Professional Documents
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Contents
Foreword
A. Colin Renfrew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
The Development of the Regional Oak Tree-ring Chronology from the Roman
Sites in Celje (Slovenia) and Sisak (Croatia)
Aleksandar Durman, Andrej Gaspari, Tom Levanič, Matjaz Novšak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Third Millennium BC Aegean Chronology: Old and New Data from the
Perspective of the Third Millennium AD
Ourania Kouka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Absolute Age of the Uluburun Shipwreck: A Key Late Bronze Age Time-Capsule
for the East Mediterranean
Sturt W. Manning, Cemal Pulak, Bernd Kromer, Sahra Talamo, Christopher Bronk Ramsey,
and Michael Dee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
The Rise and Fall of the Hittite Empire in the Light of Dendroarchaeological
Research
Andreas Müller-Karpe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Thera Discussion
Malcolm H. Wiener, Walter L. Friedrich, and Sturt W. Manning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Middle Helladic Lerna: Relative and Absolute
Chronologies
Abstract: This paper will present the first results of the radiocarbon analysis of human bones from Middle
Helladic sites in the Argolid. The main aim of the analysis is to provide a coherent set of radiocarbon data
from several sites and from all sub-phases of the MH period. In this paper we concentrate on the results from
Lerna, and we discuss the problems arising when integrating relative and absolute dates. It is the first time
that a systematic large-scale program of 14 C analyses from MH sites has been undertaken; in fact, the mainland
has been largely ignored in the recent chronological debate in Aegean prehistory. We therefore hope that our
analyses will not only refine the MH sequence, but will also add a new dimension to the debates surrounding the
chronology of the Aegean Bronze Age.
1. Introduction progress has been made in this field, there are still
serious problems that hamper the integration of rel-
This paper presents the results of radiocarbon analy- ative and absolute dates in the Aegean. It has been
sis from human skeletal material from Middle Helladic pointed out already several times (i.e. Manning 1996:
(hereafter MH) Lerna, and discusses the problems 29) that collaboration between archaeologists and sci-
arising when comparing and integrating sequences of entists rarely occurs. Radiocarbon analyses are often
absolute and relative dates. The radiocarbon analy- placed in an Appendix at the end of the final publi-
sis presented here is part of a wider interdisciplinary cation, but are not really integrated into the research
project: the MH Argolid Project, financed by the design of archaeological projects (although notable ex-
Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research and ceptions exist). Second, the coverage of the different
the University of Groningen, the Netherlands. The periods is very uneven: while there is a substantial
aim of the wider project is to reconstruct the social number of measurements for the Early Bronze Age
organization of MH communities and to interpret the (Manning 1995), there are very few dates for the ear-
important social, political and cultural changes that lier part of the Middle Bronze Age. Again, this was
took place in the southern Greek mainland during the stressed already in the 1970s (Cadogan 1978: 20),
MH period and the transition to the LH (see Vout- but three decades later the situation has changed only
saki 2005; and http://www.MHArgolid.nl). This is marginally (see also Manning 1996: 30). The situation
being pursued by means of an integrated analysis of is better in MB III and especially in LB I (Höflmayer
funerary, skeletal, and settlement data from the MH 2005) because of the debate surrounding the eruption
Argolid. The radiocarbon analysis is part of the exam- of the Thera volcano; not surprisingly, there are fewer
ination of the funerary data, as the samples analyzed dates from the later part of the LBA (Wiener 1998;
have been taken from human remains. Manning and Weninger 1992). In addition, the cov-
erage of different regions is clearly uneven: there are
2. The Analysis many dates from the Cyclades, but by far the ma-
jority comes from Akrotiri. There are considerably
2.1 Introduction fewer measurements from Crete, while the mainland
has remained virtually absent from the chronological
Before presenting the aims and methods of the anal- debates in Aegean archaeology (Manning 2005: 113).
ysis, we would like to start with some introductory Moreover, there are many sporadic measurements,
remarks on the position of radiocarbon analysis in rarely more than one or two from sites that have been
Aegean prehistory. Despite the fact that significant
152 Voutsaki et al.
Lerna Blackburn
13
Sample Grave No. Grave No. Skel No. Age BP δ(‰) %C
GrA-28046 BD 27 12 Lerna 103 3830 ±35 -19.21 42.1
GrA-28051 BD 14 32 Lerna 91 3730 ±35 -19.08 43.1
GrA-28213 DE 71 and 25 Lerna 239 3640 ±45 -19.70 43.8
72 (double burial;
239 buried first)
GrA-28054 D 22 47 Lerna 52 3595 ±35 -19.28 41.4
GrA-28053 BD 9 123 Lerna 87 3595 ±35 -19.38 41.0
GrA-28045 H1 136 Lerna 31 3585 ±35 -20.30 41.1
GrA-28050 BD 19 80 Lerna 95 3560 ±35 -19.00 43.3
GrA-28039 A1 152 Lerna 2 3545 ±35 -19.15 42.2
GrA-28048 BD 21 79 Lerna 97 3535 ±35 -19.67 42.8
GrA-28041 D 20 52 Lerna 50 3530 ±35 -19.74 41.8
GrA-28044 B 13 58 Lerna 44 3520 ±35 19.56 42.2
GrA-28040 D9 182 Lerna 28 3510 ±35 -19.50 43.0
GrA-28159 DE 55 100 Lerna 198 3510 ±40 -19.44 40.7
GrA-28211 J5 63 Lerna 218 3510 ±50 -19.96 41.9
GrA-28043 DE 64 103 Lerna 204 3495 ±40 -20.05 43.9
GrA-28157 BE 30 22 Lerna 137 (5 3475 ±40 -19.50 39.9
skeletons buried
at once)
GrA-28160 J4 A 84 Lerna 216 3440 ±40 -19.77 40.8
(double burial;
216 upper
grave; later)
Table 1: The quality of the 14 C results. Please note: the Laboratory Sample Number is followed by the Lerna Grave Number to
allow easy identification of the archaeological context.
extensively excavated over longer periods, but very sis in Aegean prehistory. Our project hopes to redress
few series of measurements and even fewer complete this situation: We are undertaking an extensive pro-
sequences. Again, this situation was lamented in the gram of analyses, taking a series of samples from dif-
1970s (Betancourt and Weinstein 1976: 330; Betan- ferent MH sites in the Argolid. We sample six burials
court et al. 1978: 202) but has not really been rectified from each sub-phase of the MH period (i.e. 6 from
(Manning 1996: 29). Many of the old measurements MH I, 6 from MH II, 6 from MH III), and we try
are not always reliable, as they were taken before the to include burials that can be placed in the earlier or
significant improvements in radiocarbon dating pro- later part of each sub-phase (though this is not always
cedures (Manning 1998: 301). Finally, very few ra- possible). In this way, we can set up a compendium of
diocarbon dates come with good and extensive con- dates for all the sites we are studying and reconstruct
textual information. While there is a lot of discussion whole sequences for the entire MH period. While here
about short-lived (e.g. seeds) versus long-lived sam- we present only the results from Lerna, we are sam-
ples (e.g. wood, charcoal), less attention is paid to pling all sites with a substantial number of burials.
the fact that a sample may come from inside a floor, So far we have taken 19 samples from Lerna, 7 from
from the floor deposit, or from the destruction layer Argos-Aspis, 12 from Asine-East cemetery, and 9 from
above the floor—but these are significant differences Asine-Barbouna (the cemeteries in Aspis and Asine
that need to be taken into account when integrating are not in use throughout the MH period, hence the
absolute and relative dates. Once more, this problem smaller number of samples). We also plan to analyze
has been raised repeatedly (i.e. Betancourt and We- skeletons from the Argos “tumuli,” and possibly the
instein: 331; see also pertinent remarks by Whitelaw prehistoric cemeteries at Mycenae and Midea.
1996: 233). We analyze human bones, and thereby avoid the
We see therefore that these problems have been problems encountered when analyzing long-lived ma-
recognized since the 1970s, but there are still few sys- terials such as wood or charcoal. By sampling human
tematic and problem-oriented programs of 14 C analy- skeletons (more often than not from single burials)
Middle Helladic Lerna: Relative and Absolute Chronologies 153
Lerna Blackburn
13
Sample Grave No. Grave No. Skel No. Age BP δ(‰) %C
GrA-28261 B 21A 88 Lerna 67 3700 ±45 -23.50 0.8
rather than wood, charcoal, or seeds found in settle- 2.2 The Results
ment layers, we date a specific depositional episode
rather than settlement deposits which may have ac- The quality of the radiocarbon data, as can be seen in
cumulated over a period of unknown duration (Ni- Table 1, is good (for a definition of quality parameters,
jboer and van der Plicht 2008). We use the AMS see Nijboer and van der Plicht 2008).
(Accelerator Mass Spectrometry) rather than the con- Only one sample from Lerna (Table 2) did not con-
ventional 14 C method; the latter may be more accu- tain any collagen and the measurement was based on
rate, but it requires much larger samples (250g ver- the residue. This sample has not been included in the
sus 5g necessary when using the AMS method). We analysis.
decided to use AMS because of the need to preserve It should also be added that we have carried out an
the Lerna skeletal assemblage for future generations extensive program of stable isotopes analysis (we have
of researchers. The analyses have been carried out at sampled 48 burials from MH Lerna alone) in order
the Centre of Isotope Research, University of Gronin- to establish the diet of the MH population in Lerna
gen (for requirements see Nijboer and van der Plicht (see Voutsaki et al., in press; Triantaphyllou et al.
2008). 2008). The results, in particular the rather low δ15
We take samples exclusively from well excavated N values, allow us to establish that the inhabitants
and extensively documented cemeteries, and notably of Lerna did not rely on marine resources during the
from well preserved tombs which can be dated with MH period. In this way, we can rule out the “reservoir
reasonable accuracy. In the case of Lerna, in partic- effect” (Lanting and van der Plicht 1998) and increase
ular, we sample only tombs with clear stratigraphic confidence in the accuracy of our results (Figure 2).
contexts whose relative date has been carefully con-
trolled (and sometimes revised) by Carol Zerner. Of 2.3. Discussion of the results
course, we should not underestimate the complexity
of the MH sequence at Lerna; we are dealing with a The aims of the analysis are to increase the chrono-
large intramural cemetery with a complex history of logical resolution of the analysis of funerary and set-
use (Blackburn 1970; Zerner 1978), and with several tlement data, and to refine the MH chronological se-
areas used interchangeably for burial and for habi- quence. What we want to achieve is a more accurate
tation (Milka, in press). This situation has certain definition of both the boundaries of the MH period
advantages, as many graves have clear stratigraphic and its internal sub-divisions. Therefore, the discus-
associations with earlier or later houses. However, sion here will proceed by examining one by one the
these stratigraphic associations may sometimes pro- chronological divisions of the MH period. Figure 2,
vide only a terminus ante or post quem. In effect, which presents once more the results of the analysis,
when integrating absolute and relative dates, we com- as well as an indication of their relative date, will be
pare two ranges of possible dates: just as 14 C dates the basis of the discussion.
come with a certain margin of error, the relative date (i) The EH III/MH I boundary The accepted date
of a grave may also sometimes span more than one for the beginning of the MBA has been placed in
ceramic sub-phase (e.g. a grave may be MH I or MH 2100/2000 bc, i.e. around or just before the begin-
II early). Interpreting radiocarbon dates in an archae- ning of the 2nd millennium (Cadogan 1978: 213; War-
ological context involves precisely this: trying to rec- ren and Hankey 1989: 124; Manning 1995). We have
oncile two ranges of possible dates. Therefore, slight taken three measurements from tombs which had a
modifications of the relative date in the light of ra- MH I relative date: the results from DE 71 & 72 and
diocarbon results are permissible—as long as we stay BD 14 fall clearly within the accepted range, but sug-
within the range dictated by both the stratigraphy of gest that the beginning of the period should be placed
the site and the 14 C measurements. around 2100 bc rather than at 2000 bc. In contrast,
the result from BD 27 (Figure 3), the burial of a child
of 2-3 years old accompanied by a one-handled cup
154 Voutsaki et al.
(Figure 4), has a range of 2460-2140 bc at 2σ proba- the grave contains either no diagnostic offerings, or
bility level (95.4%) (Figure 5). While the grave had at no offerings whatsoever. As we stressed above, the in-
first been dated to MH I, possibly MH I early, its ab- tegration of relative and “absolute” dates is often an
solute date suggests that it may have to be placed ear- exercise in comparing and attempting to reconcile two
lier, i.e. in the late EH III period, or in the transition ranges of possible dates.
between EH III/MH I. Indeed the cup could perfectly (ii) The MH I/MH II division The beginning of
well belong to the EH III period. A renewed exam- the MH II period is placed probably around 1900 bc
ination of the stratigraphic context by Carol Zerner (Dietz 1991: 317; Rutter 2001: 106). The Lerna re-
concluded that a date in late EH III or in the EH sults confirm this: all three MH I measurements lie
III/MH I transition is equally acceptable. before 1900 bc. We could therefore tentatively con-
We see therefore that the absolute dates may some- clude that the MH I period lasts approximately from
times be used to reconsider the relative date, as long 2100 to 1900 bc. Some caution is of course necessary,
as one has confidence in the sample and its context— as we have only very few measurements from the MH I
otherwise, we may enter a circular argument, as has period. In order to corroborate this date, we ought to
often been done in the past. As we stressed above, take more samples from MH I burials. Unfortunately,
the relative dating often covers a certain range, espe- outside Lerna, EH III–MH I burials have been found
cially when (as is so often the case in the MH period) only during the old excavations in the Lower Town of
156 Voutsaki et al.
Figure 6: Adult man buried in grave BD 19. Figure 7: Cycladic jug from BD 19.
158 Voutsaki et al.
MH I 2100?–1900 B.C.
MH II 1900–1800? B.C.
MH III 1800?–1700 B.C.
of the sub-phases of the MH period, but also the rar- gen, the Netherlands, for their generous funding of
ity of comparative data and the virtual absence of sys- the MH Argolid Project. We would like to express our
tematic programs of radiocarbon analysis in the MH thanks to the successive Ephors of the 4th Ephorate of
mainland add to the inherent problems of applying the Classical and Prehistoric Antiquities, Mrs. Zoi Asla-
radiocarbon method (discussed by Warren 1998: 324; matzidou and Mrs. Anna Banaka, as well as the De-
Wiener 2003). We therefore have to adopt a balanced partment of Conservation, Greek Ministry of Culture,
approach, and try to avoid the polarization which has for granting us a permit to re-examine and sample
characterized in recent years the debate surrounding the MH burials from Lerna. We thank the American
the chronology of the Aegean Bronze Age. Both rel- School of Classical Studies, as well as Dr. M. Wiencke,
ative and absolute dates come with a certain range; Dr. C. Zerner, and Dr. E. Banks for granting us per-
neither method is infallible, and neither method is mission to study and sample the Lerna skeletons. We
fully precise. However, progress can be made and would also like to acknowledge the assistance of the
the two sets of data can be integrated, if we under- staff at the 4th Ephorate, particularly Dr. Alkistis
take systematic, extensive, and problem-oriented pro- Papadimitriou. The personnel in the Museum of Ar-
grams of analyses, and if we consider the nature of gos have been extremely helpful; we thank them all.
the samples—and their archeological contexts—very We are grateful to Todd Whitelaw for his insightful
closely. corrections on the first draft. Eleni Milka has assisted
with the tabulation of the contextual data, Tomek
Acknowledgments Hertig, the project assistant, has produced the graphs,
and Siebe Boersma has helped with the illustrations.
We would like to thank Sturt Manning for inviting Finally, we would like to thank the editors for their
us to participate in the Conference in honour of Pe- patience.
ter Kuniholm, which proved a very stimulating and
(largely thanks to Peter Kuniholm’s contagious en-
thusiasm!) deeply enjoyable event. Further thanks to
the entire team at Cornell, and particularly to Mary References
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