ) (5.27)
I Fc I m sin(t - 240 0 ) (5.28)
The expression of reference current for shunt active power filter in each phase
144
* * *
ica , icb , icc
*
ica I La - I Fa (5.29)
*
icb I Lb - I Fb (5.30)
*
icc I Lc - I Fc (5.31)
After getting the reference current ,it is compared with the actual current by
using hysteresys current comparator to generate six switching pulses,which
are used to control the IGBT either by turning ON or OFF
5.8 Simulation Results and Analysis of three phase system
400
S o u rc e V o lta g e ( V )
Phase A
300 Phase B
Phase C
200
100
-100
-200
-300
-400
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time (sec.)
146
6
Phase A
L o a d C u rre n t ( A )
Phase B
4 Phase C
-2
-4
-6
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time (sec.)
C o m p e n s a tin g C u rre n t ( A )
100
Phase A
80 Phase B
Phase C
60
40
20
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time (sec.)
80
S o u rc e C u rre n t ( A )
Phase A
60 Phase B
Phase C
40
20
-20
-40
-60
-80
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time (sec.)
147
THD= 29.29%
9
Mag(% of Fundamental)
6
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Harmonic order
THD= 3.76%
3
Mag(% of Fundamental)
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Harmonic order
500
Phase A
400 Phase B
phase C
300
200
100
-100
-200
-300
-400
-500
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time (sec.)
20
Phase A
15 Phase B
phase C
10
-5
-10
-15
-20
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time (sec.)
149
C o m p e n s a ti n g C u r r e n t ( A )
80
Phase A
60 Phase B
Phase C
40
20
-20
-40
-60
-80
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time (sec.)
100
Phase A
80
Phase B
60 Phase C
40
20
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time (sec.)
Fig. 5.35 (d) Source current under unbalanced condition after compensation using SAPF
THD= 22 . 97%
6
Mag(% of Fundamental)
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Harmonic order
Fig.5.36 (a) FFT Analysis of Source current spectrums without SAPF of Phase A
150
THD= 24.74%
9
Mag(% of Fundamental) 7
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Harmonic order
Fig.5.36 (b) FFT Analysis of Source current spectrums without SAPF of Phase B
THD= 23 .56%
12
M ag(% of Fundamental)
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Harmonic order
Fig.5.36 (c) FFT Analysis of Source current spectrums without SAPF of Phase C
THD= 2 .41%
1.8
1.6
1.4
Mag(% of Fundamental)
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Harmonic order
Fig.5.37 (a) FFT Analysis of Source current spectrums with SAPF of Phase A
151
Table 5.8Comparison of source current in THD for unbalanced load
152
amplification. Waveforms are taken by oscilloscope through digital to analog
converter port of dSPACE to avoid noises.
R
L
Nonlinear C
Load V
C
I
O
I
L Inductor
IGBT Switches
I L
S (SKM 75 GB 123 D)
AC 4 IGBT Gate signals
I
Source IGBT Gate Drivers
(SKHI 22 AR )
V
S Control signals
Voltage sensor
V
C
circuit
( LV 25 -P )
I
S dSPACE 1104
Current sensor Control Board
I
O circuit
( LA 55 -P )
The FLC controlled Shunt active filter Simulink model is implemented [59]
[76]. The simulink file is automatically converted in a C-Code file by the real
time workshop (RTW) of dSPACE System. The c-code file becomes source
for the Real-Time Interference (RTI) of dSPACE System, which with the help
of a C Compiler/Linker, produces and downloads the machine code in the
controller board.
154
5.10 Chapter Summary
Performance of the shunt active filter using different control techniques is
evaluated through Indirect current controller with FLC, which is used to
estimate peak reference current besides maintaining the DC side capacitor
voltage of the inverter nearly constant Shunt active filter is investigated under
steady state condition with PI controller and Fuzzy logic controller with
different fuzzy rules such as 7/7 and 5/5. Comparative analysis of the
performance of shunt active power filter for balanced and unbalanced cases
are also presented. Simulation results show that the shunt active power filter is
able to minimize the harmonic contents in the phase A, phase B and Phase C
in three phase system. THD of supply current is minimized in all the three
phases by using the shunt active power filter with synchronous detection
technique. Prototype experimental setup is developed and proposed FLC with
7/7 rule is implemented for verifying its effectiveness in mitigating harmonic.
Chapter 6
Summary and Conclusions
155
6.1 Summary of the Work
156
Harmonics estimation of power system signal based on VLLMS
algorithm is developed. Power system signal is modeled in a parametric
form, then VLLMS algorithm is applied on this signal. The performance
of such a formulation is compared with other existing algorithms such
as RLS and LMS for several critical cases that often arise in a power
system, e.g., sudden change in amplitude of signal, in presence of sub
and inter-harmonics in the signal and also for dynamic signal. Finally,
harmonics estimation of laboratory generated signal i.e. across the
output of a single phase PWM inverter, using arduino due
microcontroller is also investigated. In all the cases, the performance of
the proposed VLLMS algorithm is found to be superior compared with
that of RLS and LMS algorithms.
Two new hybrid algorithms (KF-MGA and KF-BFO) for power system
harmonics estimation are suggestedfor the improvement in percentage
error in estimation, processing time in computation and performance in
presence of inter and sub-harmonic components. First input signal is fed
to either MGA or BFO algorithm. Unknown parameters (weight vectors
before initialization) are optimized using any one of the said algorithm.
Optimized output of MGA / BFO is taken as the initial values of
weights for KF algorithm. Then weights are updated using the steps of
KF algorithm. Fundamental as well as harmonic components are
estimated from final updated weights of KF. For estimation of
harmonics amplitudes and phases,both the algorithms effectively able to
track the fundamental and harmonic signals, the performance of
tracking using KF-MGA is better than KF-BFO but both the methods
157
can be used for online and offline estimation. A laboratory prototype is
developed for generation of power system data in order to validate the
efficacies of the proposed algorithm.
An indirect current controller with soft computing approach such as
Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC) with different fuzzy rules has been
implemented in single phase shunt active power filter for improvement
of power quality. The indirect current controller with FLC is used to
estimate peak reference current besides maintaining the DC side
capacitor voltage of the inverter nearly constant. Current Controller
based pulse width modulation (CCPWM) is used to generate the
switching signals of voltage source inverter. The filtering performance
of FLC based indirect current controller with different fuzzy rules such
as 7/7 and 5/5, is compared with PI controller. From the simulation
results, it is found that FLC controller having 7/7 rule base shows better
filtering performance as compared to 5/5 rule base. the effectiveness of
the hysteresis current control technique applied to Shunt Active Power
Filter (SAPF) for elimination of harmonics in a three-phase distribution
systemic presented. In order to mitigate harmonics produced by the
nonlinear load connected in a three-phase distribution system, SAPF
with two-level HCC is proposed. A three-phase insulated gate bipolar
transistor (IGBT) based current controlled voltage source inverter (CC
VSI) with a dc bus capacitor is used as an Active Power Filter.
Synchronous detection method is applied for reference current
generation and then the reference currents are fed to the proposed
controller in order to generate switching signals for VSI. Various
158
simulation results are presented to verify the good behavior of the SAPF
with proposed two levels HCC. Finally, a prototype experimental setup
is developed in laboratory, implementing FLC based indirect current
controller with 7/7 rule base in dSPACE 1104. Experimental results
validate the efficacy of the proposed FLC based indirect current
controller for improvement of power quality.
159
Critical analysis of tracking time, computational time and estimation
error of various estimation techniques applied to frequency and
harmonics estimation of power system signal.
Development of improved recursive Newton type algorithm (IRNTA)
for power system frequency estimation with introduction of parameter
updating technique to avoid short comings such as poor convergence
rate, more estimation error and more computational burden of the
conventional Recursive Least square algorithm (RLS) and Kalman
Filter (KF).Finally, frequency estimation of the laboratory data collected
from normal working day of a Laboratory and also industrial setup is
presented to prove the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm.
Development of a Variable Leaky Least Mean Square (VLLMS) based
algorithm for power system harmonics estimation. In the proposed
algorithm a leak adjustment technique is incorporated to avoid the
parameter drifting or the stalling problem to overcome short comings
such as poor convergence rate, more estimation error and more
computational burden of the conventional LMS and RLS. Finally,
harmonics estimation of the proposed algorithm is investigated in real
time application of a laboratory generated signal i.e. across the output
of a single phase PWM inverter, using arduino due microcontroller .
Developed two hybrid algorithms by hybridizing a signal processing
technique such as KF with optimization techniques such as BFO and
MGAfor improvement in percentage error in estimation, processing
time in computation and performance in presence of inter and sub-
harmonic components during harmonics estimation of a power system
signal.A comparative study of two proposed strategy for estimation of
160
harmonics is made to show the superiority in estimation performance in
case of KF-MGA. A laboratory prototype is developed for generation of
power system data in order to validate the efficacies of the proposed
algorithms.
An indirect current controller with a soft computing technique such as
FLC has been developed for power quality improvement in a single
phase system. The performance of FLC based controller is compared
with conventional PI controller in simulation results. AShunt Active
Power Filter (SAPF) with two-level Hysteresis Current Control (HCC)
technique along with synchronous detection method for improvement of
power quality in a three-phase distribution system is developed.The
efficacy of the proposed Fuzzy Logic Controller is also verified
experimentally implementing it in a dSPACE1104 platform.
6.3 Conclusions
162
applied with further comparative assessment of the methods presented
in the thesis.
References
1. V. Backmutsky, V. Zmuzdikov, A. Agizim, and G. Vaisman, “A New
DSP Method for Precise Dynamic Measurement of the Actual Power-Line
Frequency and its Data Acquisition Application,” Measurement, vol. 18,
no. 3, pp. 169–176, 1996
163
2. Djuric M.B., Djurisic, Z.R. “Frequency Measurement of Distorted
Signals Using Fourier and zero Crossing Techniques,” Electric. Power
Syst. Res, vol.78, no.8, pp. 1407–1415,2008
3. Duric, M.B and Durisic, Z.R “ Frequency Measurement in Power
Network in the Presence Of Harmonics using Fourier and Zero crossing
Technique,” Power Tech, 2005 IEEE Russia, pp.1-6, 27-30 June 2005
4. M.V.V.S.Yalla, A digital Multifunction protective relays, IEEE Trans.
Power Del, vol.7, no.1,pp.193-201,1992
5. N.T. Stringer “The effect of DC offset on current –operated relays,”
IEEE Trans. on Ind. App, vol.34, no.1, pp.30-34,1998
6. P.J.Moore, J.H. Allmeling and A.T.Johns “Frequency Relaying Based
on Instantaneous FrequencyMeasurment,” IEEE Trans.Power Del, vol.11,
no.4, pp.1737-742, 1996
7. T.S.Sidhu and M.S. Sachdev “An Iterative technique for fast and
accurate measurement of power system frequency,” IEEE Trans.on Power
Del, vol.13, no.1, pp.109-115,1998
8. G.Benmouyal “An adaptive sampling interval generator for digital
relaying” IEEETrans.Power Del, vol.4, no.3, pp.1602-1609, 1989
9. T.A.George and D.Bones “Harmonics power flow determination using
Fast Fourier Transform,” IEEE Trans. Power Del, vol.6, no.2, pp.530-535,
1991
10. L.L.Lai, C.T.Tse, W.L.Chan, and A.T.P.So, “ Real-Time Frequency and
Harmonics Evaluation Using Artificial Neural Networks” IEEE Trans.on
Power Del, vol.14, no.1, pp.52-59,Jan.1999
11. A.A. Girgis and F.M.Ham “A qualitative study of pitfalls in FFT,” IEEE
Trans.Aerosp.Electron.Sys, vol.16, PP.434-439, 1980
164
12. T.S.Sidhu “Accurate Measurement of Power System Frequency Using a
Digital Signal Processing,” IEEE Trans. on power Del ,vol.14, no.1,
pp.75-81, 1999
13. T.Lobos and J.Rezmer “Real-time Determination of power system
frequency” IEEE Trans. On Instrumentation and Measurement, vol.46,
no.4, pp.877-881, 1997
14. Jin Kwon Hwang, Penn N.Markham “Power system frequency
estimation by reduction of noise using three digital filter,” IEEE Trans. on
instrumention and Measurement ,vol.63, no.2, pp.402-409, 2014
15. Tomas Radil, PedroM.Ramos, A.Cruz Serra “New Spectrum Leakage
Correction Algorithm for Frequency Estimation of Power System Signals,”
IEEE Trans.on Instrumentation and Measurement ,vol.58, no.5, pp.1670-
1679, 2009
16. Arghya sarkar and SamarjeetSengupta “Bandpass Second-degree
Digital –integrator based power system frequency estimation under non
sinusoidal conditions,” IEEE Trans.on Instrumentation and measurement,
vol.60, no.3, pp.846-851, 2011
17. H.Karini, M. Ghartemani, M.R.Iravani “ Estimation of frequency and
its rate of change for applications in power systems”Power Engineering
Society General Meeting,IEEE , vol.2, pp. 13-17, 2003
18. P.J.Moore, R.D.Carranza, A.T.Johns “ Model system Test on a new
Numeric Method of power system frequency measurement,” IEEE Trans.
on Power Del, vol.11, no.2, pp.696-701,1996
19. Mohsen Mojiri and Alireza Bakhahai “Robust Adaptive Frequency
Estimation of Three-Phase Power Systems,” IEEE Trans.On
Instrumentation and Measurement ,vol.59, no.7, pp. 1793-1802, 2010
20. WuJiekang, Long Jun, WangJixiang “High-Accuracy Wide-Range
Frequency estimation methods for power system signals under
165
nonsinusodial Conditions” IEEE Trans.on power Del, vol.20, no.1, pp.
366-374. 2005
21. YiliXia, DaniloP.Mandie “Widely Linear Adaptive Frequency
estimation of unbalanced Three-phase power systems,” IEEE Trans. on
Instrumentation and Measurement, vol.61, no.1, pp.74-83, 2012
22. Bernard Widrow “Thinking about Thinking: The Discovery of the LMS
Algorithm,” IEEE Signal processing Magazine, pp.100-103, 2005
23. A.K.Pradha, A.Routray, Abir Basak “Power System Frequency
Estimation Using Least Mean Square Technique,” IEEE Trans. On Power
Del, vol.20, no.3, pp.1812-1816, 2005
24. P.K.Ray, B.D.Subudhi, S.Ghosh “Variable leaky least mean-square
algorithm based on power system frequency estimation,” IET
Sci.Meas.Technol, vol.6, no.4, pp.288-297, 2012
25. Bernard Widrow, John McCool, and Michael Ball “The Complex LMS
Algorithm” Proceeding of the IEEE , Vol.63, no.4, pp.719-720, 1975
26. P.K.Dash, A.K.Pradhan and G.Panda “Frequency Estimation of
Distorted Power System Signals Using Extended Complex Kalman Filter,”
IEEE Trans. on Power Del, vol.14, no. 3, pp. 761-766, 1999
27. B.Subudhi,P.K.Ray,S.R.Mohanty, A.M.panda “ A Comparative Study
of Different Power System Frequency Estimation Technique,” Int. J.
Automation and control,vol.3, no.2, pp.202-214,2009
28. Solim Abdel –Hady, A.M. A1-Kandari, R.A.Alammari “Linear Kalman
Filter Algorithm with Clarke Transformation for Power System Frequency
Estimation,” Global Journal of research in Engineering Electrical and
Electronics Engineering, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 524-534, 2012
29. Liangliang Li, Wei Xia, Dongyuan Shi and Jianzhuang Li “Frequency
Estimation on Power System Using Recursive-Least-Squares Approach,”
166
Proceedings of the International Conference on Information Technology
and Software Engineering, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-34522-7_2, Springer
30. P.K.Das, K.R.Krishnanand, M.Padhee, “Fast recursive Gauss-Newton
adaptive filter for the estimation of power system frequency and harmonics
in a noisey environment,” IET Generation,Transmission,Distribution,
vol.5, no.12, pp.1277-1289, 2011
31. M.Gupta, S.Srivastava and J.R.P.Gupta “Power system frequency
estimation using neural network and genetic algorithm,” Proceedings of
Joint International Conference on Power System Technology and IEEE
Power India Conference, POWERCON, pp. 12-15 2008
32. M.Gupta “ A Faster Estimation Algorithm Applied to Power Quality
Problems,” International Journal of Engineering science and
Technology ,vol.2, no.9, pp. 4448-4461, 2010
33. A.Soundarrajan, S.Sumathi,G.Sivamurugan “ Hybrid Evolutionary
Algorithm for frequency and voltage Control in power generating System,”
ICTACT Journal on soft Computing, vol.2, pp.88-97, 2010
34. P.K.Ray, B.Subudhi, A.M.Panda “Hybrid Signal processing and soft
computing approaches to power system frequency estimation,”
International Journal of computer and Communication Technology
(IJCCT), vol.2, no.4, pp.16-20, 2011
35. A. K. Deb, Jayadeva, M. Gopal, and Suresh Chandra “SVM-Based
Tree-Type Neural Networks as a Critic in Adaptive Critic Designs for
Control,” IEEE Trans. On Neural network, vol.18, no.4, pp.1016-1030,
2007
36. MaamarBettayeb and UvaisQidwai “A Hybrid Least Squares-GA-Based
Algorithm for Harmonic Estimation” IEEE Transactions on Power
Delivery, vol.18, no.2, pp.377-382, 2003
167
37. Y. R. Sood, N. P. Padhy and H. O. Gupta “ Discussions of Optimal
Power flow by Enhanced Genetic algorithm,” IEEE Trans. on Power
System, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 1219-1219, 2003.
38. P.K.Ray, B. Subudhi “BFO optimized RLS algorithm for power system
harmonics estimation, Applied soft computing, vol.12, no.8, pp.1965-1977,
2012
39. P.K.Ray “Signal Processing and soft Computing approaches to power
signal frequency and harmonics estimation,” Ph.D Thesis.
40. S.A. Soliman , R.A. Alammari , M.E. El-Hawary ‘Frequency and
harmonics evaluation in power network using fuzzy regression technique’
Electric Power System Research, vol. 66, pp. 171-177., 2003
41. Liu K “Identification of linear time-varying systems” J Sound Vib,
vol.206, no.4, pp.487-505,1997
42. Sp Spiridonakos MD, Fassois SD. “Parametric identification of a time-
varying structure based on vector vibration response measurements”
Mechan SystSignal Process, vol. 23, no.6, pp.2029–2048. 2009
43. Vladimir. V. Terzija “Improved Recursive Newton-Type Algorithm for
Frequency and Spectra Estimation in Power systems,” IEEE Trans. On
Instrumentation and Measurement, vol.52, no.5, pp.1654-1659, 2003
44. Girgis AA, Peterson WL “Adaptive estimation of power frequency
deviation andits rate of change for calculating sudden power system
overloads” IEEE Trans.Power Del, vol.5, pp.585-594, 1990
45. Goursat M, Dohler M, Mevel L, Andersen P “ Crystal clear SSI for
operational modal analysis of aerospace vehicles” In: Structural dynamics,
proceedings of the 28th international modal analysis conference (IMAC),
vol. 3. pp. 1421–30, 2010
168
46. R. Chudamani, K. Vasudevan, and C. S. Ramalingam, "Real-Time
Estimation of Power System Frequency Using Nonlinear Least Squares,"
IEEE Trans. on Power Del, vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 1021-1028, 2009.
47. P. K. Dash, S. Hasan, and B. K. Panigrahi, "Adaptive complex
unscented Kalman filter for frequency estimation of time-varying signals,"
IET Science, Measurement & Technology, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 93-103, 2010.
48. C. Gherasim, J. Van den Keybus, J. Driesen, and R. Belmans, "DSP
implementation of power measurements according to the IEEE trial-use
standard 1459," IEEE Trans. on Instrumentation andMeasurement, vol. 53,
no. 4, pp. 1086-1092, 2004.
172
80. Girgis. A, Chang, W.B and Makram.E.B “A digital recursive
measurement scheme for on-line trackingof power system
harmonic,”IEEE Trans.power Del, vol.6, no.3, p p.1153-1160,
1998
83. Cai Tao, DuanShanxu, Ren Ting and Liu Fangruli “ A robust parametric
method forpower harmonics estimation based on M-estimators,”
Measurement, vol.43, no.1,pp. 67-77, 2010
88. Julio Barros and Enrique Pérez “Automatic Detection and Analysis of
Voltage Events in Power Systems,” IEEE Transactions on
Instrumentation and Measurement, vol. 55, no. 5, pp. 1487-1493, 2006
90. P.K.Ray and B. Subudhi “ Ensemble Kalman Filter based Power System
Harmonics Estimation,” IEEE Trans. on Instrumentation and
Measurement, vol. 61, no. 12, pp. 3216-3224, 2012
91. Dong Hwa Kim, Ajith Abraham, Jae Hoon Cho “A hybrid genetic
algorithm and bacterial foraging approach for global optimization,”
Information Science, vol.177, pp.3918-3937, 2007
174
94. T. Hoya, Y. Loke, J. A. Chambers and P.A. Naylor “Application of
Leaky Extended LMS (XLMS) Algorithm in Stereophonic Acoustic Echo
Cancellation,” Signal Processing, vol. 64, no. 1, pp. 87-91, 1998
98. H.Fujita and H.Akagi “The Unified Power Quality Conditioner: the
Integration of Series and Shunt Active Filters,” IEEE Trans. Power
Electronics, vol.13, no. 2, pp. 315-322, 1998
175
100. B Singh, K.A1-Haddad, A. Chandra “A Review of Active Filters for
Power Quality Improvement,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron, vol.46, pp. 960-
971, 1999
176
106. P. Kumar and A. Mahajan, “Soft computing techniques for the control
of active power filter,” IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 24, no. 1, pp.
452–461, 2009
107. J. Dixon, J. Contardo, L. Moran “DC link fuzzy control for an active
power filter, sensing the line current only,” in Proc. IEEE Power Eng.
Soc. Com, pp. 1109–1113, 1997.
177
control and resonant controller,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron, vol.60, no. 7,
pp. 2721-2730, 2013.
113. Wu CJ, Chiang JC, Yen SS, Liao CJ, Yang JS, Guo TY. Investigation
and Mitigation of harmonics amplification problems caused by single-
tuned filter, IEEE Trans Power Del 1998:800-6.
178
118. Abdelhafid Semmah , Ahmed Massoum , Patrice Wira “Improvement of
PWM Rectifier Performances Using Direct Power Control and Fuzzy
Logic Theory,” Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, vol.7,
no.4, pp.297-303, 2013
179
Estimation,” Electric Power System Research, vol.79, no.5, pp. 705-713,
2009
132. Kuo-Kai Shyu, Ming-Ji Yang, Yen-Mo Chen, Yi-Fei Lin, “Model
reference adaptive control design for shunt active power filter system,”
IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 55, no. 1, pp. 97–106, 2008.
133. Siew-Chong Tan, Y.M. Lai, C.K. Tse “A unified approach to the design
of PWM-base sliding mode controller for basic DC-DC converters in
continuous conduction mode,” IEEE Trans. circuits and systems, vol.53,
no.8, pp. 1816-1827, 2006.
135. S. Oucheriah, L. Guo “ PWM based adaptive sliding mode control for
boost DC-DC converters,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron, vol. 60, no. 8, pp.
3291–3300, 2013
181
138. M. A. Mahmud, H. R. Pota, M. J. Hossain “Dynamic stability of three
phase grid connected photovoltaic system using zero dynamic design
approach” IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 564–571, 2012
139. Wu CJ, Chiang JC, Yen SS, Liao CJ, Yang JS, Guo TY “Investigation
and Mitigation of harmonics amplification problems caused by single-
tuned filter,” IEEE Trans Power Del . vol.13, no.3, pp.800-806, 1998
140. Smitha Krishnan’ Lathika B.S “Shunt Active Power Filter Based on
Fuzzy-Hysteresis Controller,” for Electric Traction System 10th National
Conference on Technological Trends (NCTT09) , pp.161-166, 2009
143. S. K. Jain and S. N. Singh, “Exact Model Order ESPRIT Technique for
Harmonics and Interharmonics Estimation,” IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas,
vol. 61, no.7, pp. 1915-1923, July 2012
182
power system signals,” International Journal of Modeling, Identification
and Control, vol. 16, no. 2, pp.149–158, 2012
183
150. G.Panda, P.K.Ray, P.S.Puhan & S.Das “Novel schemes used for
estimation of power system harmonics and their elimination in a three-
phase distribution system International Journal of Electrical Power and
Energy Systems” vol.53, pp.842-856, 2013
Thank you
184
185