Ball and Claw Feet When combined with a cabriole leg, the ball and claw foot

is a well-known furniture support dating back to ancient

times. The industrial version is hardly recognizable—reason
How to carve them enough for every interested craftsman to develop his own.
Few amateurs are satisfied with their ball and claw carvings.
To illustrate the process, I've chosen cabriole legs with ball
by A. W. Marlow and claw feet made for a wing chair. To many craftsmen,
shaping cabriole legs is an uncertain process, but this step-by-
step procedure should be simple to follow. The ball and claw
foot on a tripod table requires the same basic carving cuts,
but the claw placement is different—the claws come in over
the ball horizontally for a more natural look.

The average blank size for a cabriole

leg, regardless of length, is in. by
in. To make a pattern, follow the line
drawing, which is laid out in 1-in. squares.
Place the pattern on a blank, as shown in
the drawing and the photo at right. Keep
the front knee curve toward the right-
angled front corner and outline in pencil.

Shaping a cabriole leg can be quite

simple when done on a band saw. Saw
the first surface as shown at right, ending
the cut before the waste piece is completely
severed. This keeps the second or right-
angled surface in place for the second cut.
After the second cut has been made, turn
the block back to the first surface and finish
sawing the short, uncut portions of each
curve.

The next step is physically a minor

one, but of major importance. With-
out it, the side claws look like wings sticking
out. The line drawing shows three full bot-
tom views of a leg as it is shaped. The first
view shows the leg as it comes from the
band saw. In the center drawing, a -in.
wedge has been removed from each side
claw to lessen the total width and give a
more pleasing and realistic appearance to
the finished foot. In the photo, a -in. #3
gouge is used to chip away the wedge of
wood. The third drawing adds the contour
of the ball and the veiner cuts made in the
next step.

Now hold a pencil or ball-point pen as

shown in the photo at right. Using
your middle finger as a bearing against the
wood, mark each side of each corner about
in. in from the edge. These are the guide
lines to follow when roughly positioning the
claws with a -in. #41 veining tool. Con-
tinue the V-cuts into the angle area (as in
the photo at far right), gradually lessening
them in depth. If these feet are being cut in
mahogany or walnut, you'll need a mallet
to cut the rough V's.
 The next step is to shape the ball and
claws. In the first photo the claws of
the foot have been narrowed closer to the
finished width and the ball has been cut
about halfway between rough and finished
condition. When cutting the ball, check fre-
quently to see that it is reasonably round,
because if any adjustment must be made,
the depth of the claws must follow
the ball radius. Up to this point, the claws
still retain the original band-saw outline
and must be trimmed down to an average
height of in. In the center photo the #3
gouge is used to trim the claws. Front and
back claws will need more trimming than
the sides, and the knuckles, of course, will
peak above the connecting bones.
In the last photo the ball of the foot has
been smoothed down to finished size and
radius. Also, the claws are another step
closer to finished shape, leaving only the
work of rounding bones and knuckles. The
back claw follows the ball contour until it
reaches the apparent knuckle immediately
above the cuticle and nail.

The foot in the photo at right shows
real promise of what to expect after a
little more work. Take time to carefully
round the claws from the ankle down to the
knuckle above the cuticle. Now check the
length of the nails. This dimension is not
crucial, but shoot for in. from the bottom
up to the cuticle where they will be about
in. wide by in. high. Before forming
the nail, use a medium-width #7 gouge to
press cross-grain over the top for a clean-cut
cuticle, shown on the extreme right. Down
the sides, instead of continuing to use the
#7, choose a medium-width #3 gouge and
press to clean-cut the full cuticle. Reduce
the nail size so the cuticle appears to overlap
the nail and taper the nail to about in. by
in. at the bottom.
Study the lower side claw in the photo.
Yours should now look like this except for
the slightly rounded depression between
cuticle and knuckle. That slight curve must
be made carefully, first from the knuckle
down, then from the cuticle upward, still
using the #3 gouge.
After nail cutting, pencil in the web
curve. As shown in the photo, the arc starts
and ends just above the lower knuckles, al-
though the placement is not critical. Some
carvers of old felt that the web should start
halfway between the knuckles.
Forming the web is a repeat performance
of cuticle cutting. A #4 gouge about in.
wide should be close to the needed radius.
Because of the larger area, tap the gouge
with a mallet for a clean parting cut. Make
tapered shaving cuts with a #3 gouge in the
area of the web line to raise the web about
in. above the ball. Look at and feel the or any adjustments in contour that would
ball for any bumps that should be removed improve its appearance.

So far, carving has ended at the ankle.

Use a spokeshave to round the leg cor-
ners. Start at nothing where the curve
swings into a wing block, to be attached
later. Increase the radius as the tool de-
scends, ending at the ankle in a near round.
Round the high point of all knuckles.
Sanding may be done thoroughly, or
slightly, leaving some tool marks. A
smooth-looking job calls for a first sanding
with 80-grit garnet paper followed by 120
grit. Wear rubber gloves to protect your
finger tips and nails. If carving is planned
for the knee, sand only to above the ankle.
Should the knee be plain, sand to it now.

Infinitely varied foliage patterns are

used on the knee for decoration. Lay
flexible pattern board over the knee surface
and outline the curves on the board as
shown at right. Then pencil in your choice
of design for carving. The photo at far right
shows what to strive for.

Andy Marlow, 74, a consulting editor for

Fine Woodworking, designs and makes
traditional furniture in York, Pa.
Cabriole Legs
Hand-shaped, without a lathe

by Philip C. Lowe

Cabriole legs, all characterized by the cyma or S-curve,

have taken various styles. The cabriole seems to have
evolved from the ancient practice of shaping the legs of furni-
ture after those of beasts, and so in Egyptian furniture you see
cabriole legs ending in rather literal animal feet. The Chinese
favored more abstract renditions. Chippendale, who borrowed
many of his ideas from the Chinese, popularized the ball-and-
claw foot, along with carved acanthus leaves decorating the
knee. To my eye, the sparest, most pleasing form of the cab-
riole is the Queen Anne, which terminates in a spoon foot,
also called a dub or dutch foot.
The leg involves methodical shaping with hand tools. Tra-
ditionally, slipper and trifid feet were also hand-shaped. The
spoon foot, however, was usually lathe-turned. But there are
those who don't have a lathe, and even for those who do, the
lathe has a disadvantage: it necessitates carrying the circular
perimeter of the foot all the way around, which interrupts the
flow of the line down the back of the ankle. Here
is how to design, lay out, cut and shape a Queen
Anne cabriole, with bandsaw (or bowsaw),
spokeshave, rasp and file.
Consider first the rough thickness of the lum-
ber you will use. Solid lumber is best, as laminate
lines will interrupt the wood's figure and look
offensive when the leg is cut. The most suitable
thicknesses for cabriole legs are 10/4, 12/4
and 16/4, depending on the length of the
leg and the size of the piece of furniture it
will support. I always figure the working
thickness of rough stock, after it is planed, to
be in. less than it is nominally. For a typi-
cal chair or low table, 12/4 stock, which will
yield in. of working thickness, is suitable.
You'll need a full-size drawing of the leg,
including the post block, knee, transition piece
(also called the knee block), ankle, and foot,
which is made up of the toe and pad (figure 1,
facing page). On a piece of paper, draw a rectan-
gle the length of the leg and in. smaller than
the rough thickness of your stock. Within this rec-
tangle draw the post block first, its length equal to
the width of the rail it will join, or, if the leg adjoins
a case, the width of the front, back or end. The
width of the post block depends on the thickness of
the tenons it will receive, as well as on the desired
curvature of the knee. For 12/4 stock, a -in.
square post block is common, readily accommo-
dating -in. thick tenons in -in. thick stock.
After laying out the post block, draw the
pad and foot. The pad diameter should be
about half the width of the blank. Its thick-
ness, from in. to in., depends partly on the
thickness of the carpet you expect your piece to stand on. The easier and more stable. Scribe the position of the mortises on
pad's function is to separate the lines of the leg from the the post block, and cut the mortises while the blank is still
floor. The height of the toe depends on the size of the leg, square; it's easier to hold square stock.
but on a chair or table leg it's usually in. to 1 in. from the Now, using a -in. blade, bandsaw the leg: Cut relief kerfs
floor. Sketch in the curves up to the ankle, whose diameter for the bridges first, then saw the post block, staying in,
should be about two-fifths the thickness of the leg blank. away from the scribe line. The post will be planed later, after
This narrowest part of the leg should fall at about three times it is attached to the rail. Saw the curve from knee to ankle,
the height of the toe. Next develop the knee, sketching a leaving the bridge between. Sawing right on the line will
curve that meets the bottom corner of the post block at about minimize spokeshaving later. Next, define the pad, cutting
a 45° angle; if it is more horizontal than that, it creates an straight in from the bottom of the blank first, then sawing
awkward shelf at the top of the knee. Aim for a tangency the curves at the bottom of the foot to meet these relief cuts.
point with the outside of the blank a distance from the post Finish sawing the back curve, and save both back-curve
block about three times the height of the toe. scraps. These have the pattern lines for the cut on the adjacent
Connect the knee to the ankle with a relatively straight face and should be tacked or taped back in place to saw
line. It is important that you understate any curve here be-
cause your drawing is in only one plane, and when the blank
is cut in two planes, the curve will be exaggerated. Draw the
line of the back of the leg, leading all the way up into the
transition piece. Keep this line relatively straight also, and see
that the leg thickens gradually and proportionally to the toe,
ankle and knee already drawn. The final curve into the transi-
tion piece should be relatively tight. If you regard the points
of tangency at the knee, ankle and toe, you may be surprised
at how much control you have in creating a pleasing shape.
Keep in mind, however, that this is only a two-dimensional
shape, and its final test will be in a solid piece of wood seen
from eye level as part of a whole piece of furniture. Restraint
at this stage promises a more pleasing leg in the end.
Next, make a permanent wooden pattern from your draw-
ing. Tape the drawing onto a piece of -in. plywood, and
with a large pin epoxied into a -in. dowel, stipple the out-
line of the leg onto the plywood, poking through the drawing
at -in. to -in. intervals. Connect the markings on the ply-
wood with a pencil. Repeat this procedure for the transition
piece, then cut out both patterns and file their curves smooth.
Prepare the stock next, starting with pieces 2 in. longer
than the sum of the two transition pieces (laid out above the
post block) plus the leg. Usually the grain of the transition
piece runs vertically, like that of the leg. Rip the stock to
width at least the dimension of your rough thickness. Joint
one face of the blank, either on the jointer or with a hand
plane, and then joint an edge square to it. Thickness-plane
the blank in. larger than the finished dimension, and put
the blank aside for a day or so, to give it time to warp in
response to any stresses milling may have introduced.
When you have all the leg blanks milled, consider their
grain orientation relative to one another. For visual compati-
bility, either the quarter grain or the flatsawn grain of each
blank should face front. Mark the inside corner of each blank,
and hand-plane the inside surfaces, removing mill marks and
making sure that the surfaces are square to one another. Fin-
ish thickness-planing the blanks: plane the outside surfaces
parallel to the inside. Crosscut the blanks to their finished
length, saving the offcuts for the transition pieces.
To begin layout, set a marking gauge to the width of the
post block, and scribe this width on the two inside surfaces
(figure 2). Trace the outline of the leg below the post block.
To keep the stock from rocking through the second bandsaw
cuts, I include in the layout of the leg a pair of bridges—one
at the top of the post, the other between the knee and toe. Bridges—one between the knee and toe, the other at the top of the
post block—keep the stock from rocking through the second band-
You could also tape the waste from the first cuts back on the saw cuts. Waste from the first cuts has been taped back in
stock before making the second cuts, but I find the bridges place, to provide layout lines for sawing on.
A pipe clamp mounted in the bench vise, above, makes an ideal holding
arrangement for working the length of the leg. Here a spokeshave fairs
the bandsawn curves, in preparation for the modeling layout.
it. After sawing this second surface, turn the blank back to
the first sawing position and saw off the bridges.
The next job is to fair the leg with a spokeshave, removing
all the bandsaw marks, bumps and hollows. It is important
here that the leg be kept square in section; irregularities are
more difficult to see and smooth once you begin rounding the
leg. Where the curves are tight and the spokeshave will not
reach, you can use a rasp or a file. The leg is now ready to be
laid out for final shaping.
Begin laying out the bottom, locating the center of the pad
by drawing two diagonal lines from the corners of the square
that will contain the pad, and scribing with a compass the
largest possible circle the square will contain. Divide each sur-
face of the underside of the foot into four equal sections: first
draw a line from the center of each side of the pad to the top
edge of the foot, then halve the distance between these lines
and the corners of the foot.
To lay out the guidelines for modeling the rest of the leg,
position a pencil point at the center of the ankle, and using
To draw modeling lines, the square for the pad is com-
passed round, and the other four surfaces are divided into
quarters, left. Then each leg surface is penciled with lines
parallel to the leg edges, above: two inside lines begin at
half the ankle thickness and two outside lines begin at one-
quarter the ankle thickness.
your middle finger as a depth gauge running on the stock
edge, draw lines from ankle to post block parallel to each
edge of the leg. There will be a total of eight lines, two on
each face. Reposition the pencil point halfway between these
lines and the edges, and draw eight more longitudinal lines.
Now the leg is ready to model.
Mount the leg bottom up in a vise, and saw the waste
away from the pad square to leave a regular octagonal shape
(figure 3A, facing page). Similarly, cut the corners off the toe
square, but leave the corner at the back of the leg, thus form-
ing only three-quarters of an octagon (figure 3B). Now use a
rasp to round the outline of the pad and the foot (figure 3C).
Check the shape of the foot periodically by looking down
from the knee to see that it is situated symmetrically in rela-
tion to the rest of the leg. When the outline is round, use the
rasp to fair the underside of the foot, from its perimeter to the
perimeter of the pad.
Modeling the rest of the leg requires attention to holding
it. As the surfaces become more curved, a bench vise becomes
 The steps for shaping the underside of
the leg yield a round pad and a round-
ed foot.

A rasp chamfers the corners of the lee to the outside layout lines, then rounds the leg to the inside
layout lines, as detailed in figure 4.

more frustrating. I clamp the blank lengthwise in a pipe or
bar damp and mount the damp in my bench vise. This af-
fords access to most of the leg's surfaces, and the blank is easy
to reposition. Use a rasp to chamfer all four corners to the
outside layout lines, from the ankle to the knee. This yields
an irregularly octagonal section of varying proportion, de-
pending on where it is along the length of the leg (figures 4A
and 4B). The flat should taper to nothing at the foot and at
the curve toward the transition piece. Next rasp the ankle
round (figure 4C). Continue rounding the rest of the leg to
the inside layout lines. The shape will become a square with
rounded corners as you approach the knee (figure 4D). Flare
the foot's top and back, to form a smooth-spreading curve.
When the leg is fair, remove the rasp marks with a file,
followed by a cabinet scraper. Then sand the leg, except for
the surfaces that will be blended into adjoining members.
The leg can now be joined to its aprons or case sides, after
which the outside faces of the post block are planed flush,
and the transition blocks are shaped and applied. Assuming
the rest of the furniture piece is assembled, crosscut the transi-
tion block into the two blanks and orient each so that its
grain (quarter or face) corresponds to the grain of the leg
surface it will become part of. Plane the edge and end of the
transition block for a close fit against the leg and the adjoin-
ing member (apron or case side). Position the pattern on the
block and draw on it the shape of the transition piece. Band-
saw the piece, and glue it to the leg and adjoining member. A
sharp, wide bench chisel then shapes the transition piece to
the contour of the knee, and the areas that have not been
sanded are sanded.
Phil Lowe operates a cabinet shop in Beverly, Mass., and
teaches cabinetmaking at North Bennet Street Industrial
School in Boston. For more on cabriole legs, their history
and other techniques for making them, see FWW #10,
pp. 55-59, and #18, pp. 76-83. If you're looking to buy
already made cabriole legs, contact Fallsview Studios,
165 Fairview Ave., High Falls, N.Y. 12440.
Cabriole Knees
The tools help design the carving
by Mack Headley

T
he leaf pattern on the cabriole leg shown here is an adap-
tation of one found on a chair from the 1740s. At that time
in the United States, as well as in England, there was gen-
eral agreement about what constituted good furniture design.
And in the 18th century, good design was almost always based on
the styles and forms of classical antiquity. But even within the
confines of these traditions, an individual carver could elaborate
or simplify the specific details, depending on his own notion of
the kind of carving that was appropriate for a certain piece.
Today it's not easy for us to fully understand the depth of classi-
cal education and taste in the 18th century, and it's difficult for us
to embrace the sensibility of the cabinetmakers (and their clients)
of that time. Yet the surviving works of the period, as seen in
museums and in the excellent books depicting such collections,
can serve as a pattern book for any carver. Even if you don't want
to duplicate the 18th-century work, these collections offer a re-
pository of design styles. And, a close study of these works gives
us a glimpse of the techniques used by these early carvers, who
had to meet demanding standards, yet still work efficiently
enough to make a living. For example, the shapes and sizes of the
tools available to the carver played a large role in determining
the design and the speed with which the piece could be carved.
The original of the carving that I will discuss here is an exam-
ple of a strong, uncomplicated design, with the bold reflective
surfaces and flowing lines that would have been expected on
carved leafage. Its carver was an economical and experienced
workman with high standards, who knew how to maximize the
carving's three-dimensional look despite the limitation of having
to work with relatively shallow cuts on the shaped surfaces.
Before going on to the details of foliage work, it's worth noting
Left, a template is made by cutting the outlines with the tools
that will be used for the carving. Right, a line of stop cuts, to
prevent chipping, is made around the penciled template out-
that a knee carving such as the one shown in figure 1 need not be
restricted to chairs: It would work well on a tea table and could
be adapted to the long, curved knees of a tripod table. In all these
cases, the majority of the curves in the leg flow along the level of
the carving's background. Thus all curves appear to be continu-
ous beneath the foliage, and the widest part of the knee below
the carving is thinner than it would be on an uncarved leg. There
is plenty of bulk in this area to ensure a strong leg, however, and
the curve can be gently shaped to blend into an ankle about the
same thickness as the ankle on an uncarved leg.
The actual knee-carving process can be broken down into five
steps. The same steps can be applied to other types of carving as
well. First, a full-leg template is cut, and the design is marked out.
Second, another template or pattern for the carving is made and
transferred to the leg. I cut the templates and patterns with my
carving tools to ensure that these tools can form all the shapes in
the design. I have a fairly good selection of tools in my kit, as
discussed below, so this isn't generally a limitation; actually, the
tools are a great aid in controlling both the design layout and its
execution. The third step is to cut vertical stop cuts on the leg
around the perimeter of the design and carve out the background
areas. Fourth, the main shapes of the leaves are incised and the sur-
faces carved smooth. Fifth, the veining and other detailing is cut.
Drawing foliage with tools—In the initial planning stages, it is
important to envision the effect you wish your carving to have.
Drawing is the best way to define these shapes, thus reducing the
chance of careless blunders or dead ends during the actual carv-
ing. Drawing skills are also important to the carver, because it
can be difficult to fit templates and patterns around curved sur-
faces. Usually the pattern can be used to establish the main lines,
but the details must be drawn directly on the wood.
The flow of the foliage should complement the curves of the
knee, as outlined on the full-leg template, which is used to draw
the lines for bandsawing the blank. The first step, therefore, is to
line in the same manner as the template itself is cut. Here,
the background is being leveled down in a series of cuts to
full depth. Stop cuts are deepened as necessary.
draw the leg template full-size and then draw the foliage upon it
to establish the general form and flow of the leaves. The foliage
pattern generally begins with the somewhat tedious copying of
carved foliage depicted in 18th-century design books. Copying is
easier if you lay out the designs on grids of various proportions,
yet the leaves must still retain the flow and appear correctly bal-
anced. As a general principle, lines and veins should emanate
from a logical point of origin, such as the main stem of the leaf,
and flow smoothly, fanning out to their full spread with a bal-
anced progression and then reducing toward the tips.
The shapes I use in drawing the foliage conform to the sweeps
of various gouges in my kit. I rely on a few broad gouges of relat-
ed sweeps to help establish the broad shapes, a few narrower
gouges whose curves flow comfortably into the wider ones and
several smaller tools for detailing. My basic kit includes 12mm
and 30mm #3 sweep gouges; , -, -, 1- and -in. #5
gouges; - and -in. #7 gouges; a -in. #8 veiner and a
in. #9 gouge. Flat chisels of various widths, as well as a
scraper or two, are handy for smoothing background areas and
working in tight spots. If a line doesn't exactly conform to a
gouge's sweep, or if I want to expand or contract a curve, I can
roll the gouge around the curve like a wheel, steering it as I go.
Working with a set of tools rather than against it is, along with
sharpness, a key element in successful carving.
Rounding the leg—After bandsawing the basic leg shape, I
round the surfaces with a spokeshave to bring out the flow of the
leg. Shaping the leg below the area to be carved provides a refer-
ence surface to work from in shaping the foliage area, which
must be proud of the main line of the leg. With cabriole legs, the
carving should blend with both the leg's vertical curve and its
horizontal plane.
The point of the knee begins flat at its junction with the upper
post of the leg, and wood is gradually removed in a broad, convex
curve. Hold a crisp line down the top two-thirds of the area to be
The main elements of the individual leaves are separated
with a gouge whose curvature matches the desired profile.
Because of the curves of the pattern, at times, one half of the
carved, then make a transition to a -in. half-round for the lower
third. You want the foliage area to stand about in. above the
leg surface at the tip of the lowest central leaf. The fullest point of
the knee is lowered in. on each face in a gradual convex
curve beginning at a point about two-thirds of the leg width back
from the front of the knee. Extra wood must be left for carving the
foliage at the top of the leg, where it meets the post, and for carving
the volute at the back of the leg. The leg at its widest point, includ-
ing the projection of the carved area, should be in proportion to
the chair or other piece of furniture supported by the leg.
Leaf template—In addition to the customary whole-leg tem-
plate used to trace the lines to be bandsawn, I recommend you
make another template or pattern to transfer the carving design
to the wood. The carver who made the original leg would have
been so familiar with this design that he could work without a
pattern. After all, even if he produced only one set of a dozen
chairs of this pattern, the symmetry of each knee would have re-
quired him to repeat the leafs sculpture and detail 24 times. If
you don't have the dexterity developed through numerous rep-
etitions of the same pattern, though, you'll find that a template
will be invaluable in helping you avoid mistakes.
As previously discussed, you should cut out the template using
your carving tools, as shown in the top, left photo on the facing
page. If the pattern is based on a two-dimensional drawing, as
appears to be the case with much 18th-century design, the pattern
will have to be adjusted to account for the extra in. or so
added by the curve from the protrusion of the knee to the leg
post. This can be accounted for by transferring the major hori-
zontal elements from the pattern to the frontal curve, then
sketching in extended vertical lines to complete the outside
shape. The shaping of the front of the leg removes any reference
points for orienting a template, but you can line it up by eye.
After sketching in all the details, double-check the lines against
your tools to be sure they still fit (see the top, right photo on the
cut may be with the grain while the other half is against it.
The solution is to take light cuts on the side that is cutting
well, changing direction as necessary.
facing page). When all is well, use hand pressure alone to outline
the carving with the appropriate gouge shapes. The cuts should
be perfectly vertical or slightly undercut. These stop cuts will
allow the background to be carved away without chipping the
border lines of the leaves. In tight corners, you can also make the
stop cuts by smoothly slicing with the point of a knife. In the
initial stages, don't worry about the surface of the background;
concentrate on preserving the border of your leafage. After
reaching the depth of the initial gouge cuts, make another series
of stop cuts. To lower the background the full in. so the
surface appears to flow into the line of the lower leg, you'll have
to go around the whole design at least twice. Because of the
knee's shape, changes in grain direction are inevitable. Work with
or across the grain whenever possible. Keep tools sharp.
Prepare the final background using flat chisels of varying widths.
The widest chisels possible, in a given area, will ensure the most
uniform, even surface. Final smoothing of the background can be
done with narrow cabinet scrapers. You should not be too finicky.
Traditional carvers often left some chisel marks on background
surfaces. In addition, a scraped surface is not as reflective as the
surface left by a crisp chisel cut. You can minimize the chatter
marks commonly seen on a scraped surface by making alternating
diagonal passes with the tool. This technique will prevent you
from accentuating the marks left by the previous pass.
Carving the leave—After the background has been carved to
depth, sketch the main flow lines of the leaves, and use a gouge
to bring out each leafs overall contours, as shown in the photo
above. To give the strongest impression of movement, make a
deep concave cut in each leaf, along the outside of its arc from
the volute, as shown above. While cutting these low areas on
each of the three major leaves, preserve the full height of the leaf
above the background at the extreme inner edge of each arc.
Cutting to the full depth of your raised work at the peak of each
arc, the concave cuts should diminish to half the raised depth as
Above, a wide gouge of proper sweep is the best tool for defin- toured flow of the leaf groups should be carefully smoothed
ing the knee shape, even when working in cramped areas such (here with a scraper) before detail carving begins. Below
as here—the background at the top of the knee block. The light right, a gouge, used bevel up, finishes up a diminishing
yet broad slices level such areas uniformly. Below left, the con- curve that was begun by wider ones in the set.
the cuts end at the leaf tips and begin on the kneeblock. The
concave cuts of the two leaves at the highest arc should diverge
from a single cut at their beginning, at the top of the kneeblock,
to two separate cuts for the center and lowest inside leaf.
Challenging changes in grain occur as the concave cuts move
from the top of the knee downward. Regardless of which direction
the cuts are made, half of the gouge cuts will be against the grain
because of the way the pattern's curve meets the grain direction. A
sharp tool will minimize the tearout, but it'll probably be necessary
to cut from both directions to get a smooth surface. Skewing the
tool slightly will also produce a cleaner cut, because the tool can
slice instead of wedge into the wood. In any case, the juncture of
the two cuts should meet at the low point of the curve. The vein-
ing of the leaves will later help remove any awkward transitions.
A broad, convex gouge cut should run from the full-raised height
on the inside arc of each leaf to meet the bottom of the concave
cut, with a clean transition between the two curves. The broad
convex surface will catch light on a broad plane, while the quick
convex curve will either reflect a fine line of light or throw a
deep shadow, depending on the direction of the lighting. Through-
out the process, the carver should strive for fluid gouge cuts, which
produce the brightest, clearest and most continuous reflective sur-
faces. The best surface can be achieved by matching the gouge to
the desired curve. Use the widest gouges possible at all times, as
shown in the photo at left. The cut of a single gouge can be ex-
tended by cutting while holding the gouge on the diagonal, which
will narrow the width of the cut and increase the arc of the curve.
The eye of the volute should be shaped as shown with a broad
convex curve. Individual gouge cuts are also made to give the tip
of the two internal leaves the impression of flipping back on them-
selves. This is accomplished by a concave cut on the inside of each
leafs hooked bottom with the continuation of the leafs major broad
convex curve preserved at the leafs very tip. The shaping of the
lowest lobe of the volute should be a continuation of the convex
arc that runs around the innermost arc. The two small leaves at
Below left, veining is cut into the contoured surface with an
appropriate gouge. The same concerns regarding grain di-
rection apply as with larger tools. Below right, strong side
lighting on the finished knee shows not only the crispness of
the top of the kneeblock should be relieved with medium-sweep
concave cuts that terminate in. to in. short of the leaves'
uppermost points, preserving the full background depth.
Make sure the contoured surface is as smooth as possible. Al-
though the detail carving to come will cut much of this surface
away, enough of it will remain to define the overall flow. If you
try to smooth this later, the carving may end up looking uncertain.
When the flow of the leaves has been established, the veining
and other details can be cut in, as shown in figure 1 on p. 57 and
in the two middle photos below. The veins should emerge from
the volute and slowly separate as they move toward the end of
the leaves. The sculptural effect of the leaves turning to the out-
side of their arc and flipping under at their tips can be reinforced
by holding the major weight of the veining high on the arc of the
leaves. The veins should end just short of the tip of each leaf,
with the central vein of the two major central leaves just entering
the leaf-tip area. This lowest central vein is flanked by a slightly
higher vein on the outside of the arc and by the highest vein on
the inside arc. The arrangement of the inside and outside lobes of
the leaves again emphasizes the impression of movement.
Finishing up—Sandpaper isn't much help in producing even, re-
flective surfaces and crisp outlines and shadows. Sanding will
usually round off the transition of details and give an amorphous
and doughy character to the work. Until you've had enough prac-
tice in sharpening and tool use to cut the wood cleanly with
gouges alone, you can blend any slight surface irregularities with
cabinet scrapers. Fine files, rifflers or shaped-hardwood burnishers
are also useful for polishing carved surfaces. The broad surfaces
of carvings on exposed knees and the backs of chairs have usually
worn from use, producing a level of polish probably not given,
but likely anticipated, by their original carvers.
Mack Headley is a master cabinetmaker at Colonial Williamsburg
in Virginia. He wrote about shell carving in FWW #61.
light and shadow possible in low-relief carving, but also the
general planes and curves that underlie the detailing. Defin-
ing and smoothing these shapes was done before any of the
fine-detail carving began.
Fig. 1: Cabriole leg anatomy and shaping overview
Shaping a
Cabriole Leg
An easy job with files and rasps
by Eugene E. Landon

M
any woodworkers are afraid of cabriole legs. There's
something intimidating about all those graceful inter-
connecting lines. And making matching pairs seems to
require a touch of genius. In point of fact, however, cabriole legs
are a breeze. I had my young helper, Joel Crabtrec, feeling guilty
for awhile thinking I must have worked incessantly through the
night to produce sets of legs for six chairs. Each morning he would
find yet another completed set. When he finally discovered I was
doing a leg in 20 minutes or so, he felt more sheepish than guilty.
I'm sure craftsmen of the period (1730-1795) worked as
quickly. The simultaneous existence of plain and ornately carved
styles reflected the European origin and local taste more so than
the skill of the woodworker. Economics sometimes dictated the
extent of carving; each carved area was charged for separately.
Shaping the plain legs for a Queen Anne or Chippendale chair,
which I'll describe later, requires only rudimentary skills in spin-
dle-turning and in the use of files, rasps and scrapers. Figure 1
identifies the parts of the leg and will give you an overall idea of
how it is made. The dimensions are for the late Queen Anne, ear-
ly Chippendale chair shown on p. 86, but the legs can be adapted
to different chairs, tables and other furniture pieces.
If you have doubts about your ability to make cabriole legs, 1
invite you to glue up a blank from a cheap, soft wood, such as
pine, then go at the job with abandon. There really are not any
subtleties or secrets.

Preparing the blank-The leg blanks are in. long (to

allow some excess at both ends for later trimming) and in.
square. To ensure strength, choose wood without much grain
runout. The leg I'm shown making in the photographs is cherry
of the worst-working sort—rock hard and brittle. It probably
came from a leaning tree. Even so, the job isn't difficult.
Make a leg template according to the dimensions in figure 2 on
p. 87, and trace it onto what will become the two outside surfaces
of the leg. Mark the center of the ends of the blank at this time, as
a reference for mounting it on the lathe later. Then, carefully
bandsaw to the outlines on both sides, using the offcuts from the
first cuts to support the leg for the second cuts. You'll get the

Drawings: Lee Hov

The development of a cabriole leg: First, the template at bot- lathe. The top surface of the square section just above the
tom is traced onto two sides of the squared stock. In his right turned foot forms the toe. In his left hand, Landon holds a
hand, the author holds a blank that has been bandsawn fol- finished leg that has been rasped, filed and scraped. An ex-
lowing the template lines. Next, the foot is turned on the perienced worker can do the whole job in 20 minutes.

most precise cuts if you tape the offcuts in place using shims of
paper or veneer to fill the bandsaw kerf. After bandsawing, what
was the center point in the leg-post end of the leg is now offset.
The leg axis extends from this point down through the center of
the foot (see figure 2). This clever axis alignment is what allows
the leg to be conveniently shaped on the lathe.
Your leg should now look like the template shown at the bottom
of the photo above and like the leg I'm holding in my right hand.
Chuck this in the lathe with the foot at the tailstock and turn the
foot according to the dimensions given in figure 2. Note that the
top surface of the square section (just above the turned foot) forms
the toe. You should just nick this as shown; if you try to turn any
higher up the ankle, you'll ruin the lines of the leg. Your sample
should now look like the second leg from the top in the photo. The leg is clamped in a vise, above. Landon has already
shaped the top surface of the foot and is shown here using the
convex side of a half-round rasp to round the corners of the
Rasping and filing-The easiest way to shape cabriole legs is leg. The goal is to remove enough wood from each of the four
with rasps and files. The initial cuts are heavy ones and are made corners to make the ankle round. The profile of the curve at
using a half-round rasp: the convex side for concave curves, the the ankle should extend up the full length of the leg.
flat side for convex curves. I also use a in. rat-tail rasp on
occasion; it's particularly good for removing small high spots on
the top concave surface of the foot (just back from the toe) and
underneath the knee. These areas are mostly endgrain, and the
wider rasp is more difficult to control through the transition to
the long-grain areas.
A 10-in. or 12-in. flat mill file and a round file will remove the
rasp and bandsaw marks. A scraper, made from a length of old
power-hacksaw blade, will then remove the file marks. The trick
to rasping and filing is to smoothly push or pull the tool in a
gentle arc to gradually develop the desired shape. If you hold the
handle of the rasp in your right hand and its tip in your left, it
will cut on the push stroke. Reverse the rasp in your hands and
it will cut on the pull, or "draw," stroke (hence the name: draw- After establishing the basic shape with rasps, the author
filing). Keep the teeth clean, and don't let the rasps and files rub quickly removes the tool marks with fine files. The key to suc-
against each other, as this will dull them quickly. cessful filing is to move the tool smoothly in a gentle arc and
Position the work in a bar clamp held in a vise, as shown in the gradually develop the final shape. Drawfiling works well
here: If the file's handle is in your right hand, you push; if it's
photos. Since the narrowest part of the leg is at the top of the in your left hand, you pull. Rotate the leg gradually as you
foot, establish the basic shape here first. Use this as a reference to refine the shape, and work in whatever direction that's nec-
gauge your progress in developing the shape for the rest of the essary to avoid tearout.
 Photo below: Terry Wild

Above: Bandsaw marks remaining on the flat surfaces at the

upper part of the leg are removed with a flat mill file. Round-
ing the post corner first creates a step in the top of the knee
and gives you enough room to shape the knee properly. Below:
Landon's favorite scraper, made from a length of power-
hacksaw blade, polishes the fine file marks away. A light
touch with supermarket-variety green Scotch-Brite, which tra-
ditional-minded Landon refers to as 'sharkskin,' will yield a
uniform surface ready for finishing. The occasional tiny
scraper chatter marks on the final surface resemble those
found on 18th-century work.

leg. Begin by rasping the top of the foot down into a fair curve
that blends into the ankle. At the ankle itself, the goal is to re-
move each of the four corners in turn until the ankle is round.
The profile of the curve at the ankle extends through the length
Above is the original chair from which the templates and di-
of the leg. It is easy to check the width and uniformity of the mensions were taken for the drawing on the facing page.
curve by eye as you proceed.
Begin the shaping by rotating the leg by 90°, working each cor-
ner in turn. It may take several complete revolutions before you Building a
are satisfied with the rough shape. Continue this procedure, but
reduce the rotation angle to first 45°, then 22 and so on until
the profile is shaped fair. Orient the leg as you wish, working in
Chippendale chair
whatever direction that's necessary to avoid tearout.
At the outer corner of the top of the knee, it will seem at first
that there is not enough wood to allow a curve; rasping one
would lower the front of the post. This problem, however, takes Now that you know how easy it really is to make a
care of itself if you round the outer corner of the post first, which cabriole leg, you may be itching to give it a try. On the
creates a step in the top of the knee. Because the area is endgrain, facing page are the measured drawings you'll need to
I generally shave it with a chisel for better control, but rasps and make the chair shown in the photo above. The first step is
files will work here, too. to scale the templates up to full-size and cut them out.
I finish the legs using a scraper, as mentioned, followed by Because chairs are almost always built in sets, make the
green Scotch-Brite (available in your local supermarket). The fi- templates from a durable material. Label them clearly, as
nal surface, with its occasional tiny scraper chatter marks, looks in years hence, you may want to use them again. Write
just like the surface I frequently find on 18th-century work. Set down angles, thicknesses and other technical notes on
the legs aside for the moment; you'll have to do some fine-tuning
the templates as well.
After cutting the joints, assemble the chair in sections,
later, after the legs are assembled into the chair frame.
which will ease the problem of getting it square. If you try
to glue up a whole chair at once, the job may get out of
Eugene Landon builds reproductions of period furniture in hand. Begin by gluing up the rear posts, the crest rail and
Montoursville, Pa. You may find additional suggestions for chair the rear seat rail. Take care that everything is plumb, flat
construction in his article in FWW #60. Mack Headley's instruc-
tions for carving the shell in FWW #61 should also be helpful.
and square. Note that the shoe, or saddle, which is
mortised to receive the tenon on the bottom of the splat,
is not glued in place until the back is assembled. You want
the splat tenon to fit tightly into the shoe. If the splat
were glued in place, it would most likely split because of
seasonal wood movement. Therefore, cut its tenons after
the rest of the back has been glued up solid. As a last resort
for a splat that turns out too short, you can modify the
shoe's height to compensate. Also, before fitting the shoe,
it's easiest to glue the back glue blocks in place against
the back rail, then plane them flush with the front surface
of the back posts after the glue has dried. If you see a
chair with some other glue-block arrangement, chances are
it isn't original.
When the back is dry, the remaining rails and the legs
can be glued in place. Once you know the back is straight
and square, you can devote your full attention to
squaring the rails and legs. Dry-fit the pieces first, just in
case you have to modify the shoulder lines or adjust the
mortises and tenons. When all is correct, mark the bottoms
of the legs, remove them, and then cut them to length.
After the assembly is dry, saw off the excess length from
the top of the front legs.
The final step in construction is to fine-tune things:
Reshape the outsides of the leg posts so they angle back in
line with the side seat rails. I use rasps and files for this
job as well. At the same time, reshape the top of the knee
to follow suit. Lastly, you'll need to chisel a notch in the
top of the post for the corner of the seat frame, which
should be cut and planed to fit. —E.L.
Making
Ogee Bracket Feet
Templates and jigs make neat feet for a box
by Sam Fletcher
I
made a stack of Chippen-
dale-style mirrors for our
annual church sale, and I
was disappointed when they
didn't sell as well as I'd hoped.
When the next sale rolled
around, I looked for a more
successful project. I had read
that small jewelry boxes are
very popular at craft sales, so I
decided to make them my next
project for our fund-raiser.
Boxes are simple, and they
are easily made, even in quanti-
ty. But they can be awfully plain.
I wanted to dress them up a bit.
I liked the effect that feet add to
the overall look of a jewelry
box. Small ogee bracket feet el-
evate a box both figuratively
and literally (see the photo on
the facing page).
High-volume shops use cus-
tom tooling to make ogee
bracket feet, but my method us-
es a standard cove (or flute)
cutter and basic hand and ma-
chine tools. Although I devel-
oped this method to make
miniature feet, the general pro-
cedure can be used for making
larger feet as well.
Make a template
and glue jig first
Decorative scrolls on the wings
of these miniature feet give
them a distinctive Chippendale
look. To speed the layout of this
scroll, I made a template from
plastic laminate and a small
piece of -in. dowel (see the
photos at right). The dowel reg-
isters the template in each foot
blank, saving me the trouble of
locating the profile each time.
The template also makes the
feet consistent.
It can be tricky to glue small
mitered pieces, so the simple
jigs I make from 2-in.-sq., 1-in.-
thick oak pieces are a great
help (see the bottom photo on
p. 81). I bore a -in. hole in the
center of each square and cut a
90° angle out of one side. The
hole permits the pieces to fit
together properly and takes
care of glue squeeze-out. I use
a 3-in, spring clamp and a short
length of -in. dowel to hold Simplify bracket feet with a template. A scrap of plastic
the pieces together. laminate makes a good template for laying out the decorative
scroll on these feet. The dowel quickly and accurately locates
the template in the blank.
Making the ogee profile
I use a board 6 in. to 8 in. wide,
surfaced to 1 in, thick, for a
l-in.-high foot. The stock thick-
ness corresponds to the height
of the foot. To make feet for a
box like the ones shown in the stock. The ogee can be very base of the foot. The fence is set
photo on the facing page, I use dramatic or subtle depending so the cove is in. deep. I cut
a board about 2 ft. long. on how deeply I cut the groove the groove on both long edges
Using a wider board is faster and the size of the radius on the of the stock (see the top left
because I can work on two top edge. photo on p. 80).
edges at once, ripping them as I cut a groove for the concave I complete the ogee by
I go. Having the extra width also part of the ogee curve on my founding over the convex por-
makes machining the wood less shaper. For the l-in.-high feet tion of the profile with a small
dangerous. that I'm making here, I use a block plane (see the top right
I start by making the S-shaped -in. cove cutter set about in. photo on p. 80). Scrapers made
ogee profile in the edge of the above the table to define the from an old hacksaw blade al-
A cove cut is the first step
in developing the profile.
The author makes a -in.
cove on both edges of a piece
of stock.

low me to make any final cor-

rections in the shape before the
pieces are sanded.

Ripping the stock

to width and mitering Round over the top edge. A block plane fairs a cove into the rounded edge at the top of the foot.
Now I rip a piece of molding
from each edge of the stock
(see the bottom left photo). I
set the rip fence to in., rip
one side and then flip the board
around and rip the other side.
The next step is to cut and
miter the pieces to length. I
bought my Sears tablesaw new
in 1940 and have made a num-
ber of useful attachments for it.
One of them is an adjustable
cutoff stop that eliminates the
need for marking each piece
(see the bottom right photo).
To really make cutting and
mitering easier, I made addi-
tional miter gauges out of -in.
by -in. steel flat bar and alu-
minum angle. I keep one of Rip the molding to width. The author cuts With a shopmade cutoff stop, you don't
these miter gauges set at 90° one edge, flips the stock around and rips the have to mark each piece. Two miter gauges,
and another one set at 45°. opposite edge. set at 45° and 90°, also speed the work.
Bore the hole for the scroll profile. Mark out the scroll The dowel locates Cut the scroll The author uses a jigsaw
The hole is part of the profile and pro- the template on the pieces. The profile is to cut the scroll profile.
vides registration for the scroll template. laid out on the back of each foot piece.
A vise holds the workpiece precisely.

With these two miter gauges, I then register one end of a

don't need to stop and reset the
angle. I miter-cut one end, flip
the stock end for end and then
miter-cut the other end. Then,
using the 90° miter gauge and
the adjustable stop, I cut the
piece to length, flip the stock
end for end again, and cut the
other piece to length. I repeat
this process until I have cut
enough pieces.
Lay out and
cut the scroll
The scroll at the bottom edge
of the foot starts with a -in.
hole bored in each piece. This
hole forms part of the scroll
profile, but more important, it
is the reference for the scroll
template. Therefore, the hole
must be bored accurately. To
do this, I use a machinist's vise
on my drill-press table and a
brad-point bit.
I separate the work into right-
hand and left-hand pieces and
piece flush with the edge of the
vise jaw. To align the vise and
workpiece under the bit, I
place the template on the stock
with the narrow end of the
template flush with the square
end of the workpiece.
The drill bit is lowered until
it is just above the template. I
position the vise so that the
registration plug on the tem-
plate is aligned with the bit and
clamp the vise on the drill-
press table. I remove the tem- Clamp the parts. Gluing jigs hold the pieces at 90° and give
plate, bore all the like-handed glue squeeze-out a place to go. The dowel bridging the two
parts (see the photo at left pieces is temporary.
above), reposition the vise and
then bore the rest.
Using the scroll template, Glue jig speeds the glue has dried, I lightly sand
I mark out all the pieces, as assembly the outside surface of each foot.
shown in the center photo I group all the pieces into left- I use a chainsaw file for smooth-
above. Because the face of each right assemblies, spread glue on ing the scroll. The feet are ready
foot piece already has been the mitered surfaces and rub the to be glued to the box.
profiled, the scroll is laid out on pieces together. I clamp togeth-
the back side. I use a jigsaw to er the assemblies using the glue Sam Fletcher has been making
cut out the scroll shape (see the jig, dowel and spring clamp furniture and tools for 56 years.
photo at right above). (see the bottom photo). Once He lives in Mechanicsville. Va.
 Stickley-Style Legs
A router bit and two jigs yield
quartersawn figure on all four sides
by Patrick Nelson
Q
uartersawn oak is synonymous
with Craftsman furniture. The
wood's wild ray figure is both
beautiful and distinctive. Unfortunately,
Mother Nature saw fit to put it only on op-
posing faces of a board. So on a table leg,
for example, the sides adjacent to a quar-
tersawn face should be flatsawn and with-
out figure.
However, if you look closely at much of
the furniture built by the Stickleys in the
early 1900s, you'll see what looks like a
freak of nature: quartersawn figure on all
four sides of square table legs (see the pho-
to at left). This figure is the result of a unique
leg design used in Stickley factories.
The Stickleys used two techniques. One
was to cover the flatsawn faces with quar-
tersawn veneer. The other technique mated
four quartersawn boards with trapezoidal
profiles. The base of each trapezoid was
one face of the leg, and the two adjacent
sides were angled at 45°. On one angled
side, there was a small perpendicular notch;
on the other side was a complementary
Quartersawn figure on all four sides
Freak of nature? No, just a
bit of technical wizardry, Quar-
tersawn figure occurs naturally
only on opposing faces of a
board, but the legs on many
Craftsman pieces show it all
around. The author used one
router bit and two jigs to make
the leg shown above.
Stickley method
On original Stickley pieces, the leg
was made up of four pieces. Each
of these pieces had two comple-
mentary profiles cut into it using
two shaper setups.
tooth. Mating tooth to notch on adjacent
pieces lined up the four joints perfectly.
One modern bit does the trick
The shaper bits used to mill the original
Stickley design are not commonly avail-
able today, but the widely available lock-
miter router bit can be used to make these
Stickley-style legs. The bit is beveled at 45 °,
like a large chamfer bit, with a pair of op-
posing teeth in the middle of the cutting
surface. It cuts a profile that's quite similar
to the one used by the Stickleys. I bought
my bit from Grizzly Imports (P.O. Box 2069,
Bellingham, WA 98227; 800-541-5537).
They're also sold by a number of other
router-bit manufacturers.
The lock-miter bit actually has some ad-
vantages over the shaper cutters used by
the Stickleys: This bit produces a joint with
a larger glue-surface area, only one is
needed to cut both sides of the joint, and
just one setup is required. Adjusting the
lock-miter bit height and the position of
the fence to get that setting is just trial-and-
Author's version
The author's version of the Stickley
leg is made up of four identical
pieces. The edge profile on each
piece mates with the face profile
on an adjacent piece.
First jig, first pass
One jig positions workpiece flat on table to cut
the profile on edge of stock.

Rout the edge profile first. Maintain

a steady feed rate, and keep pressure
against the fence. Each profile is cut
in a single pass.

Second jig, second pass

Second jig positions workpiece vertically
to cut the profile on the inside face.

Rout inside face of leg stock. The

piece should be edge up with its outside
face against the jig (above). After the
second pass, the piece has matching pro-
files on its edge and inside face (right).
GLUING UP
1. Apply glue to just
two pieces of each
leg at a time. Then,
after you have the
two halves assem-
bled, apply glue to
the remaining faces,
and bring the two
halves together.

2. Tack battens
down center of
each side. These bat-
tens will help concen-
trate the clamping
pressure.

3. Tack one end of

a bungee cord to
the end of a batten. error. You can get pretty close right from
the start, though, by centering one of the
teeth on the stock. And once you have the
setting right, the actual routing takes just a
few minutes.
I mount the bit in my shaper rather than
in a router table. The shaper's slower
speed is less intimidating than a router with
a bit of this size. But if you don't have a
shaper, the technique would work using
a powerful, variable-speed router set at its
slowest speed. The key to the technique is
the pair of jigs I made to hold the work-
pieces as they're fed through the bit (see
the drawings on p. 55).

One jig for each pass

The first jig holds the workpiece flat
against the table and exposes the edge of

4. Wrap cord tightly around the assembly. Tack the bungee cord at the other end.
the workpiece to the router. The jig is
made of two pieces of plywood with pine
end caps. The end caps start out as rectan-
gular pieces but take on the lock-miter
profile after the first pass. Screws driven
through the end caps, far enough back to
be out of the bit's way, hold the workpiece
in place (see the top drawing on p. 55). The
distance from the edge of the narrower
piece of plywood, against which the work-
piece butts, to the edge of the wider piece,
which rides against the fence, is the width
of the leg. It's easy to make the legs any
size you want.
Stock from in. thick on up to 1 in. or
in. (depending on the make of the bit)
can be used with the lock-miter bit, but the
thickness of the parts of the jig and the
stock you're using for the pieces that will
make up the leg must be identical. I di-
mensioned stock to the thickness of the
shop-grade plywood (nominally in.) that
I used for the jig. It was easier than build-
ing up each layer of the jig from multiple
pieces of plywood or milling the pieces of
the jig from solid wood. I also crosscut the
leg stock and jig stock at the same time, so
their lengths are identical.
The second jig looks similar to the first
one. But the two pieces of plywood are the
same size, and they are flush on their edges
(see the bottom drawing on p. 55). The
workpiece is held vertically against the
edges of the plywood. This way, the inner
face of the workpiece is presented to the
router bit.
After the workpiece has passed through
the router bit in this second jig, the work-
5. Tap along the battens to make sure
the joints are seated.
6. The wrapped assembly is set aside
to let the glue cure. After a few hours,
the leg can be unwrapped and the ends
trimmed. This eliminates the screw holes
and any slight gaps at the ends where
the clamping pressure isn't as great. The
leg is now ready to use.
piece will have identical profiles on one
edge and on the inside face. Each leg is
made up of four such pieces, one edge of
each piece mating with the face of the ad-
jacent piece, all the way around the leg. I
always make the legs several inches longer
than they will be on the finished piece of
furniture so that I can trim off the ends after
the leg has been assembled.
These legs can be used on many different
kinds of furniture, and the process of mak-
ing a leg is the same, regardless of size or
what the leg will be used for.
Patrick Nelson designs and builds furni-
ture professionally in Fulton, Mo. David
Mount, an amateur woodworker in Two
Harbors, Minn., assisted in the writing of
this article.
Three Reliable Ways to Taper a Leg
Tapers can be cut quickly and accurately with a bandsaw,
a thickness planer or a tablesaw
by Gary Rogowski
T
able or desk legs that have been tapered top to bot-
tom have a grace and delicacy that square legs just
don't seem to have. Shaker furnituremakers exploit-
ed this leg style, and so have many others. Although legs
may be tapered all the way around, more often than not I cut
tapers on two adjoining faces of a leg. The process can be
both quick and reliable.
Roughing out tapers is best done by machine; either a
bandsaw or a tablesaw is a good choice. Tapers also can be
cut by mounting leg blanks on a jig that's passed through a
thickness planer, a process that requires very little cleanup.
Cleaning up the cuts also can be accomplished in a number
of ways—on a jointer, with a router and a flush-trimming bit,
or with a handplane.
How much taper a leg gets and which faces are tapered are
personal choices best made with plenty of experimentation.
1 TAPERING ON
THE BANDSAW
By far, the simplest and safest way to cut a
taper is to draw lines on two adjacent
faces of each leg and cut just to the waste
side of the lines on a bandsaw, making
straight cuts (see the photo at left).
The cut is not that difficult to make if
your bandsaw is properly tuned and the
blade is sharp. Mark out the taper on a
milled leg blank, striking a line from the
widest point, where the taper starts, to its
narrowest point at the foot. If there's a
flat near the top of the leg where an
apron will intersect it, strike a line across
the face of the leg where the taper begins
or just slightly below it, The idea is to
leave enough material on the leg so it
can be cleaned up without making the
leg too thin.
If the leg shape is one you might
reproduce often, consider making a
template of -in.-thick hardboard or
medium-density fiberboard. The next
time you need to lay out this taper, it will
Bandsawn tapers are safe and sim-
ple. Feed the leg blank slowly with one
hand, steering as you go, and use the
other hand to help guide the cut. Cut to
the waste side of the line.
 All four legs of a table can be tapered at once. The author's planer jig is made
from a piece of -in.-thick plywood and three angled strips of wood to support the
take just a few seconds. legs. Stops at either end of the plywood keep the legs in place.
It's easier to sight down the layout line if
you lower your head a bit as you make
the cut. Use two hands to help guide the
leg through the blade, feed slowly and try
to compensate for any drift before you
wander from the line. With practice, it
becomes quite easy to cut a straight line
on the bandsaw. But be careful to keep
your fingers out of the way. It's easy to run
your thumb into a bandsaw blade.

2 TAPERING WITH A
THICKNESS PLANER

A thickness planer isn't the first tool that
comes to mind for cutting tapers. But a
planer will do an absolutely consistent job
of tapering leg stock if you use the proper
jig—one with a simple carriage that
supports the legs at an angle and has stops
at either end (see the photo above). The
only real drawback is that it's fairly slow.
I made my jig from a piece of scrap
plywood several inches longer than the
length of the legs. To get the taper I
wanted, I drew the taper on one of the
legs, placed the leg on the plywood base
of the jig and raised one end until the
taper line was parallel with the plywood. I
measured this height near one end of the
plywood, cut a support piece to fit there
and glued it on. I added a stop just behind
it. The narrow end of the legs butt against
this stop.
The next step is to cut angled pieces that
will support the legs and prevent them
from flexing under the pressure of the
feed rollers in the planer. With these
supports glued to the plywood base, I
added another stop at the front end of the
jig to capture the legs securely—I didn't
want the stock moving around beneath
the cutterhead.
The best thing about this method of
tapering legs is that all the legs for a
project can be done at the same time.
Take light passes, especially at first, to
Tablesawn tapers are fast and accurate. A dedicated jig like this one produces
consistent results but is limited to a single angle and leg length.

minimize deflection of the stock. Also,
make sure the legs don't rock on the
support pieces. If they do, you'll see
some vicious sniping.
different taper, or you can use a hinged,
universal tapering jig to cut many different
tapers. I prefer using dedicated jigs
because I often reproduce designs (see
the photo above). With a dedicated jig,
angle for the desired taper.
To set up for the cut, measure from the
inside edge of the jig to the widest part of
the taper—either the corner of the leg if
it's a full-length taper or a few inches shy

3
TABLESAW
TAPERING
The most commonly used tool for cutting
tapers is the tablesaw—and why not? It's
fast and, if the saw is well-tuned, very little
cleanup is needed. You can either make a
dedicated jig every time you need a
I'm assured of getting the same results
every time.
The base of the jig is a straight, flat,
piece of plywood just a few inches
longer than the leg stock. I cut it so its
sides are parallel and its ends are square.
Then I screw a back stop to one end to
catch the wide part of the taper (see the
drawing above). A front stop, near the
other end of the jig, captures the leg and
cants it from the plywood at the correct
of the comer if you want to leave a flat
section on the leg for an apron. Use this
measurement to set the distance from
blade to fence. Keep the jig firmly against
the fence, and feed steadily as you make
the cut, running the narrow end of the
leg into the blade first. For the second
taper on a leg, rotate the leg blank 90°
clockwise in the jig. By rotating the leg
this way, a square, untapered face will
rest on the tablesaw.
THREE WAYS TO
CLEAN UP THE CUTS
Some cleanup is almost always required
after you've cut the basic tapers. Even a
planer can leave mill marks. Here are
three simple methods for cleaning tapers.
Jointer: This tool does a great job of
cleaning up sawmarks (see the bottom
photo). I generally go straight from the
bandsaw to the jointer. I set the infeed
table for a light cut and use a push stick.
To avoid tearout, you should cut with
the grain. That usually means the narrow
end of the leg is last to go over the
cutterhead. Inspect the taper first, though,
checking for grain direction as well as for
any high spots that may need to be taken
down by hand before you joint the whole
length of the taper.
Check, too, to see if one end or another
needs more wood removed, You may be
able to take slightly more off one end than
another by varying the amount of hand
pressure you apply. Make sure the tapers
are well marked so you can tell when
you're finished. Feed slowly to minimize
cutterhead marks.
Router: A flush-trimming bit mounted
in a router table is another quick way of
cleaning up tapers, especially if you don't
have a jointer (see the top photo). This
technique also guarantees that all the
tapers are precisely the same. Both top-
bearing and bottom-bearing bits will do
the job, and you can use the same
Jointer cleans up tapers quickly, A
few light passes over the jointer should
clean up any mill marks or other sur-
face irregularities left after roughing
out a leg by machine.
Template routing ensures consistent
results. Both bottom-bearing bits
templates here that you used to lay out (shown above) and top-bearing bits
tapers for the bandsaw. Double-faced tape
work. Double-faced tape secures the
template to the legs.
works well to attach the template to each
leg. For a production run, a jig with
attached toggle clamps is better and faster.
When a bottom-bearing bit is used in a
router table, you will have to make a
tapered template for the second taper so
the router bearing (which is at a fixed
height) has something to ride on. You'll
need thicker stock for this template.
Cut and clean up the first taper. Then
mark the second taper on the template
stock by placing it on the tapered leg and
setting them both on a flat surface, like a
bench or jointer bed. On the template
stock, mark a line that's parallel with the
bench or bed. Then cut and clean this
second side. The template is ready for use.
Make sure the tapers have been cut Handplane cleans tapers efficiently.
close to the template shape; there A plane leaves a surface that's ready for
shouldn't be more than in. of wood to finish, but take care to plane with the
clean up with the router. Set the height of grain to avoid tearout.
the bit so that the bearing rides firmly
against the template. Start the cut back just (from the wide part of the taper down to
a little from the end of the leg. Work from the narrow), but you should check the
the widest part of the taper to the grain direction of each face you're planing
narrowest. Rout the full length, and finish to be sure. The grain may surprise you.
up with one smoothing pass. Make sure your stop or bench dog won't
Handplane: On wood that's not interfere with the plane at the end of its
particularly gnarly, a well-tuned handplane stroke. Mark a line across your stock at the
can be used to clean up tapers straight off start of the taper, and take lighter passes
the bandsaw, planer or tablesaw. A plane as you approach it.
also is a good choice for tapers that have
been cleaned up with a jointer or router Gary Rogowski designs and builds
but still need a little more polishing. furniture in Portland, Ore., and is a
Generally, you'll want to plane downhill contributing editor to Fine Woodworking.
 A Blanket Chest with Legs

Simple frame-and-panel construction lets you

break out of the boring box
BY JOHN M C A L E V E Y

I
have always liked designing and
making sideboards, chests of drawers
and blanket chests. It is very satisfy-
ing to make a basic box that will contain
and store the things that we use in our
everyday lives. And when it works, the re-
sult can be as beautiful as it is useful. It's
even more satisfying when you can trans-
form a basic box into something with
depth, dimension and visual power.
The blanket chest I designed and made
for a family in New Hampshire is a piece of
furniture that could have been just another
unremarkable dovetailed box, but it is re-
deemed by frame-and-panel construction
that allows for greater play with forms and
materials. It pleases me to think that many
years from now, someone will open this
chest on a snowy December night, pull out
a down comforter as proof against the
cold, and think, "What a beautiful chest."
Legs double as stiles
A chest made of four solid slabs dovetailed
together looks too heavy and traditional
for my taste, and I can assemble frames and
panels much more quickly than I can cut
long rows of dovetails. Frame-and-panel THE ACTION IS IN THE CORNERS
construction has more going for it than
lightness and economy of labor: It adds Because the legs serve as the stiles of the frame-and-panel sides, they are mortised for
the rail tenons as well as grooved for the panel tongues. Both the mortises and grooves
depth and shadow lines to the look of a
are centered on the inside faces of the leg, so layout is straightforward.
piece, and it allows the use of contrasting
wood—something you can't do with
mitered or dovetailed chests made only
from flat panels.
My client wanted a fresh design that in-
corporated elements of two of my previous
frame-and-panel chests. In a departure
from one of the older designs, I decided to
eliminate the stiles of the frame-and-panel
sides and join the top and bottom rails di-
rectly to the legs so that the legs themselves
serve as stiles (see the drawing at right).
This legs-as-stiles approach, which I had
first tried nine years ago on a cabinet,
allows for simplified construction and a
lighter look than full frame-and-
panel sides attached to separate
legs. (Squinting at the blanket chest,
you can almost imagine away the
light-colored panels, leaving be-
hind an open frame of thin, table-
like legs and rails.) A gentle curve
in the bottom rail helps the legs vi-
sually lift the chest off the floor.
The frames are made of cherry
and the panels are of curly maple.
The legs are made from 8/4 lum-
ber, lightened and made more in-
teresting by chamfering on all four
sides. To add even more visual
character and a form of decorative
detail, I brought the double tenons
of the front and rear rails through
and let them stand in. proud of the legs.
And to transform the top from a typical rec-
tangular shape into a more pleasing and in-
teresting form, I decided to curve the ends
of the lid, carrying through the motif of the
curved bottom rails.

Mortise-and-tenon joints
hold the panels together
Mortise-and-tenon joints, in one form or
another, are the basis for all good furniture
construction, and this blanket chest is no
exception. As in a post-and-beam house or
a post-and-rail fence, mortise-and-tenon
joints draw horizontal and vertical pieces
of furniture together simply and rigidly.
Used with frame-and-panel construction,
these joints make furniture that accommo- The frame-and-panel sides of this chest are a departure from
the solid sides and dovetailed corners of a traditional chest.
dates seasonal changes in the wood better
Unlike solid box construction, frame-and-panel construction
than any other method. creates interesting shadow lines and allows for the use of
The architect Louis Kahn said that the contrasting woods.
joint was the beginning of all ornament,
and this holds true for the wedged, double
through-tenons on my blanket chest. I
worried that through-tenons would detract
from the lines of the legs, but now that I've
done them, I'd do them again. Details like
these through-tenons add mystery because
people at first wonder why they're there,
and yet they take away mystery because
they ultimately reveal the nature of the
construction. I've noticed at shows that
people make a beeline to just such details.

Careful preparation pays dividends

during mortising
I always sticker more wood to acclimate in
my shop than I think I'll need for a project,
and I take a few shavings from each board
with a block plane to give me a clearer
view of its grain and color. For the legs, I
wanted straight grain—nothing wild—so
that no one leg would detract from the oth-
ers. I also wanted consistency in the grain
of the rails so that the figured curly maple
would stand out. To match the grain on the
top and bottom rails of a given side, I chose
boards wider than 8 in., wide enough that
I could rip them into a 3-in. top rail and a
-in. bottom rail. Because my design
called for relatively narrow rails, I felt I
could use flatsawn cherry instead of more
expensive quartersawn cherry. Flatsawn
lumber will expand and contract more than
quartersawn lumber. But with a narrow rail,
the difference will be negligible.
I began by roughing out the four legs. I al-
ways cut pieces to length oversized by a few
inches. I keep an eye out for end-checking
and surface defects and plan my cuts
around them. If, when I am laying out the
pieces, it looks as though one might have a
streak of sapwood showing, then I'll rough
out five legs. And I always mill a few test
pieces. Using test pieces to set up joinery top rail. The side rails and the frame for the chopping them out by hand the old-fash-
cuts helps ensure my good pieces will be top are put together with blind, not ioned way. I use an Italian-made slot-mor-
right on. In making any piece of furniture, through-tenons. After I determined their tising machine to cut mortises in my shop.
my time and labor far outweigh the cost of locations, I laid out the mortises and The machine can use either a Clico slot-
using a few extra inches of wood here and tenons on the legs and rails with a marking mortise miller bit (available from Garrett
there. This is not a place to be stingy. gauge and a very sharp pencil. Wade; 800-221-2942) or a spiral end mill
I chose to make all the mortises and There are many ways to cut mortises, (available from Woodcraft Supply; 800-225-
tenons in. thick, with the tenons on the ranging from using hollow-chisel machines 1153). A slot-mortising machine is expen-
bottom rail a little wider than those on the and plunge routers with spiral end mills to sive, but it's extremely accurate once
you've set it up, and it's a pleasure to use.
I've never understood why the Taiwanese
haven't made a less expensive one.
A slot mortiser leaves a mortise with
rounded ends. I prefer the look of a
squared tenon in an exposed through-mor-
tise joint, so on the blanket chest legs, I
squared up the mortises by hand with a
bench chisel. Working on the outside face
of the leg, I made starter cuts on the sides
of the rounded mortise and then cut out the
waste at the end. The English would have
cut a tapered mortise to accept the flared
shape of a wedged tenon. I didn't make a
big deal of it, but I did cut a little heavy on
the end line and chiseled a slight taper.
When I cut the mortises, I also used my
slot mortiser to cut the grooves that receive
the maple panels. Because both the mortis-
es and grooves are centered on the legs, I
had only to change the bit. You could also
use a router or a dado blade on the table-
saw to cut the grooves.
For cutting tenons, I prefer a tablesaw. I
made the shoulder cuts first, using a tenon
jig that safely secured the rails perpendicu-
lar to the table. As always when cutting
 ONE S I D E AT A TIME
To avoid gluing up too much at once, assemble the front and rear panels first. Glue the double through-
tenons of the top and bottom rails into a mortised leg. Fit the panel into the grooves in the rails and leg
without glue. Glue up the other leg, and wedge the through-tenons. Join the completed front and rear
with the side rails and panels to form a carcase.

tenons, I used a test piece to check the set-
tings of the tablesaw. I removed the waste
between the double tenons with a band-
saw, and cut slots for the wedges two-thirds
through the tenons with a backsaw.
Once all the mortise-and-tenon joinery
was cut, I dry-fit each tenon to its own des-
ignated mortise. I strive for an exact fit right
off the machine. If I'm going to use ma-
chines, I insist on obtaining a high degree of
accuracy. I've put a lot of time into adjusting
and keeping my saws, jointer and planer
tuned up. Those machines and my trifocals
ensure the precision I've grown to expect.
A cove bit shapes the panels
I feel as though we've become anes-
and contract evenly at the top and bottom
thetized to frame-and-panel construction
because of kitchen cabinetry, much of
PIN THE PANELS FROM THE INSIDE
Pin the center of each vertical tongue to the legs
with a -in. dowel, so the panels will expand
rails. Angle the hole for the pin to prevent the
drill from damaging the sides of the panels.
which has been derivative of traditional
furniture. I try not to make furniture that
looks like a kitchen cabinet. So I milled the
five curly maple panels that make up the
sides and the top of the blanket chest from
solid stock glued together with butt joints
at the seams. I raised the panels by cutting
a cove around the perimeter on the outside
surface, allowing for a very narrow reveal
between the frame pieces and the cove.
For the cove cut, I used a router table with
a standard high-speed-steel, -in. cove bit.
To increase the height of the cove, I stood
the panels on end, against the fence, and
ran them vertically through the router. This
way, I could make use of the -in. height of
the cove bit rather than its smaller radius.
I took slight incremental cuts, about in.
at a pass, to avoid burning the maple. This

Ledger strips support a
plywood bottom panel
painted with odorless milk
paint (above). A liner of
tongue-and-groove aromatic
cedar (right) is glued on top
of the plywood and is notched
to fit around the legs.
improves consistency and saves time and
frustration. And I ran each panel through
consecutively before raising the bit. Experi-
ence has taught me to be careful not to bull
through this process. Only a newly sharp-
ened bit will do; if the bit is borderline dull,
it will burn. And I find that high speed steel
is less likely than carbide to burn a work-
piece. For most woodworking projects, I
think carbide has been over-hyped.
After I finished cutting the coves on all
five panels, I used a dado blade in my
tablesaw to remove enough material to
make a tongue that fits into the grooves
previously cut in the legs and rails. The
grooves were in. deep, so I made the
tongues in. long, allowing in. for ex-
pansion. In sizing panels, it's important to
allow enough room for seasonal expan-
sion and contraction. Often I have to fine-
tune the width of a panel tongue by using
a rabbet plane to shave the shoulder.
I pre-finished all the curly maple panels
before assembly, because it's easier to get
a finish on the cove edges this way. On the
inside surfaces, I brushed on three coats of
shellac. Shellac will not impart any un-
pleasant odor to blankets or sweaters
stored inside the chest. On the outside of
the panels, I used a linseed oil and turpen-
tine mixture, wiping off any excess oil (as it
began to tack up) with cotton rags. I took
great care to dispose of the rags by putting
them in a bucket of water.
Assembly is easy
With all the parts prepared, I assembled the
chest in sections (see the photos on the
facing page). The front and rear sections
each consist of two legs, top and bottom
rails and a floating panel. I glued and
clamped the front and rear sections sepa-
rately. (I prefer Titebond Extend glue,
which I buy from Woodcraft Supply, be-
cause it provides a little more working time
for putting together many parts at once.) At
this time, I wedged the exposed through-
tenons with precut maple wedges, wetted
with a dab of glue. I also pinned the verti-
cal centers of the panel tongues to the legs
so that the panels will expand and contract
evenly in the top and bottom rails (see the
drawing on the facing page). When the
glue on the front and rear frames had set, I
then glued and clamped the whole chest
together, joining the front and rear sections
with the top and bottom rails of the sides.
I was careful not to forget to put in the
maple side panels.
After the four sides were together, I at-
tached bottom ledger strips with screws
and glue, and screwed a -in. birch ply-
wood bottom panel to the ledger. I painted
the plywood panel with milk paint (which,
like the shellac, won't impart an odor). With
a few lengthwise beads, I glued a tongue-
and-groove aromatic cedar lining on top of
the plywood to make the floor of the chest
smell good (see the photos at left). A little
play in the tongue-and-groove joints and
glue on only a few boards allow the cedar
lining to expand and contract without bust-
ing up the chest. I also glued up the frame-
and-panel top, which is essentially a door
mounted on brass butt hinges.
Once the top was glued up, I laid out the
curves on the ends, using spline weights
and a plastic spline (see FWW #71, p. 45). I
cut the curves with a sabersaw and then
cleaned up the edges with a block plane
and sandpaper. Before setting the hinges,
I glued a filler strip to the rear top rail,
between the two rear legs (see the photos
below). To keep the lid from swinging too
far back, I installed a leather strap. The
leather adds a warm touch to the chest
without sacrificing strength.
John McAlevey teaches at the Center for
Furniture Craftsmanship in Rockport, Maine,
and builds one-of-a-kind furniture in a shop next
to his home in Tenants Harbor, Maine.
A filler strip holds the
hinges. The strip is glued to
the rear top rail and butts
against the rear legs, whose
inside back corners remain
unchamfered.
 Where
Furniture Meets
the Floor
These four traditional bases change the look
and style of the same chest
BY M A R I O
D
uring the 1980s, when I operated a shop in Brooklyn, we
received a steady stream of plain-Jane chests that had
been picked up by interior decorators on their trips to
the countryside or abroad. I was instructed to give these chests the
"Cinderella treatment"—to revitalize them by changing the hard-
ware, possibly adding stringing to the drawer fronts, or maybe
making a new top.
By far the most dramatic change took place when I replaced a
base. With a new base, a piece would assume a new personality. If
I added just the right bracket feet, say, a mundane Victorian behe-
R O D R I G U E Z
moth could be transformed into an elegant Chippendale-style
treasure. The careful selection of the base proved, time and again,
to be critical to the success of the completed piece. And I've found
just the same thing to be true in designing my own pieces or
adapting period designs.
To demonstrate the impact that different attached bases can have
on a basic chest and to show how approachable most are to make,
I've built a single, unadorned chest of drawers and fitted it with
four different bases: with bun feet, with saber feet, with sled feet
and with ogee bracket feet. All four of these bases are drawn from
historical examples, but as you'll see, they can easily be adapted BUN FEET
to modern designs as well.
A lathe-turned foot that has its
Why you need a base origins in Europe, the bun foot
A chest is essentially a box on a base. The box is where the action is typically held to the bottom
of a case by means of a
is—the drawers, the doors, the shelving. So the base, resting right
wedged round tenon locked
on the floor, might seem likely to fall beneath our notice. But its
into a hole drilled into the case
impact is strong. First, it literally lifts the cabinet off the floor. The or into a molded frame below
air it puts beneath the piece gives the cabinet definition and makes the case. A flattened section
even an armoire appear lighter. Plunked right on the floor without at the bottom of the
a base, a large cabinet looks stunted and incomplete; it begins to spherical bun gives the foot a
seem immovable, like a part of the building. A Newport secretary firm stance on the floor.
minus its bracket feet would be about as impressive as the Statue
of Liberty standing knee-deep in New York harbor.
The proper base should not only elevate the case but also en-
hance the other features of it. Instead of concentrating all of the de-
tailing on the case and treating the base as an afterthought, I work
out the details of the base along with the case.
My choice of a base is influenced by the size and weight of the
piece. For instance, I wouldn't place a massive, multidrawer chest
on dainty saber feet. Structurally, the feet might not support the
great weight of the piece and its contents. And aesthetically, a large
cabinet supported by diminutive feet might bring to mind a sumo
wrestler wearing ballet slippers.
From a practical perspective, the lift a base provides also gives
better access to the contents of a piece and protects them from
moisture and dirt. In addition, an attached base can simplify con-
struction of the carcase and can easily be replaced if it is damaged.

A base with bun feet Bun foot starts with a gouge. Turn a Finish with a rasp. Use a
The bun-footed base is a lively design that can animate even a very rough cylinder, then use a pencil to rasp with a light touch to
large piece of furniture. Yet with their low center of gravity and mark out the major segments of the smooth the bumpy surface
rounded form, bun feet are the sturdiest possible. The base is will- foot, including an equator for the left by the gouge and to fin-
foot's sphere. ish shaping the bun foot.
ing to carry great weight and will even endure being shoved and
dragged across the floor. The ball-shaped feet introduce a nice
counterpoint to the rectilinear lines of a chest. The balls can be full
and round, almost forming perfect spheres, flattened like dough-
nuts or elongated into cylindrical shapes.
Bun feet originated in Germany and Scandinavia and later were
used on Kasten and blanket boxes in America. Bun feet were typ-
ically used on fairly massive
pieces, but they found their
way onto more refined case
pieces such as desks and
chests during the William and
Mary period (1690-1730).
Bun feet are produced on
the lathe. In the earliest exam-
. ples, they were turned from a
single block of wood; later,
the block was laminated.
Each foot has a stem or tenon
at the top that is used for at-
Wrenching accuracy. To size the round Footed frame. The round
tachment to the case. Below tenon on top of the bun foot, hold an tenons of the bun feet are
that is a ringlike shoulder and open-end wrench against the back of wedged to holes drilled in a
then a narrow neck, called the foot while cutting the tenon to size molded frame. The frame is
the reel, that swells into the with a parting tool. When the wrench screwed to the bottom of
ball. The most difficult aspect Scale: 1 square = in. slips over the tenon, it's the right size. the case.

Photos: Jonathan Binzen, except where noted; facing page and this page, top right: Michael Pekovich
 SABER FEET
The front feet on a
For the
Hepplewhite-style compound-
saber-footed base curved front
curve both to the feet, trace the
front and the sides. layout template
on two
The back feet curve adjacent faces
only to the side, (A and B) of a
allowing the case to in. square
sit tight against a leg blank. The
tracings should
wall. Mortise-and-
meet at the
tenon joints hold foot's bottom
together the rails tip. For the
and feet. Pine blocks single-curved
strengthen corners. back feet, you
need to trace
The base is screwed the template
to the case through only on one
the blocks. side.

Front feet are cut four times. The front
feet on a saber-footed base curve to the
front and to the outside, requiring four
bandsaw cuts. The first two cuts are made
with the blank resting on the same face.
Tape the waste back on. After making the first two
cuts on the front feet, tape the waste pieces back on
the feet. This will give you a flat surface on the band-
saw for the second two cuts.
Back foot meets the frame. Saber feet
are often linked with rails to create a
strong frame that's screwed to the bottom
of the chest. The foot is trimmed flush to
the frame with a block plane.

of turning a bun foot is executing a nice, round ball. If it looks like
a potato, it won't work as a bun foot.
For a typical bun foot, start by turning a cylindrical blank. Mark
out the major segments of the foot on the cylinder, including a line
for the equator of the ball and a circle on the end of the cylinder to
establish the flat portion where the ball will rest on the floor. Turn
the reel and the shoulder first and then begin work on the ball.
Seasoned turners often use a large skew chisel to cut a sphere.
By pivoting and rotating the tool, they obtain a smooth, arcing sur-
face that requires little or no sanding. If you have less experience
on the lathe, you might have better luck with a stout gouge. The
surface you achieve may be a little bumpier, but the gouge is less
likely to dig in and ruin the job because only a small portion of the
tool's cutting edge contacts the workpiece. Even so, cut carefully,
stopping frequently to check for symmetry.
You can use a rasp to perform the final shaping and smoothing.
A rasp can be easily controlled and lightly applied to the rotating
shape to correct the bun's outline. By varying the pressure, you
can control the amount of wood you remove. And unlike a turning
tool, the rasp won't dig into the work. Use sandpaper on the spin-
ning piece to attain the final smooth surface.
There is a foolproof technique for turning the tenon on a bun
foot to a precise diameter. From behind the rotating workpiece,
press an open-end wrench against the tenon while removing ma-
terial with a in. parting tool. The narrow parting tool is used with
a scraping action, so it doesn't require careful guidance and can be
held in one hand. When the tenon is reduced to the precise final
dimension, the wrench slips over the tenon.
The simplest way to attach bun feet to a case is to drill holes into
the bottom of the carcase to receive the feet's tenons. But if the
interior of the cabinet or chest will be visible, so will the ends of
the tenons. In that case, attach the feet to a frame and then screw

Drawings: Vince Babak; upper left photo: Michael Pekovich

 the frame to the underside of the chest. Make the frame of solid SLED FEET
wood and cut a profile on its edge, which adds a molding to the
bottom of the chest. This base of European origin
is made of three main
A base with saber feet components: two sled feet
The sleek, graceful saber foot was most popular during the Hep- and a perpendicular beam.
plewhite period (1790-1805), when Baltimore cabinetmakers used The front of the feet typically
protrude beyond the front of
it extensively. But with its hard edges and simple sweep, the saber
the case. A in. tenon is
foot transcends period classification and looks perfectly comfort- turned on each end of the
able on modern pieces. Visually, the saber foot works best with beam, and it is secured
pieces that are moderate to small in size, fairly rectilinear in form through holes in the feet with a
and restrained in detailing. On the right case, a base with saber feet wedge (see the bottom photo).
will confer a sense of poised nimbleness, like that of a dancer.
When designing saber feet, strive for a smooth, moderate curve.
Start by making a cardboard template of the silhouette and use the
Crisp cuts start on
template to trace the silhouette on a square blank. For the front feet a tablesaw. Cutting
of the base, which curve to the front and to the side, trace the tem- the shoulder on the
plate on adjacent sides of the blank; for the back feet, which curve front of the sled-
only to the side, trace the template only on one side of the blank. footed base is best
As you design the curve of the feet, err on the side of moderation; done on a tablesaw.
a curve that looks good on the template will often appear exag-
gerated when cut out of the blank, because each foot is a com-
pound curve. Too radical a curve can make a foot look like it is
straining under the weight of the cabinet. And, in fact, it may well
be. The grain is short at the toe, and the farther the toe extends, the
more vulnerable it is to breaking off.
The curves are cut on the bandsaw. After cutting one side of the
front legs, temporarily reattach the cutoffs with masking tape.
Then rotate the blank and cut the other curve. Clean up the convex
curves using a block plane with a very small throat opening and a Relieving the
very sharp blade. I do any further cleaning up with a card scraper. waste. Several
On the concave sides, I begin with a curved soled spokeshave and bandsaw kerfs cut
follow that with rasps and sandpaper. just to the layout
Saber feet are often linked with rails, creating a strong frame that lines of the front of
the sled foot will
can easily be screwed to the bottom of the case. Like table aprons, make it easier to
the rails are tenoned on the ends and fitted into mortises in the maneuver the wood
saber feet. It is simplest to cut the mortises in the feet while the around the blade for
blanks are still square. the tight corners
of the finish cut.
A base with sled feet
Solid and low slung, the sled-footed base suggests—and delivers—
stability and strength. It can be used on both low storage chests
and towering cupboards. I've seen sled feet on painted Scandina-
vian chests dating back to the 15th century as well as on early 20th-
century English Arts-and-Crafts pieces. To me, sled feet conjure up Wedge treatment.
sturdy medieval coffers and cupboards reinforced with iron straps The back of each
sled foot is cut
and hinges, or simple rustic square and flush
furniture built and shaped with the back of the
with little fuss. chest. Both feet are
The sled-footed base is screwed to the bot-
comprised of two parallel tom of the chest.
feet joined by a beam. The
front ends of the feet typi-
cally extend beyond the
front of the piece and are
often chamfered, rounded
over or embellished with an
ornamental scroll. A varia-

Top right photo: Boyd Hagen; bottom: Michael Pekovich

 OGEE BRACKET FEET
Popular in the Chippendale
period, ogee bracket feet are
made from sections of
tablesaw-made ogee molding.
The tight inside curve of each
foot is cut on a drill press
before the rest of the bracket is
cut on a bandsaw. The rear feet
are molded on the sides only.
Flat pine blocks butt to the
end of the rear feet and allow
the case to sit tight to a wall
(see the drawings on the
facing page).

Spline time. An ogee bracket foot is made of
mitered sections of moldings and held together
with splines. After cutting the corner miter on a ta-
blesaw, the author sets up the saw to cut a groove
for the spline, taking care that the height of the
spline cut is lower than the height of the thinnest
part of the ogee profile.
Low, inside curve. Most of the cutout work on
the ogee bracket foot is done on a bandsaw. An
exception is any tight, constant-radius curve,
such as the one near the bottom of the foot,
which is more easily cut with an appropriately
sized Forstner bit.
Taped around a square block. To en-
sure a tight, 90° miter, set the splined-
and-glued bracket foot around a squared
block of wood. The miter is held tight with
tape until the glue dries.

tion on this design that you sometimes see is one that raises the
carcase off the feet with legs.
Because the shaped end of a sled foot is in front of the cabinet,
its shape and finish must be crisp and attractive. Cut the shoulder
of the scroll on the tablesaw and the curved outline on the band-
saw. Fair the curves and smooth them with fine rasps, files, card
scrapers and sandpaper. Start with a fine, 6-in. tapered rasp to cre-
ate a flowing curve without any abrupt dips or blips. Work down
from the bottom of the shoulder cut to the tip of the foot. Next,
take care of the rough surface left by the rasp with a smooth round
file and a card scraper. Finally, sand a bit for a silky surface. Make
sure the curving edge is square to the sides, not lopsided. Refrain
from breaking the edges, keeping everything crisp and clean.
Because the feet support the weight of the cabinet, the beam's
purpose is mainly decorative. Not needing maximum strength, I
joined the beam to the feet with round mortise-and-tenon joints.
Turn the tenons on the lathe and size them with an open-end
wrench to an exact in. diameter. Then drill a corresponding
hole in the feet to accept the through-tenon. For a decorative
touch that also ensures a tight, clean joint, cut a thin kerf into the
end of the tenon with a dovetail saw and later, when assembling
the joint, tap a wedge into the kerf.
A base with ogee bracket feet
I always have fun with making ogee bracket feet and put great ef-
fort into their design. Ogee bracket feet give a rectilinear cabinet a
fluid, sculptural touch, catching light and shadow in a pleasing
way. This sculptural design was popular in the 18th century and
typifies the Chippendale style (1760-1790). While displaying the
sensuous nature of the wood, ogee bracket feet give a piece a stur-
dy, rocklike stance.
By definition, an ogee is a pair of complementary curves that
form an S shape. The relationship of these curves can vary to suit
your taste. The curves might be the same radius, or you might have
a tight convex curve over a wide, shallow concave curve. The on-
ly requirement is that the convex curve be at the top and the con-

cave curve below. A bracket foot with a convex curve at the bot-
tom is called a reverse ogee.
A successful ogee profile will have a lively, curling contour, sug-
gesting fabric unfurling. In addition to the undulating ogee, a
bracket foot is defined by the profile at the end of each wing of the
bracket. Some end quite simply; others end with a flourish of
scrollwork. When designing a bracket foot, this end profile is read
two ways—as a positive form (the foot) and as a negative form (the
space beside the foot). You can explore this positive/negative re-
lationship by cutting possible profiles in a light material and view-
ing them against a dark background.
There are a few ways to make ogee molding (see FWW #102,
pp. 82-85). I cut the cove with an angled fence on the tablesaw and
the convex shape with tablesaw cuts and hand tools. After milling
long sections of ogee profile, cut them into 8-in. lengths. Next, des-
ignate adjacent pieces to be paired up as feet so that the grain will
be continuous around the mitered outside corner of the bracket.
The pieces must be marked left and right to produce a pair.
Screw through triangular corner
block. The back feet on an ogee brack-
et base are not mitered like the front
ones. Rather, the ogee bracket butts a
flat pine block that will be invisible
when the case is placed against a wall.
I often use splines to register and align the joint. To cut a groove
into the face of the miter, set the tablesaw blade to 45°. Clamp a
scrap to the saw table to use as a stop to register the cut, and use
the miter gauge to push the stock. Be careful to raise the angled
blade no higher than the thinnest dimension of the ogee profile.
The grain orientation of the spline is critical to the strength of the
joint: The grain should run across the width of the spline, not along
the length. To produce a spline with the correct grain orientation,
make a tablesaw kerf into the end grain of a scrap piece of mold-
ing. Then cut the spline free on the bandsaw. Most of the cutout
work for the end profile of ogee bracket feet is done on the band-
saw. But to achieve a crisp result for designs that include tight in-
side curves, I begin at the drill press. I use whatever bit matches
the radius I need—Forstner bits or circle cutters—to cut out the in-
side curves, then I cut the rest of the shape on the bandsaw.
Maria Rodriguez teaches period furniture making in Manhattan, and he is
the author of Traditional Woodwork (The Taunton Press, 1998).
 Shaping
Cabriole Legs
Careful layout helps make graceful legs
with smooth curves

BY LONNIE BIRD

D uring the 18th cen-

tury, cabriole legs
were integrated
into every form of furniture-
chairs, casework, tables and
even beds. Today, nothing
symbolizes 18th-century furni-
ture more; the cabriole leg has
become the icon that distin-
guishes furniture of this period
from all other styles. It is also
rather simple to make.
Surprisingly, cabriole legs exhib-
it tremendous variation in form. In
fact, furniture historians can often
determine the origin of an antique
based solely on the form and detail of
its cabriole legs. Regional furniture
makers sculpted legs with features
particular to the region in which they
lived. For example, Pennsylvania legs
are robust with a pronounced curve,
while legs of New England origin often
display a slender, subtle curve.
The feet of period legs also vary in
both style and execution. The pad, or
spoon, foot is most common. It's also
the least time-consuming to make be-
cause its circular form is easily turned
on a lathe. The slipper foot is a slen-
der version of the pad foot. Be-
cause it's elongated, it must be
carved rather than turned.
Pennsylvania furniture often
features the unique trifid, or
three-toed, foot with a relief-carved stock-
ing that begins at the toes and terminates
midway up the ankle. Like many elements
of 18th-century furniture, trifid feet can
vary tremendously, from ill-formed to
the claw-and-ball foot, which first emerged
in the mid-18th century and quickly be-
came popular as a sign of status and
wealth. A careful examination of antique
furniture shows that the claw-and-ball foot
beautifully refined—differences that most reflects regional differences more so than
likely illustrate the skill and training of the any other style of foot. Newport furniture
craftsman who carved them. styles, for example, have feet with long
Undoubtedly the most familiar design is talons that are often undercut; the feet of
WHAT MAKES A WELL-PROPORTIONED LEG?
It is easy to make cabri-
ole legs that are poorly
proportioned. When
making templates and
shaping legs, be sure
that your curves never
develop into flat areas
or appear overstated.
After the curves on the
template have been re-
fined and established,
make a practice leg
and double-check your
proportions, before it's
too late.
New York pieces are square and boxlike; DIFFERENT TEMPLATES FOR DIFFERENT LEGS
Philadelphia claw-and-ball feet appear
tense and powerful. Additionally, a closer
study reveals numerous variations of the
18TH-
carving within a specific re-
CENTURY gion. No doubt this is a re-
FEET flection of the skill and
interpretation of individual
carvers.
Even though the com-
pound curve of a cabriole
leg can appear difficult to
make, in reality making a
cabriole leg is quite easy.
That's because the curve is
bandsawed on the stock on
Trifid foot
two adjacent surfaces. After
sawing, the curve is
smoothed and refined with
hand tools.
In contrast, designing and
drawing a leg with balance,
proportion and a graceful,
flowing curve can be quite a
challenge. A visit to a major
museum will reveal numer-
Slipper foot ous outstanding examples of
cabriole legs, but in fact,
many antiques have cabriole
legs with disproportionate
feet, ankles or knees. Other
legs simply lack a refined,
fluid curve. For these rea-
sons it's important to study
the best examples when
looking for inspiration and
Pad foot direction.

Establish the general proportions

Begin by establishing the parameters of the
knee, foot, ankle and post block. General-
ly speaking, the width of most knees are
within a range of in. to in. It's most
important to size the knee so that it's pro-
portionate to the piece of furniture on
which it will be used.
The foot is proportional to the knee (or
sometimes slightly smaller). Ankles typical-
ly range in size from in. on a slender leg
of a tea table to in. on a tall chest. The
pad of the foot is in. to in. high, and
the height of the entire foot is in. to in.
Remember that these are guidelines for a
pad foot. Trifid and claw-and-ball feet are
larger and heavier than pad feet, and con-
sequently they require a heavier ankle to
appear proportionally correct. The post
block is typically in. to 1 in. smaller than
the knee. Sizing the post block is critical; if
it's too small, the knee will appear swollen.
If the post block is too large, the knee may
have a weak appearance.
It is very helpful to study good examples
of cabriole legs from the numerous books
available on period-furniture collections.
Study photographs that have been taken
"straight on"; isometric views can mislead
you into thinking that the leg is heavier
than it actually is.
The finest leg examples have smooth,
continuously flowing lines that lead your
eye from the post block to the foot without
irregularities. It's best to avoid examples
with stiff, straight lines. The lines, including
those on long, slender legs, should always
curve, even if subtly.
Make a template
When designing a cabriole leg, begin by
drawing a full-sized template for tracing
onto the leg stock. I use in. birch veneer
plywood for making these templates be-
cause the plywood is stiff and the light col-
or and smooth texture make a suitable
surface for drawing.
Once the dimensions for the foot, ankle,
knee and post block have been estab-
lished, concentrate on drawing the curves
that define the front and back of the leg.
These curves are the most essential to a
successful cabriole leg.
The post block intersects the knee at an
angle of approximately 45°. From there the
line travels in a convex curve through
the knee. Below the knee is a transition
point, where the line curves inward to be-
come concave. A cabriole leg appears
most graceful when the transition point is
located just below the knee. A leg with a
low transition point tends to appear awk-
ward and less refined.
LAYING OUT STOCK
1. Lay out the leg. With the template held in
place, draw out the pattern on adjacent faces
of the leg.
2. Transfer the pad width. Use a square set
to the widest point of the pad.
3. Mark out the leg at both ends. Transfer
the pad dimension to both the top and bottom
of the blank.
4. New centers are off center. Use the
square to locate the centers of the pad width,
not the center of the blank.
The line at the back of the leg begins at a
point behind the knee. It somewhat fol-
lows the line at the front of the leg, al-
though the curve is less pronounced. As
the lines flow downward, they converge
at the ankle, then quickly broaden at the
top of the foot.
When sketching the curves I find it help-
ful to sight down the line to examine the
transition point and check for smoothness
of the curve.
Diagonal grain is best for legs. By orienting
When you're satisfied with the drawing, the end-grain patterns along the diagonal
bandsaw the template exactly to the line of the blank, you are left with straight grain
and smooth the edges with a file. Then on each face.
model the leg on a piece of inexpensive
stock, such as poplar. This allows you to
view the design as a three-dimensional
form. After viewing the model, I often the size of the foot or ankle, and stand
make further refinements, first to the leg them side by side for comparison.
and then to the template.
Experience has taught me not to make Choose leg stock wisely
quick decisions when judging the model. Once you're satisfied with the model, se-
In fact, I usually stand it on the bench and lect stock and begin working on the legs.
leave it there for a few days while working Avoid using glued-up stock; the opposing
on other projects. Occasionally I stop and grain, color and gluelines distract from the
view it from various angles. Sometimes I completed leg. In fact, stock selection can
make two models, with minor variations in play a major role in the overall success of
the leg. If the annual rings on the end of the BANDSAWING THE BASIC SHAPE
stock run from front to back, the grain on
the face of the stock will complement the 1. Bandsaw the
curves of the leg. Rings that run side to side leg. Begin by cut-
compete visually with the leg contours. For ting to the line on
the greatest strength, especially at the an- parallel faces of
kle, use only straight-grained stock. the leg, making
The next step is to joint two adjacent sure to leave a
full-width bridge
faces of the stock 90° in relationship to
on the outside
each other. Then plane the stock to a thick- face.
ness that allows room for tracing the tem-
plate. Finally, cut the leg stock 1 in. longer
than the final length. The extra length pro-
vides room for the drive center of the lathe.

Transfer the layout

and bandsaw the stock
After milling the leg stock to size, trace the
template back-to-back onto two adjacent
faces. If the length of the leg exceeds the
top of your bandsaw, leave a square sec-
tion above the ankle to support the leg
when you bandsaw the adjacent face. (I
call this area the support block.) Also, leave
the top of the post block square to position
the drive center of the lathe.
Leave the foot square, too. Remember,
the foot is circular and can be shaped easi-
ly on the lathe; leaving it square facilitates
the turning process.
When sawing the first face, save the off-
cut at the back of the leg because it has the
drawing for the second face. It can be
repositioned with masking tape.
Before bandsawing, mount the appropri-
ate blade on your bandsaw. For a typical
cabriole leg, a in., 4- or 6-pitch, regular-
tooth blade works well. The narrow width
easily follows the tight turn at the ankle,
and the tooth pattern cuts cleanly.
Begin by sawing the short, straight cuts at
the intersection of the post and support
blocks. This way you can saw the curve
without trapping the blade at the end of
the cut. Next, start at the foot and saw the
curves of the leg. If you follow the layout
lines precisely, you'll avoid extra hand-
work later. As you reach the end of the
curve, reduce the feed pressure and ease
into the corner to avoid overshooting the
intersection and ruining the post block.
Tape the offcut at the back of the leg into
position and saw the second face. After-
ward, saw off the support block.
Turn the foot on the lathe
Before mounting the leg in the lathe, you'll
have to locate the centers precisely on the
2. Save the off-
cut. After band-
sawing the inside
face, be sure not
to throw away
the offcut.
3. Tape it up.
Reposition the
offcut and use
masking tape to
secure it in
place.
4. Bridge fends
support. The
bridge helps
guide the cut as
you finish the
leg.
5. The last cut.
When the leg has
been cut to
shape, trim away
the bridge.
ends of the stock. If the foot is the same with the foot at the tailstock. Then position
size as the leg blank, you can simply mark the tool rest and turn the leg by hand to
diagonal lines on each end. However, the check that it clears the rest.
foot diameter typically is slightly smaller Begin by rounding the foot with a gouge.
than the knee, and the foot is positioned so Be careful not to spoil the curve of the leg
that it lies toward the front of the leg, which by cutting into the ankle when turning.
gives the leg a more pronounced curve. To Then make a shallow V with a skew at the
find the center, lay out a square on each top of the foot. This provides a clear line to
end of the leg that corresponds to the foot work toward later when shaping the leg.
diameter, then mark diagonal lines within Turn the pad to diameter with a parting
the square. tool and gauge it with a spring caliper. Fi-
To avoid striking the drive center with a nally, shape the contour of the foot. I use a
turning tool, mount the leg in the lathe in. gouge and roll the foot contour as I
 TURNING THE PAD
2. Forming the
pad. A gouge
rounds the pad at
its widest dimen-
sion. Check fre-
quently with
calipers until you
reach final width.

3. Establish a line
at the top of the
pad. Draw a pencil
mark at the top of
the pad, then use a
skew chisel to cut
a shallow line at
1. Blank is mounted off-center. Position the that height.
leg in the lathe using the pad centers you drew
out earlier.
4. Round from the
bottom up. Work-
ing up from the bot-
would when turning a bead. The foot con- tom of the pad, use
tour begins at the V and ends at the pad. a gouge to ease the
Before removing the leg from the lathe, transition from
sand it lightly. the top.

Shape the leg

With the turning completed, focus on
shaping the leg. Begin by removing slight
irregularities in the surface from bandsaw-
ing; then remove the sharp corners and
blend the surfaces. On a typical cabriole
leg with a pad foot, the ankle is round but
the remainder of the leg is square with
rounded corners. Be careful not to remove
wood too quickly, especially at the ankle.
You can gauge the ankle with a spring
caliper to check your progress and to keep
sets of legs uniform.
Secure the leg in a pipe clamp and mount
the pipe clamp in a vise. I shape the leg
with a #49 Nicholson rasp, but you can al-
so use a spokeshave. I prefer the rasp be-
cause it cuts quickly and will reach into the
sharp curve at the ankle. As an added ben-
efit, the rasp doesn't tear out difficult
woods, such as curly maple. Hold the rasp
askew so that it bridges any high spots and
cuts them away. Remove the leg from the
clamp occasionally and sight down the
curve for dips or bumps. This first step will
progress quickly if you followed the line
precisely when bandsawing the leg.
Next, begin rounding the leg corners. To
keep the corners uniform, you may find it
helpful to chamfer each corner first, then
round off the corners of the chamfer. Start
with the front of the leg and shape the
knee, moving upward toward the post
block. Then shape downward from the
knee toward the ankle. As you shape, con-
tinually alternate the surfaces of the rasp;

All 18th-century pad feet that I've examined are round, pre- Templates
sumably because they were turned on a lathe. But even if you help lay out
the pad. Use a
don't have a lathe, you can produce an attractive pad foot;
circle template
you'll just need to be prepared to spend a little extra time at it. to position the
When you bandsaw the leg blank, go ahead and bandsaw circle at the
the foot outline as well. This will create a square pad foot that bottom of the
pad.
provides a guideline for shaping by hand. Next, locate the cen-
ter of the foot by marking diagonal lines. Then draw the cir-
cumference of the pad with a compass or template.
To shape the foot, remove the four corners with a chisel and
rasp. A carving gouge with a curvature to match the foot con-
tour is also helpful in achieving a pleasing appearance. Finally,
smooth and blend the surfaces with a file.
 SHAPING THE LEG
1. Spokeshave cleans up bandsaw tracks. With the leg
placed in a clamp and held in a vise, a spokeshave is used to
smooth out any rough spots the bandsaw may have left.
2. Rasping off the corners. Begin shaping the leg by easing the
corners with a rasp,
3. Shape the top of the pad. At the bottom of the leg, use a
rasp to smooth the transition to the pad.
4. Cut to the line. When shaping the leg, make sure you don't
round over the cup at the bottom, Use a chisel to build a small
shoulder along the line cut at the lathe.

use the flat surface for the convex areas of
the leg, and the convex surface of the rasp
for the concave curves of the leg.
To rasp away the corners of the leg, hold
the rasp at a skewed angle and follow the
leg contour. After shaping the front corner,
progress to the back and finally the two
side corners. Keep in mind that the corners
at the sides of the leg remain sharp where
they intersect the knee block. Use a chisel
at the foot to blend the curves of the leg in-
to the V cut you made at the lathe. Once
you're satisfied with the shape of the leg,
smooth it; first with a file, then with a card
scraper. A bit of light sanding completes
the process.
Remember that these are guidelines for a
typical cabriole leg with a pad foot. Be-
cause all legs have intrinsic variations de-
pending on their origin, you'll want to
compare the leg you're shaping to a pho-
tograph of one you're reproducing. For ex-
ample, not all legs have round ankles; a leg
with a claw-and-ball foot typically has an
ankle that is somewhat square, with round-
ed corners. If you take your time working
out the pattern, shaping the legs goes
smoothly and quickly. Learning to make
cabriole legs opens you up to a whole new
style of furniture.
Lonnie Bird teaches furniture making at the
University of Rio Grande in Ohio.

Lay out by Establish a Rasping a

eye. The shoulder. round pad.
circle at the Use a carving Rasps and
top of the gouge to es- files help
foot is pen- tablish the round the
ciled in by curve on one pad down to
eye. comer, then the bottom
use a chisel to of the leg.
cut away the Once the bot-
small shoul- tom has been
der at the bot- shaped, sight
tom of the down the leg
pad. and clean
up the top
profile.
Joining
Legs to Aprons
The size and location of mortise-and-tenon
joints affect their strength
B Y G A R R E T T H A C K

T
he life of a table is often not easy. Legs get kicked; the table gets pushed and
pulled across uneven floors, leaned against and sometimes even sat upon. To
make matters worse, the very nature of wood adds to the stress. As the tabletop
shrinks and swells with seasonal changes, the movement works against the integrity of
the table’s structure. Where is all this stress felt? It’s the leg-to-apron joint that holds a
table together and gives it rigidity. When that joint fails, the table falls apart.
Leg-to-apron joints must withstand three different kinds of stress. One is shear—a ver-
tical load directly above a joint, such as when someone sits on the corner of a table.
Leaning heavily on the top of a table midpoint above the apron causes the joints to un-
dergo a bending stress trying to lever them apart. Shoving the table sideways or bump-
ing against a leg gives the joints a mixture of twisting forces. Also, as a tabletop that is

Photo, this page: Michael Pekovich JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2003 75

 fastened too tightly to the apron expands or shrinks, it can try to
A S T U R DY L E G - T O - A P RO N J O I N T twist the joints. The best defense against these stresses is a well-
designed, tight-fitting mortise-and-tenon joint that locks apron to
Top helps stiffen the leg. The mortise and tenon is not only a good joint for tables, but
corner joints. the same principles also apply to designing joints for cabinet doors
and chairs.

Haunched tenon Size the tenon

prevents apron When deciding on the sizes of joinery components, the key is to
from twisting.
attain a workable balance. Too large a mortise, and you risk weak-
ening the leg; too skimpy a tenon, and you lose glue and mechan-
Square pins,
rounded over ical strength. The ideal joint would have a large tenon with lots of
to make glue surface, it would be the full height of the apron to best resist
dowels,
twisting, and the mortise would be cut from the center of the width
provide a
mechanical of the leg for maximum strength. But it’s not just the sizes of the
lock. mortise and tenon that you have to balance: The shoulders on
both sides of the tenon must be substantial enough to do their
work. They butt against the leg
and resist bending and twisting WHERE TENONS MEET
forces trying to lever apart the
joint. A good rule of thumb is
to size the tenon thickness a lit-
tle more than one-third the
Square the thickness of the apron.
openings of While the one-third rule is a
the pin holes
Chisel the routed good general guide to follow,
with a chisel.
mortise square at sometimes it’s better to make
the bottom. Miter them, but skip the glue on
exceptions. If I’m building a the very ends. Hack does not
table out of butternut or a sim- bother to glue the end grain of
Locate the If tenons are mitered, the miters, reasoning that the
ilar softwood, with aprons only bond is unreliable.
tenon near cut them slightly short 3
the outside to leave a small gap ⁄4 in. thick, I make the tenons at
face of the between them. least 5⁄16 in., maybe even 3⁄8 in.
apron to
thick. Any smaller and a sharp
maximize its
length. bump to the leg might snap the
tenon right off. Because you
rarely see the thickness of an
Tenon should be a little apron, one good design strate-
TOP VIEW more than one-third the
thickness of the apron.
gy is to make it thicker—7⁄8 in. Butt them together if you have
or 1 in. will provide larger, tenons of unequal width.
Length of the tenon stronger shoulders.
Leave the should be three to four
leg long and times its thickness.
trim to size Maximize tenon length—
after
mortising.
Two other aspects of the tenon
affect the joint strength. One is
the amount of long-grain glue
surface on the cheeks of the
tenon; the other is the length of
Bird’s-mouth joints often are
the tenon, which is affected by found in Asian furniture. This
where the mortise is cut on the design offers additional strength
leg. Naturally, a longer tenon because the tenons interlock.

Offset the has more glue surface and pro-

pin holes vides more mechanical strength to the joint. As a general rule, the
to avoid
splitting
longer the tenon, the better, assuming the leg can accommodate it.
the leg. A tenon length that’s three to four times its thickness is quite ade-
quate. When laying out the size and placement of tenons, a full-
Small shoulder at the scale, top-view drawing will help you understand the orientation
bottom ensures a
SIDE VIEW clean line at the joint. and relationship of all of the parts.
One engineering principle states that the stress on any part is

76 FINE WOODWORKING Drawings: Bob La Pointe

BEGIN BY ROUTING THE MORTISE

Cut the bottom

square. Use chisels
to clean out the bot-
tom corners of each
mortise as an index
to seat the tenons
2 later on.

Scribe lines for

the haunch. A
marking gauge ex-
tends the lines of
the existing mortise
that indicate where
to cut the angled
3 haunch.

Chisel the haunch

1 by hand. There is
no other practical
Routers are quick and accurate. Although his mortises often require way to cut the slope
additional handwork, Hack cuts most of them with a machine he made for this shape. Hack
from scrap parts. It has a router mounted horizontally to a sliding table leaves the table legs
that can be adjusted in three dimensions. long to keep them
from splitting along
least along the centerline or neutral axis. A centered mortise or the top edge while
he chisels the
tenon is stronger because it has all of that wood on both sides bol- 4 haunch.
stering it. For this reason, I prefer to have a shoulder on both sides
of a tenon (rather than one side only) to better resist bending
stresses from either direction. Even a small shoulder will cover any
bruised edges on the mortise that result from cutting the joint.
A centered mortise might be ideal, but the farther to the outside
of the leg you position a mortise, the longer the respective tenon
will be. Too far out and the cheek of the mortise is more vulnera-
ble to splitting under stress. Deciding on the exact placement is a
judgment call that varies with each project. I have butted tenons Check the results
together inside the leg, but doing so makes one tenon shorter than using a small
shopmade tem-
the other. Butting tenons together works when joining aprons of
plate. The template
unequal width, where the wider tenon can be the shorter one be-
makes it easy to
cause it has extra glue surface. I’ve also cut half of each tenon long check your progress
and the other half short and locked one tenon into another with a as you cut the
bird’s-mouth cut as Chinese furniture makers sometimes do. But I 5 angled mortise.

Photos, except where noted: William Duckworth JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2003 77


Tenons on the tablesaw. With the workpiece firmly clamped against
this tenoning jig, the tablesaw can cut tenons cleanly and accurately.
prefer to miter the tenons within the joint without actually joining
them. This is easy to do, and it can add 15% to 20% more glue sur-
face and length to the tenons. If I must incorporate drawers into an
apron, the size of the rail usually calls for a completely different
tenon design (see the story on the facing page).
Shorten the tenon height with a haunch
A tenon the full height of the apron affords lots of glue surface and
strength against bending and twisting forces. But there’s a trade-
off: A full-height mortise weakens the leg, especially if there are
two mortises at the corner of the leg. With the top of the mortise
open, any serious stress on the apron can more easily split the top
of the leg. So the strength of such a joint relies almost entirely on
the glue bond because the mechanical strength is compromised.
A simple solution, and one I prefer, is to shorten the tenon con-
siderably for the top 3⁄4 in. to 1 in. or so and cut an angled haunch.
With this design detail, what little glue surface you lose is balanced
against having a much stronger mortise.
I cut the haunch on the tenon by hand with a dovetail saw and
then clean it up with a chisel. For speed and accuracy, I lay a
wooden template on the tenon to mark out the haunch and use
another one made as the mirror image of that pattern to size the
mortise at the haunch end. To cut the mortise for the haunch, I first
mark out the sides aligned with the mortise with a mortise gauge,
chop the waste, and refine it using the template and a chisel. Be-
cause I cut many of my mortises with a router bit, I keep the top of
the mortise below the haunch round for a small measure of added
78 FINE WOODWORKING
FIT THE TENON TO THE MORTISE
Trim tenons to size and shape. A matching template made to the
negative shape of the one used to check mortises shows where to cut
the angled haunch on the tenons. The first cut is made with a stop block
on the miter gauge.
strength. Also, a small 1⁄8-in. shoulder at the bottom of the apron
tenon will hide any small inaccuracies in cutting the mortise, and
it allows for vertical alignment when the table is assembled.
Adjust the fit and use glue sparingly
The best design and the strongest glue won’t overcome a joint
with carelessly fit shoulders or a sloppy fit between tenon and
mortise. Even when I cut these joints with accurate machine
setups, I still often find it necessary to improve the fit with a few
passes of a shoulder plane or a chisel. I want the shoulders to fit
tightly over their entire surface and the tenon to slide into place
with a minimum of force for a good glue bond.
Part of the long-term strength of the joint is the snugness of the
fit, or what I call its mechanical strength. Glue adds strength, but
how long does a glue bond last? By its very nature a mortise-and-
GLUE
AND PIN
THE JOINT
You don’t need a lot
of glue. With snugly
fitting mortise-and-
tenon joints, a thin
layer of yellow glue
spread evenly is all you
need for a good bond.
 Unique solutions for different
design problems

Not all aprons call for a sin-

TWO TENONS ARE
gle haunched tenon mor-
BETTER THAN ONE
tised into the leg. The prob- Narrow rails under drawers need
lems presented by some beefier tenons. Doubling them up
leg-to-apron joints require maximizes the strength you can get
from such a small piece of wood.
uncommon solutions. One
example is an apron that in-
corporates drawers into the
design, such as those you’d
This handwork is fast and accurate enough. A dovetail saw makes find on a desk or some
quick work of trimming the angled haunch and mitering the ends of
kitchen tables.
the tenons.
Aprons with drawers often Top rail is
dovetailed
have a narrow rail under the into the leg.
tenon joint has wood fibers running cross-grain to one another, drawers that joins into the
which weakens the bond. Flexible modern glues can accommo- leg, and such rails have
date some of this movement. tenons that can’t be any
Before gluing, I always dry-fit and clamp the parts together to dis- higher than the height of the
cover any problems that may arise while there’s still time to solve rail, nor probably any longer
them. To ease assembly, I chamfer the ends of each tenon. Glue- than the other tenons joining
A double tenon
is used on the
ups can be stressful, but it is worth taking care to place the glue so
into the leg. Still, these bottom rail.
as to avoid drips and oozing joints that would be a headache to
tenons are doing quite a bit of
clean up later. With a thin stick about half the width of an ice-
structural work. The solution is to make double tenons parallel to
cream stick, I apply a light amount of glue into the mortise and on
both tenon cheeks. The flat edge of the stick is perfect to squeeze one another, which doubles the glue surface and provides good re-
out the glue in a thin, even layer. Another trick that works well is to sistance to twisting and bending forces (see the drawing above).
cut a light chamfer around the mortise to contain any squeeze-out. Extrawide aprons offer another example of design problems
Ideally, the joint should slip together under light clamping pressure. that require different solutions (see the drawing below). Wood
For large tables and for peace of mind, I often pin the leg-to- movement over such a wide apron is, of course, a consideration.
apron joints. I use a hard, straight-grained wood such as rose- But more than that, another real concern is that a long mortise
wood, ebony or maple for the pins. A contrasting wood can add a can weaken the leg. The long sides of the mortise can flex easily,
pleasing visual detail, and two small pins are stronger than one and the apron-to-leg joint
large one. Most often, I drill holes for the pins after gluing and loses vital mechanical WIDE APRONS NEED A BREAK
drive them in either from the outside or inside of the leg, depend- A mortise longer than 4 in. or so
strength. The solution is sim-
ing on whether or not I want them to show.
can threaten the structural integrity
ply two mortises with a of a leg. A break in the middle for
groove for a stub tenon be- a haunched tenon alleviates that
Garrett Hack is a contributing editor. problem but still keeps the apron
tween them and an angled from twisting.
haunch at the top. The two Glue only the
top of the tenon.
mortises still have plenty of
glue surface and lock the
apron along its full height. If
wood movement is a con-
cern, glue only the top part
of the tenon, then pin the
lower part with elongated
holes, as you would on a
breadboard end, so that the Stub
apron can move slightly. Al-
so, cut the bottom mortise a
Pins are an insurance policy. Small hardwood pins will hold the joint Elongate the bottom
little long to accommodate
tightly, even if the glue fails. Hack leaves the outside end of the pin hole to allow movement.
square and holds it with a wrench as he hammers it home. the anticipated movement.

JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2003 79