Training Manual

Jet Aircraft Maintenance Fundamentals

ATA 24

ELECTRICAL POWER

Issue: Februay 2002

For Training Purposes Only

Lufthansa 2002
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 Lesson 1
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL POWER

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INTRODUCTION

Nearly all systems in modern aircraft needelectrical power. It is mainly used for electrical heating, for lighting, to produce mechanical power, and last
but not least to supply all the electronic devices. Electrical power for heating is mainly used in the galleys for ovens and coffee machines. It is also
used in anti ice systems to prevent icing of air data probes, water systems andcockpit windows. Lighting equipment is mainly used in the cockpit to
provide sufficent general brightness and to illuminate the working areas like panels and maps and in the cabin for passenger comfort and safety and
outside the aircraft to make the aircraft visible for other aircraft and to illuminate the ground during takeoff and landing. Mechanical power is
produced by electric motors, that are mainly used to drive pumps, for example, fuel and hydraulic pumps or to drive a valve to the commanded
position in the fuel, hydraulic or air conditioning system or to move mechanical parts like doors and cargo containers. Electronic devices thatare used
in nearly all aircraft systems are the computers for system control and monitoring and the control inputs and indications in the cockpit and sensors
throughout the whole aircraft.

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To operate all this equipment, a large amount of electrical energy is necessary. It might be hard for you to believe that a modern two engine jet
aircraft needs as much power as five well equipped family houses that’s about 100 KW.

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The electrical power system mainly consists of the generation subsystem, which produces the electrical energy with the necessary parameters and
the distribution subsystem, which provides the electrical energy to all the consumers. In addition, both the generation and distribution are split into
an AC subsystem and a DC subsystem.

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ELECTRICAL POWER SOURCES

Five different AC power sources are used for AC generation in modern jet aircraft.

The engine driven generators are the normal AC power source during flight. Each engine has got one generator and the power is available as long as
the engine is running. To satisfy the power demands of all the consumers, all generators together must produce more electrical power than the
demand. This means each generator produces between 60 and 90 KW.

External power is the normal power source on the ground. It is connected to the external power receptacle in the nose area of the aircraft. It can
provide about 65 KW electrical energy, which is normally sufficent for all the consumers that are needed on the ground.

The APU generator is driven by the auxiliary power unit and can be used as an alternate power source on the ground and in most aircraft also during
flight. It can provide at least as much power as one engine driven generator.

The emergency generator is driven by a hydraulic motor and can provide AC power when no other generator is available during flight. It can provide
about 5 KW, which is sufficient to keep the aircraft flying safely.

The static inverter converts DC power to AC power to supply very important AC consumers when no other AC power source is available. It can
provide about 1 KW which is enough to supply the consumers that are necessary to land the aircraft safely.

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BASIC POWER DISTRIBUTION

All AC power is provided at 115 V and at a frequency of 400 Hz. With the exception of the static inverter, AC power is generated in three individual
phases. The AC distribution supplies all the various AC consumers directly and provides the input power for the DC generation. The AC consumers
need about 95 % of the total electrical energy and consist mainly of heating, lighting and mechanical equipment.

Two different DC power sources are used in modern jet aircraft for DC generation: transformer rectifier units -- or TR Units in short – and batteries.

The aircraft battery is a nickel cadmium type storage battery and is normally located in the avionic compartment. It provides 24 V DC to the DC power
distribution when no other power source is available. This can happen either during flight in an emergency condition when you have total generator
loss or on the ground in certain cases that we will see later. To fullfill these tasks the battery is charged during normal operation of the electrical
power system.

Several identical transformer rectifier units, TRUs, convert the three—phase 115 V AC power from the AC distribution system to 28 V DC power for
the DC power distribution system. They are the normal DC power sources and are available as long as any of the three phase AC power sources are
functioning.

The DC power distribution supplies all the various DC consumers directly and provides the input power to the AC power generation of the static
inverter. The DC consumers need the remaining 5% of electrical energy and consist mainly of electronic equipment and some control and monitoring
parts of the other three user groups.

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POWER DISTRIBUTION

We have now added more details to the AC and DC power distribution, so that we can divide it into three parts.

First, the main power distribution provides electrical power to all main consumers.

Second, the essential power distribution supplies all consumers that are essential to operate the aircraft safely, and third, the emergency power
distribution systemsupplies the consumers that are necessary to land the aircraft safely. Each part of the distribution system can be supplied with
electrical power from a normal source and, in case of loss of this source, from an alternate source. The essential power distribution is normally
supplied by the main power distribution system.

In the event of a failure in the main power distribution or its power sources, the essential power is supplied by the remaining power source as long as
any part of it is available, due to various switching functions.

The emergency power distribution is normally supplied by the main power sources via the essential power distribution. In case of total loss of the
normal power sources, emergency power distribution is switched to its alternate power source which is an emergency generator or the battery.

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ELECTRICAL MONITORING

The control of the electrical powersystem in modern aircraft is mainly automatic, but some switching must be performed manually. This is primarily
done from the electrical power control panel located on the overhead panel of the cockpit. In order to display all the important system data, the
ECAM system is used. These two system pages of the EICAS and ECAM system present the main information necessary tomonitor the system
operation. You have probably noticed that the EICAS display on the left shows no operating parameters, such as voltage or current. This data is
available on the maintenance display page, selecteable via the CMC.

ELECRICAL MONITORING

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 Lesson 2
MAIN AC POWER DISTRIBUTION

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INTRODUCTION

The main AC power distribution consists of the main AC busses, in this example AC bus 1 and AC b bus
us 2, the power source switching that connects the
power sources to the busses and the bus tie switching that provides a connection between the two busses and part of the power source switching.
This example of a main AC power distribution is derived from the Airbus A320. You will find similar system architecture in all two engine jet aircraft.

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THE AC BUS FUNCTIONS

We have already seen the bus as a part of the power distribution. Now we take a closer look at the function of a bus. A bus connects the power
source to all the electrical consumers which use the same type of electrical power.

In the aircraft a bus is not as easy to identify as the red London bus. This is because it consists only of a low resistance electrical connection between
all the wires that lead to the different consumers and the wires from the power source and bus tie switching.

Each bus has a specific name, which allows us to identify the power source for the bus and indicates whether AC or DC is distributed. The names of
the two busses in our schematic should make this principle clear. For example AC bus one distributes alternate current normally delivered from
engine generator number one.

The main AC bus is normally shown as a single bus on electrical schematics like this. In reality all AC busses consist of three different main busses, one
for each phase, A, B or C, of the three phase electrical power system. Each phase is supplied individually from the generator via the power source
switching. These three main busses supply the various consumers directly or via sub--busses.

We can differentiate between four types of AC consumers.

First, the single phase consumers with a low power demand, like lights or electronic equipment. These consumers are connected individually to phase
A or to phase B or to phase C.

Second, the consumers that need a voltage different from 115 V. For example, 26 V or 28 V are needed by incandescent lights and synchro and servo
systems. These consumers are connected to sub--busses that are supplied by individual step down transformers.

Third, the 3 phase consumers such as 3 phase motors and TR units which need all three phases at the same time to operate.

And finally, the large loads, like the galley equipment, that need about 50% of the total electrical load. Each phase of the bus supplies one--third of
the total power, in order to get a symmetrical loading of the power sources.

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LOAD SHEDDING

These large loads must be shed or switched off before we switch any power source on or off on the ground. This load shedding improves the
reliability of the power relays and prevents an overload of the power source. Manual load shedding is achieved via a pushbutton on the electrical
control panel. The pushbutton is called GALLEY on the A320 panel

Automatic load shedding is also available if an overload of generators is detected or must be prevented by the system. This is covered later in this
lesson.

LOAD SHEDDING

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POWER SOURCE SWITCHING

The second main part of the electrical power distribution is the power source switching. It is performed by power relays.

The power relays are controlled either by a generator control unit, GCU, for the generator power sources or by a ground power control unit, GPCU,
for the external power source.

A power source switching always occurs when an existing power source is lost or when a new power source becomes available.

The power source switching is controlled either automatically or manually. The automatic switching is performed by the generator control units to
switch the power sources for flight operation whereas the manual switching is performed from the control panel in the cockpit mainly to switch the
ground power sources.

The power relay of an engine driven generator, in our example generator number 1, is closed automatically by the GCU when the corresponding
switch on the electrical control panel is in the ”auto” position and when the power of the corresponding generator is ready. This power ready
condition means that the voltage and frequency are OK and no failure is detected by the GCU.

The engine driven generator power is not ready as long as the engine is shut down. This is shown by the FAULT light in the generator push button on
the electrical control panel and the indication on the electrical system page of the ECAM system.

Generator number 1 is switched automatically to the power distribution when the voltage and frequency are OK which means power is ready.

You can override the automatic switching with the generator control push button on the electric control panel. OK, the generator is now switched off
manually by the generator pushbutton, even if the engine is still running.

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AUTOMATIC BUS TIE SWITCHING

During a normal flight with both engine generators working, you have the system configuration shown here.

The power source switching has connected both engine generators to their corresponding main AC busses. The power relays of the bus tie switching
are open. This means that the power sources work in isolation from each other. This is known as isolated operation. Generator number 1 supplies the
loads of the left part of the electrical power distribution and generator number 2 supplies the loads of the right part.

If one engine driven generator fails, the bus tie switching automatically closes both bus tie power relays and the remaining generator supplies the
complete electrical power distribution. In this case an automatic load shedding occurs which switches off the galleys to prevent an overload of the
remaining generator. This is shown by the GALLEY SHED message on the ECAM display.

To be able to power the galleys again and to recover the power source redundancy, the APU generator can be switched on in twin engine aircraft as
an alternate power source during flight. See what happens when the APU is started. The APU generator is, like the engine driven generators,
automatically switched on by its power source switching when the power is ready. The APU generator is automatically connected by the bus tie
switching to the part of the distribution that is not supplied directly by its associated engine driven generator.

The redundant supply of the main AC power distribution is recovered. This allows galley power to be switched on again. You have now seen that the
bus tie switching normally operates automatically.

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MANUAL BUS TIE SWITCHING

The only manual action that is possible with bus tie switching is to inhibit a closure of the bus tie power relays. When the bus tie push button is
switched off, both bus tie power relays open.

Power supply from the left to the right part of the distribution or vice versa is no longer possible. Therefore, in our example, the right electrical power
distribution is no longer powered, because generator number two is still faulty.

The bus tie push button is mainly used to prevent bus tie switching in case of smoke in the cockpit generated by a short circuit. In this case a splitting
of the right and left electrical power distribution allows an easier isolation of the smoke source.

The effect of the bus tie push button during ground power supply is shown later in this lesson.

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GROUND POWER SOURCE SWITCHING

Let’s now have a look at the power sources for the electrical power system on ground. Normally an externalpower source is used to supply the whole
systembut if it is not available, an alternate power source is provided by the APU generator.

When external power is connected to the aircraft, the ground power control unit, GPCU, checks whether the power is ready or not. If the power is
ready the available light in the external power push button on the electrical control panel illuminates.

To supply the whole electrical power distribution from external power the external power push button is pressed. Ground power source switching
must always be performed manually.

Note that a list of checkpoints must be satisfied before you are allowed to switch on external power. More details of this will be discussed in a later
lesson.

For now assume that the list of checkpoints is satisfied. When the external power push button is pressed the external power relay is closed by the
ground power control unit both bus tie power relays are closed automatically by the bus tie switching and external power supplies both parts of the
electrical power distribution system. The ECAM displays are now available

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 Lesson 3
MAIN DC, ESSENTIAL & EMERGENCY

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MAIN DC POWER ISOLATED OPERATION

The MAIN DC Power distribution must always work in isolated operation on an aircraft equipped with an electrical flight controlsystem such as the
airbus A320. This prevents a single failure such as a short circuit, from affecting the complete flight control system all at once.

The DC power switching in these aircraft is therefore normally open. It is only closed in the case of a TR unit failure. The switching then automatically
connects the two main DC busses to each other.

Here you can see what happens when a TR Unit fails.

The MAIN DC POWER switching ensures that the MAIN DC busses are supplied for as long as possible even with a single TR unit failure. But in our
simplifiedsystem this switching also connects the two electrical flight control systems to the same power source, this is not safe.

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AC ESSENTIAL POWER DISTRIBUTION

This problem is solved by the addition of another power distribution channel. This is the essential power distribution.

The essential power distribution consists mainly of an AC part and a DC part and supplies all thesystems that are necessary to operate the aircraft
safely, such as the captain’s navigation and communication equipment and important control and warning systems.

Let us use the example of the two engine aircraft again to see some more details of AC essential power distribution. It consists of the AC ESSENTIAL
BUS and the AC essential bus switching.

As you can see, the normal power source for the AC essential bus is the main AC bus number 1 and the alternate power source, the main AC bus
number 2.

The AC essential bus switching is performed manually, by pressing the AC ESSential FEED push button on the electric control panel. As you have seen,
manual AC essential bus switching is always possible but it is only necessary if the normal power source of the AC essential bus fails.

Only in the case of a serious main AC bus 1 failure, like a short circuit, is the AC Essential bus no longer powered. This is indicated to the pilot by the
local warning with the fault light on the electric control panel. The failure is also indicated on the ECAM display. To recover the AC essential power,
press the illuminated AC ESSential FEED push button.

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DC ESSENTIAL POWER DISTRIBUTION

The DC part of the electrical power distribution also contains an essential bus named the DC essential bus and the corresponding DC essential bus
switching. The DC essential bus is the real power source for the electrical flight control system number1, which we have already seen in the main DC
distribution and for other essential DC equipment.

What do you think will happen to the supply of the DC essential bus when TR unit #1, which is the normal power source, fails? Try to answer this
tough question by identifying the signal flow on the schematic.

The DC essential bus switching activates the Essential TR Unit as the alternate power source for the DC essential bus. It always occurs automatically
when the two DC main busses are switched together because of a TR Unit failure.

DC essential bus switching is mainly to secure an independent power source for the DC essential equipment, such as the electrical flight control
system number 1 from the other equipment.

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EMERGENCY POWER INTRODUCTION

All parts of the distribution we saw previously, need the main power sources to work. Find out what happens if none of these are available. When all
main power sources are lost, the captain still needs all necessary information to land the aircraft safely. Therefore the most important equipment is
connected to the emergency power distribution instead of the essential power distribution. Examples of this important equipment are the Captains
main instruments, the engine and warning indications and the major communication systems.

The emergency power distribution is normally supplied from the same power sources as the essential power distribution. But in case of the total loss
of all main power sources, it is switched to the emergency power sources. The emergency power source, which is always available, is the aircraft
battery. It provides sufficient electrical energy for about 30 minutes with 24 V DC directly to the DC emergency bus.

An additional emergency generator is necessary in two engine aircraft which operate on long routes which give no possibility of landing quickly.
Operation on these routes is called extended range operation or EROP for short.

The emergency generator is driven by a constant speed hydraulic motor, therefore the emergency generator is called a ”Constant Speed Motor
Generator, or CSMG” The generator supplies 115 V AC directly to the AC Essential and Emergency Busses and supplies 28 V DC by use of the essential
TR unit to the DC busses.

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EMERGENCY POWER SWITCHING

The emergency power switching is fully automatic during flight. But in addition manual switching is always possible.

The manual switching activates the emergency power even when normal power is available. For example it is provided with the ”emergency electric
MAN ON” pushbutton on the airbus panel or with the ”standby power ” switch in the battery position on the boeing panel.

An additional manual switching function is very important on the ground. This is to inhibit the emergency and battery power switching before the last
main power source, such as external power is switched off. Ok, all batteries are now switched off. This prevents a discharge of the battery by the
emergency equipment, during the time the aircraft is parked. Only one part of the distribution is still powered. This part is called the hot battery bus,
because it is always connected directly to the battery.

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MANUAL SWITCHING

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OPERATION EXAMPLE

Now let’s have a look at the similarities and differences in our two engined aircraft example.

Here the emergency power consists of two emergency busses which are powered as long as the main power sources are available.

In case of total loss of main power sources in this aircraft two different emergency power sources are available. This is as in our previous example,
the battery power, here provided by two individual batteries, and in addition, an emergency generator.

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First, let’s have a look at how the automatic activation of the emergency power sources is performed during flight: When the last main power source
is lost, both of the main AC busses are lost. This deploys the ram air turbine or RAT. This is necessary , because in this aircraft, the RAT generates the
hydraulic power needed for the hydraulically driven emergency generator.

When the hydraulic pressure is available the emergency generator starts running. When AC electrical power is available from the emergency
generator, it is switched automatically to the AC Emergency and AC essential busses.

In addition, the DC electrical power is generated by the essential TR Unit for the DC busses. This means that all the essential equipment for flying the
aircraft can be supplied because the generator provides sufficient power.

You can also see the result shown on the ECAM electrical system page.

If the emergency generator is not available the batteries take over automatically, but because of its limited capacity, it can only supply the most
important equipment. Therefore the Essential busses are automatically shed. On the ECAM display, you can see all the corresponding indications with
the amber shed message on the busses and the battery and static inverter parameters. In this situation the pilot can try to activate the emergency
generator manually. Manual activation is possible by the ”manual on” pushbutton on the emergency electric panel. This pushbutton is easy to
identify because the red emergency generator Fault light is illuminated beside it. You can see that the manual activation of the emergency generator
has the same effect as the automatic function, but it is always available, even on the ground with all power sources switched off.

To prevent an accidental deployment of the RAT which could be very dangerous to ground personnel, the manual ON pushbutton is guarded. Pushing
the manual ON pushbutton on the hydraulic panel has the same effect on the RAT, but the emergency generator is not activated.

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 Lesson 4
DISTRIBUTION COMPONENTS

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INTRODUCTION

The main components are the power relays which are used as the switching devices, the circuit breakers and fuses which are used as safety devices
and current transformers which are used as current measuring devices.

MAIN DISTRIBUTION COMPONENTS

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AC POWER RELAY

For AC switching, two different types of power relays are used: One type is called a contactor and the other type is called a breaker.

The generator power relay number one connects the engine driven generator number one with the distribution. All AC power relays have the same
function, independent of their location in the distribution. This function is to switch the three phase main AC power to specific parts of the
distribution.

Because they perform the same function all AC power relays are basically similar. They consist primarily of the three high power main contacts which
are operated by an electro magnetic device. In addition, several auxiliary contacts monitor the switching state for indication, regulation and
protection.

The electromagnetic operating device of a contactor consists of a coil and the iron armature. When a current is switched on for the coil, a magnetic
field is generated which moves the armature and the contacts. The contacts are operated for as long as the current flows. You can see that it is
similar to a standard relay.

The electromagnetic operating device of the breaker type power relay works in a different way. It needs only a short current pulse to close the
contacts and a second pulse to open or trip the contacts again. To hold the contacts in the closed state, no current is necessary. This is because a
latching device, normally a permanent magnet, is used to hold the armature in the operated position. Here you can compare the three steps in the
operation of the breaker type power relay with the operation of the contactor which we previously explained. The first step is identical for both types
because the close current in the coil must generate the magnetic field. In the second step, the coil current of the breaker is interrupted by auxiliary
contacts and the magnetic field of the permanent magnet holds the armature down. To open the power relay contacts again, the magnetic field of
the permanent magnet must be weakened. This is performed by a trip current which flows in the opposite direction.

The breaker has two advantages over the contactor. One is that the coil can be smaller, because no heat is produced in the coil during the closed
state. The second advantage is that the breaker stays closed even when no electrical power is available.

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FUSE

Fuses and circuit breakers are used to prevent currents that are higher than the maximum allowed for the cross section of the wire.

A higher current is caused by a short circuit or faulty consumer and can overheat the wire and generate a fire. Therefore, when a wire cross section is
reduced, such as on busses or terminals, a circuit breaker or fuse is always installed.

Only the generator feeder lines are not protected by fuses or circuit breakers. This area is protected by the specific circuits of the GCU.

A fuse is the easiest method of overcurrent protection. It consists mainly of a metal strip with a cross section smaller than that of the wire it must
protect. When the current exceeds the maximum allowed value for the specific wire, the metal strip melts and the electric circuit is interrupted
before it damages the wiring. This means that it works like a shear pin in an mechanical linkage, by acting as the weakest link in the wiring.

When a fuse is blown, it must be replaced after repairing the affected circuit. For this task spare fuses must be available in the aircraft in a sufficient
number. Replacement of blown fuses is time consuming, therefore, in nearly all aircraft, circuit breakers are used instead of fuses.

Fuses are only used when the permitted current exceeds 125 amperes and this is only possible in the DC distribution. In this current range, fuses are
also called current limiters.

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CIRCUIT BREAKER FUNCTION

CBs have 2 advantages over fuses -- first they can be reset quickly and circuit breakers can also be used as manual on -- off switches to allow
deactivation of circuits. This is very useful for maintenance purposes. Hundreds of circuit breakers are installed in a transport aircraft. The location of
the CBs depends on the location of the wire or consumer they must protect. This is to minimize wire length.

For instance, the circuit breakers that protect the connections to the busses and to the large loads are mainly installed in the electric compartment
and the circuit breakers for connections to cabin equipment, such as lights, galleys and toilets are located mainly in the cabin.

The circuit breakers for the various aircraft systems are generally located in the cockpit. However, the regulations specify that during flight, only the
CBs for the essential loads should be within the pilots reach. The main task of a circuit breaker is to open an electrical circuit if there is a short circuit.
Despite different circuit breaker constructions, this task is always performed by a thermal sensitive device. This device consists of a bimetal strip,
which normally connects the two terminals of the circuit breaker and therefore is heated by the current.

When the actual current exceeds the maximum permitted current, the temperature of the bimetal increases and starts bending. This triggers a
release mechanism, which pops out the control knob and shows the white band.

The last, but most important step is that the electrical circuit is opened by a spring, pushing the bimetal off the contacts. The not to be exceeded
current of the wire is labeled as the nominal current of the circuit breaker on the front face of the control knob.

The values range from a half ampere for control circuits to 125 amperes for connections between busses. The time that is needed to release a circuit
breaker depends on the current that exceeds the nominal value. On the graph presented here, you can identify the time which is allowed to release
the circuit breaker used in this example. In addition to the nominal current, each circuit breaker must be clearly identifiable by a label which names
the circuit that is supplied.

The reset of a circuit breaker is not possible as long as the bimetal is bent. When the bimetal has returned to its normal shape, pushing the control
knob allows the release mechanism to close the contact. Therefore, after a circuit breaker trip, a cool down time of about 2 minutes is recommended
before a reset. A reset is only allowed once because the current of a short circuit is so high. It can damage the circuit breaker or weld the contacts
which will prevent a trip. All circut breakers in an aircraft are of the trip free type. This means that they must be able to open an overloaded circut
even if the cintrol knob mechanism is blocked. But to maintain this importent capability, never overstress a circuit breaker by more than one reset as
long as the short circut exists.

The circuit breaker collars are used to allow easy identification of certain circuit breakers. Two different colors are used orange and grey. The orange
collar shows circuit breakers that must be pulled by the flight crew according to a particular abnormal procedure, for instance to cancel a nuisance

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warning. The grey collar is used to mark circuit breakers that must be pulled during maintenance activities on the ground to prevent dangerous
situations.

The red safety clip is used when the closure of a circuit breaker must be prevented. This is necessary when the connected circuit is not allowed to
operate because of missing components or certification. The red safety tag is used during maintenance activities on the ground. It informs people
that this specific circuit breaker must not be closed because work on the specific circuit is in process. The same type of tag is also used to identify
switches or other cockpit controls for the same reason.

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In some modern aircraft types, many circuit breakers have green, instead of black control knobs. These circuit breakers, which are mainly for
essential systems, are connected to a circuit breaker monitoring system. This system informs the pilot on the ECAM display when a connected circuit
breaker is tripped. When a circuit breaker is tripped, a caution message appears on the upper display, and the name and location of the open circuit
breaker is presented on the lower display. This allows an easy identification of the circuit breaker to perform a reset.

CB MONITORING

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CURRENT TRANSFORMER

From the distribution, the generator control unit needs operational parameters for control, protection and indication. Whereas, the voltage is directly
derived from the measuring point, the current needs special measuring component. In the AC distribution current transformers or CTs in short, are
used for this task. Current transformers are available as single phase or three phase components as shown here. All current transformers have a hole
for each measuring phase. The wires which carry the current to be be measured are put through these holes. An iron core is located around each hole
which carries a coil wire.

CURRENT TRANSFORMER

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The coil wire has up to one thousand windings and forms the secondary winding of a transformer. The wire with the current that must be measured,
forms the primary winding of a transformer. The current in the secondary winding of a current transformer is only dependent on the current in the
primary wire and the ratio of the windings.

The result is that the magnetic field produced by the primary current ( I1 ) is compensated by the magnetic field of the secondary current ( I2 ). This is
because the sum of the primary current multiplied by the number of primary windings is equal to the secondary current multiplied by the number of
secondary windings.

But what do you think will happen in this situation when the circuit of the secondary winding is open. When you open the secondary winding of a
current transformer during normal operation, for instance, by removing the generator control unit, the current transformer will be damaged. This
happens because the magnetic field of the primary current is no longer compensated and generates high voltage and heat. To prevent this, never
open connections in a powered circuit, for instance, by removing the generator control unit

CURRENT TRANSFORMER

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 Lesson 5
AC GENERATION

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INTRODUCTION

All of these AC power sources generate AC electrical power with a voltage of 115 V and a frequency of 400 Hz. AC power is generated using two
different methods; the first uses a constant speed generator and the second uses a static inverter. The constant speed AC generator converts the
mechanical input power from the engine, the APU or the emergency hydraulic motor into the required electrical power.

AC POWER

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GENERATOR BASIC FUNCTION

A generator consists basically of a rotating magnet with a magnetic north and south pole, forming the so called polepair. The polepair produces a
magnetic field which induces a voltage in the coil of the stator. This is known as the principle of induction with motion. The amount and polarity of
the generated voltage depends on the angle of the rotating magnet. The sine form of the AC voltage is produced. During a complete rotation of the
magnet one sine wave is completed. If this takes one second the voltage has a frequency of 1 Hz. Frequency is influenced by the rotational speed of
the rotor and also influenced by the number of rotating polepairs.

As you can see in this formula, the necessary input speed, n, for a given frequency depends on the number of polepairs, p. Most aircraft generators
need an input speed of 12,000 RPM because they are equipped with two polepairs, as in our example. But aircraft generators with input speeds of
24,000, 8,000 or 6,000 RPM are also used. This means that the number of polepairs can vary from one to four.

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AC GENERATION

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THREE PHASE GENERATOR

The generators used in jet aircraft are three phase generators. In general they work in the same way as the single phase generator we saw in the last
segment. However the three phase generators have three individual stator coils, phase A, phase B and phase C, which generate three individual
voltages.

The rotating magnetic field induces the same AC voltage in the coil of phase A as we saw in the single phase generator. The voltage of phase B has the
same shape and value as in phase A, but is shifted by 120This is because the phase B coil is located 120_ apart from the phase A coil. The same is true
for the voltage of phase C in relation to phase B.

All three coils are connected on one side to a common point. This common point is known as the neutral point and is connected to ground, that is to
the aircrafts conductive structure. The voltage measured from one phase to neutral, called the line to neutral voltage, is 115 V. When you add the
115 V line to neutral voltages of two different phases like phase A and phase B, you get a line to line voltage with an effective value of 200 V. It’s a
major advantage of the three phase electrical power system tohave two different voltage levels available without additional equipment.

58
THREE PHASE GENERATOR

59
You’ve already heard about two other major advantages of three phase electrical power systems in the distribution lessons.

Three phase motors are easy and economic to use because of the rotating magnetic field produced by the three phase currents. The other advantage
of three phase systems is that the neutral current which flows via the structure during normal operation is very small. This is because the sum of the
three individual phase currents is zero as long as they are equal. You can check this by adding the values of all three sinewaves, representing the
three phase currents, at any point on the chart.

3 PHASE CIRCUITS
60
AIRCRAFT CONSTANT SPEED GENERATOR

The rotating magnet of the generator must be driven with a constant speed to generate a constant frequency. The constant speed is provided directly
for the APU generator as the APU always runs at a constant speed.

The emergency generator also has a constant input speed as it is driven by a constant speed hydraulic motor. Because of this the emergency
generator is often called the constant speed motor generator or CSMG. In the case of the engine driven generators, the variable engine speed must
be converted into a constant speed by using a constant speed drive or CSD. The CSD is either a separate component, as is common on older
generation aircraft or combined with the generator in one housing to form an integrated drive generator or IDG.

While the frequency is correct as long as the input speed is correct, the output voltage of the generator must be regulated. This is necessary to make
sure that the effective voltage of 115 V is always provided to the distribution independent of the load current. The voltage regulation is performed by
an exciter current which influences the strength of the magnetic field. The exciter current is generated by a voltage regulator and flows through the
rotating coil.

61
GENERATOR CONTROL

62
BRUSHLESS GENERATOR

To transfer the exciter current into the rotating part of the generator classical generators use sliprings and brushes. However this method is not used
on aircraft generators because it has a low MTBF and produces sparks.

To prevent the disadvantages of using brushes and sliprings all aircraft generators are brushless generators. Brushless generators consist of the main
generator and an additional generator called the exciter generator. The exciter generator is an external pole generator. This means that the coils
which produce the magnetic field are located in the fixed part called the stator. This magnetic field induces an alternating current in the rotating coil
of the exciter generator.

The alternating current is then rectified by diodes to the necessary exciter direct current for the main generator. The diodes are located in the
rotating part of the generator and form the rotating rectifier.

63
GENERATOR SLIP RINGS AND BRUSHES

64
All brushless generators consist of three main parts; the exciter generator, the rotating rectifier and the main generator. All modern brushless
generators also have a permanent magnet generator or PMG. The PMG consists of a rotating set of permanent magnets which induce an AC voltage
into the stator coils when the generator is running. This voltage is used as a power supply for the GCU.

BRUSHLESS GENERATOR
65
GENERATOR COOLING

You already know that the engine driven generator uses a constant speed drive to change the variable engine speed into a constant input speed. You
also know that in modern aircraft the CSD and the brushless generator are located in a common component called the integrated drive generator or
IDG. The oil is used mainly for the CSD operation as you will learn later, but it is also used by the generator.

Oil cooling is always used where practicable because it is very efficient. Oil cooled generators are smaller and lighter than generators cooled by air. In
addition to the IDG, oil cooling is also used in the emergency generator.

Here the oil from the hydraulic motor which drives the generator can easily be used. In some aircraft the APU generator is also cooled by oil, using
the APU oil. Air must be used for generator cooling, if oil cooling is not practicable. This is true for older aircraft where the generator and the CSD are
separate components and also for most APU generators. The cooling air is taken from the air inlet of the engine or APU and is available as long as the
engine or APU is running.

Generally the generator cooling reduces the heat that is produced by the load current in the windings and diodes. To prevent damage to the
generator due to overheat the load current must be limited. The better the cooling conditions the higher the load current limit allowed. For instance
oil cooled generators have a higher load limit than air—cooled ones, and the load limit for some APU generators is lower on ground than in flight.

66
67
GENERATOR CONNECTIONS

Two types of electrical connections are used.

One is a conventional connector, which provides all low current connections, like exciter and PMG and the other is a terminal block which we will
now look at in more detail. The terminal block consists of three bolts, T1, T2 and T3, to connect the three generator feeder lines and normally one
bolt, N, for the connection to neutral. Some generators, mainly in older aircraft, have three bolts for the connection to neutral. You will learn the
reason for this later.

As all bolts are the same size you must always ensure that the power cables are connected to the correct terminal bolt. This means that phase A must
be connected to T1, phase B to T2, phase C to T3 and neutral to N. Aircraft manufacture minimizes the risk of working error, by using a fixed spacer
connecting the cables in the correct sequence or by using color coding.

68
ELECTRICAL CONNECTION
69
STATIC INVERTER

A static inverter converts DC power into AC power without any moving parts. It is always necessary when only DC power is available but AC power is
required. One application you should know about already is the emergency static inverter.

Additional applications of the static inverter on aircraft are the towing inverter and the VSCF generator. A towing inverter is used on some aircraft
types to provide AC power during towing of the aircraft. You will see this in the ground power lesson. VSCF stands for variable speed constant
frequency and the VSCF generator is a new type of engine driven generator.

All static inverters consist, basically, of a transformer and a switch. The switch contact switches continuously between the two possible positions. In
the upper position, the contact allows a current flow from the plus pole of the DC power source, via the upper part of the transformer and back to
the minus pole of the power source. In the lower position, the contact allows a current flow from the plus pole of the DC power source, via the lower
part of the transformer and back to the minus pole of the power source.

When the current in the primary winding of the transformer changes its direction, an alternating magnetic field is produced which induces an
alternating current into the secondary winding of the transformer

STATIC INVERTER

70
VARIABLE SPEED CONSTANT FREQUENCY GENERATOR

Finally in this lesson we will have a look at a modern substitution for the combination of CSD and constant speed generator. It is called the variable
speed constant frequency, or VSCF, generator. The advantages of the VSCF generator over the combined CSD and constant speed generator are
higher MTBF and efficiency and a lower weight.

The VSCF generator subcomponents include a generator, a rectifier, a static inverter and a filter. The generator is constructed like a standard
brushless generator, but is driven with a variable speed from the engine via a gear box. The rectifier converts the AC with a variable frequency into
DC. The DC is filtered and then converted by a static inverter back to AC which now has the correct frequency of 400 Hz. After passing the AC filter,
the AC is available at the output module with the same parameters as from the conventional constant speed generator. In addition to the
components for AC generation, the VSCF generator also has a generator control unit or GCU. The GCU controls the output voltage and frequency, and
switches off the VSCF generator in the event of a failure.

Finally, the VSCF has an oil circuit which provides cooling for the generator, rectifier and inverter and lubrication for the generator bearings.

71
VSCF GENERATOR
72
 Lesson 6
CONSTANT SPEED DRIVE

73
INTRODUCTION

The speed conversion for the engine driven generator is necessary ,because the engine high speed rotor, named N2, that drives the generator via the
gear box varies the speed in a ratio of 1 to 2 between idle and takeoff power. If this speed was allowed to directly drive the generator it would
produce frequencies between 280 and 560 Hz.

However the AC distribution needs a constant frequency of 400 Hz so the constant speed generator needs a constant input speed, usually 12000
RPM. This means that in the low speed range the speed must be increased and in the high speed range it must be decreased. This is the job of the
constant speed drive, CSD.

The basic function of the constant speed drive is therefore to add or subtract a speed. In a low speed region like idle, this is named the overdrive
operation. In a high speed region like takeoff power it is named underdrive operation. In the middle, between the low and high speed regions,
constant speed drive just transfers the input speed to the output, this is called the straight drive operation.

GENERATOR DRIVE
74
CSD COMPONENTS

The real constant speed drive contains the following components for speed conversion:

A differential gear that is able to add or subtract speeds, an hydraulic motor -- pump combination to produce the additional speed and a speed
control circuit, to control the speed conversion.

In addition to the components for speed conversion, the CSD contains three main parts: First an oil circuit, which provides oil for the hydraulic
components and for cooling and lubrication. Then a disconnect device that allows you to interrupt the CSD input shaft during flight, and finally
several components for system monitoring.

As you have already seen in the previous lesson, modern CSDs are combined with the generator in one component. This component is called the
integrated drive generator or IDG. The integreated drive generator or the constant speed drive is mounted on the engine gear box with a quick attach
and detach, or Q-A-D, ring. The Q-A-D ring, which is also used for other components, allows a quick replacement of the IDG.

The main component of the speed conversion is the axial differential gear, therefore constant speed drives are also named AGD drives, for axial gear
differential. The differential gear transfers the torque from the input to the output and adds the input speed with an additional speed of an hydraulic
motor. The additional speed, that is added by the differential gear, is produced by an hydraulic motor. It’s speed and the direction of rotation is
controlled by the hydraulic pressure which is produced by a pump.

In the IDG cutaway you can identify two identical sets of hydraulic motor-- pump units. That two small units work together like one big unit , but with
a higher efficiency.

75
76
SPEED CONTROL CIRCUIT

Hydraulic pump pressure and consequently the speed of the motor is controlled by a closed loop speed control circuit, that can either work
electromechanically or just mechanically.

Let us first have a look at the more commonly used mechanical speed control circuit. It uses a fly weight speed governor to measure the CSD output
speed. The position of the fly weights control the hydraulic pressure that acts on the control cylinder. The position of control cylinder determines the
angle of the variable wobble plate of the hydraulic pump and therefore the produced pump pressure.

In the straight drive mode of operation presented here, the oil inside the motor -- pump unit is trapped and cannot, therefore, return to the oil circuit
for cooling. This is the reason, why the straight drive mode of operation is only allowed for a short period of time during acceleration or deceleration
of the engine.

The engine speed now increases and the fly weights move outward until the centrifugal force is balanced with the spring force. The hydraulic
pressure moves the control cylinder to the left and increases the angle of the variable wobble plate of the pump. This increases the hydraulic
pressure which allows the hydraulic motor to subtract more speed.

When the engine speed is stable, and the CSD has reached the correct output speed, the fly weights return to the normal position and the control
cylinder stops at the reached position.

The engine speed is now decreasing and the fly weights move inward because the spring force is stronger than the centrifugal force. The hydraulic
pressure moves the control cylinder to the right and increases the angle of the variable wobble plate of the pump. The increase in hydraulic pump
pressure allows the hydraulic motor to add more speed. When the engine speed is stable and the CSD has reached the correct output speed, the fly
weights return to the normal position and the control cylinder stops at the position it has reached.

77
CSD CONTROL

78
You have probably recognized in the previous examples, that the spring force of the speed governor influences the position of the fly weights and
therefore the controlled CSD output speed. This allows you to adjust the frequency of the generator by changing the spring force with an adjustment
screw. One full turn corresponds to about 3 Hz. The adjustment is started by calculating the necessary screw turns from the frequency deviation. The
engine is then shutdown. The necessary screw turns are performed on the CSD only when the engine is stopped.

79
Instead of the mechanical speed control circuit we have just looked at, some modern aircraft use an electromechanical speed control circuit. This
circuit uses the frequency control circuit in the generator control unit to compare the generator output frequency with the reference of 400 Hz. If
there is a frequency difference detected, a servo valve transfers the electrical signal into hydraulic pressure. This influences the control cylinder in the
same way as the mechanicalsystem whichhas already been described to you.

MECHANICAL SPEED CONTROL CIRCUT

80
OIL CIRCUIT

The oil is used in the internal oil circuit as the hydraulic fluid for the motor -- pump unit and for cooling and lubrication.

In the external oil circuit the oil is cooled by an oil cooler. Here all the main components of the CSD oil circuit are added to our basic diagram.

The charge pressure pump pressurizes the oil against the charge relief valve to supply all components that need the oil.

The scavenge pump pumps the oil from the oil sump via a filter to the oil cooler and back into the CSD oil reservoir.

The charge pressure relief valve controls the working pressure to about 250 psi.

Filters are used in the internal and external oil circuit to clean the oil. Some filters are equipped with a popout indicator that indicates filter clogging.
When a filter element needs changing, replacement is carried out by following the corresponding maintenance manual procedures.

The reservoir ensures that enough oil is available for the user in all attitude conditions. Sight glasses or an oil level indicator allow checking of the
correct oil level. This must be checked periodically to ensure that the oil level is neither too low nor too high.

The oil pressure switch provides a signal to the monitoring circuit when the charge pressure drops below 50% of the normal pressure.

The two temperature bulbs provide the oil in and the oil out temperature signals for monitoring.

Oil coolers use either air or fuel for cooling. Both types are used, one after the other, in some aircraft.

A pressure fill port is used for oil servicing. Here the oil is pumped into the oil circuit until the correct level is reached. This is normally fulfilled when
oil leaves the CSD at an overfill port.

81
OIL CIRCUIT

82
CSD MONITORING / OIL TEMPERATURE INDICATION

The correct operation of the constant speed drive is monitored in two different ways. Firstly, by circuits that alert the flight crew automatically if an
operating parameter leaves its normal range. Secondly, by indications on the ECAM or EICAS displays, that allow a reading of CSD temperatures.

We will start in this segment with the indications.

There are two CSD temperature monitoring indications available on the ECAM and EICAS lower displays. One is the absolute oil temperature and the
other is the rise temperature. Let’s look first at the absolute oil temperature which is measured by two temperature bulbs. These bulbs are located in
the oil circuit at the points where the hot oil leaves the CSD and where it enters the CSD again after cooling.

In both examples shown here, the oil out temperature is indicated. This temperature is the highest temperature in the oil circuit. The temperature is
normally in the region of 120OC. The absolute oil temperature, which is measured after the oil cooling is called the OIL IN temperature. The oil in
temperature is used here only to calculate the rise temperature, but in some aircraft it is indicated instead of the oil out temperature. The second
CSD oil temperature often indicated, is the rise temperature. The rise temperature is the difference between the in and out temperatures.

This indication enables you, in the event of a problem, to work out if there is too much heat production inside the constant speed drive or a faulty oil
cooling. The rise indication is normally in an area of 20OC and a too high indication means that the IDG is generating too much heat.

A too low indication together with a high absolute temperature means that the cooling is not sufficient.

83
84
OIL MONITORING CIRCUITS FOR CREW ALERT

The flight crew are alerted to an abnormal situation in the CSD oil circuit, such as, low pressure or high temperature, firstly, by the central warning
system. The central warning system displays a messageon the upper display together with a corresponding indication on the electric page on the
lower display.

In addition, the corresponding local warning on the electric control panel is triggered. This is the amber FAULT light in the Airbus.

When the CSD oil pressure drops below about 50% of the normal pressure, in our example below 140 psi, the flight crew alert is triggered. The alert is
triggered because the CSD cannot work with the pressure this low. Serious damage to the CSD and to the engine could be caused in this situation.

To prevent this dangerous situation the CSD must be disconnected by the flight crew. The oil temperature simulated here could cause nearly the
same situation. The crew alert is normally triggered when more than 185OC is reached. This alert uses the same sensing circuit inside the GCU as the
temperature indication.

In some aircraft, a separate bimetal temperature switch is used to trigger the crew alert independent from the indication. With this high oil
temperature condition, as with the low pressure condition, the CSD must be disconnected.

85
86
UNDER SPEED MONITORING

The third monitoring circuit, the CSD underspeed, has different consequences. It activates an automatic generator switching.

An underspeed condition is detected when the CSD input speed drops below the normal control range. This means that the CSD is not able to control
the necessary output speed.

You can see on the diagram that this condition starts about 5% below the engine idle speed. This condition happens at each engine shutdown. The
only consequence of the underspeed condition is, that the generator cannot deliver a correct output frequency of 400 Hz.

There is no risk of mechanical damage or overheat, as in the two oil circuit failure conditions. Therefore, only the generator is switched off from the
distribution by its power relay, but the CSD stays connected to the input drive.

The underspeed condition is derived from the input speed in modern constant speed drives. The input speed is measured by a magnetic pickup.

87
88
DISCONNECT

The last part of the constant speed drive we have to look at is the disconnect device. It consists of four main parts.

These are:

- Aclutch
- a worm gear mechanism
- a solenoid
- a reset mechanism.

The clutch of the disconnect device is named a dog clutch, it is normally closed by a spring and transfers the speed from the gearbox input to the
differential gear.

The CSD must always be disconnected if an overheat or pressure loss in the oil circuit occurs. This is necessary to prevent damage to the engine
gearbox, the CSD and generator and all other components installed in that area.

The overheat or pressure loss causes the fault light in the IDG pushbutton to illuminate. The fault light indicates, that this pushbutton must be
pressed to disconnect the CSD.

When the push button is pressed, the solenoid is energized and the lower part of the worm gear mechanism is released. The lower part is moved up
by a spring and joins the worm gear. Because of the rotation of the worm gear, the right part of the clutch is moved against the spring force.

When the clutch is open, the worm gear is no longer driven, but it continues turning, for a short time, due to the centrifugal force. This is necessary to
achieve a complete disconnect. When the disconnect is performed, the input drive shaft and the left part of the clutch are the only parts of the
constant speed drive that still run.

If the input speed is too low, the centrifugal force cannot open the clutch completely, this can lead to a clutch damage, such as broken teeth.
Consequently, a disconnect must only be performed, if the engine runs with a minimum of idle speed.

89
DISCONNECT DEVICE

90
DISCONNECT VERIFICATION

After the disconnect, the result can be checked on the ECAM .

The only reliable indication, is the voltage and frequ

frequency,
ency, because they show absolute zero, if the disconnect was successful. Any voltage and
frequency above zero show that the generator is still running and therefore the disconnect was not complete. The label DISC o only shows that the
disconnect has been performed,
formed, it does not indicate if it has been successfully completed.

When the disconnect pushbutton is pressed with a stopped engine, for instance, to perform a check, you must reset the CSD imm
immediately before the
engine is started. This is necessary, because
se if the engine spools up with an activated disconnect mechanism, the worm gear opens the clutch slowly.
This results in the same condition as when disconnect is performed with engine speed too low. The clutch will not open comple
completely and probably be
damaged.

91
DISCONNECT RESET

The constant speed drive reset is performed when the engine is completely stopped, by pulling the ring on the CSD housing. This moves down the
lower part of the worm gear mechanism until it is locked into the solenoid shaft again. A click sound indicates to you that the worm gear mechanism
is locked into the solenoid shaft. In the same moment the spring closes the clutch again.

As a reset is only possible on ground, inadvertent operation of the disconnect pushbutton during flight must be prevented. This is performed by a
guard that normally covers the pushbutton. In some aircraft the IDG pushbutton guard is secured with a thin copper wire. This wire always breaks
when the guard is lifted. This shows you, that the disconnect pushbutton was probably pressed. If there is no flight crew report from the last flight
present, you can assume that this happened during the ground time. To prevent a damage to the IDG during the next engine start, a reset must be
performed.

Other aircraft types use no safety wire. In this case the disconnect circuit is electrically inhibited as long as the engine is stopped. There is one final
important point you must know concerning the operation of the disconnect push button. You are not allowed to press the button for longer than
three seconds and for more than once in 60 sec.

92
93
 Lesson 7
GENERATOR CONTROL AND PROTECTION

94
INTRODUCTION

You probably remember this graphic from the main power distribution lesson. It shows you that there is a generator control unit, GCU, for each
generator. They provide all the functions which are necessary for a correct AC generation.

The GCU functions can be divided into three different parts, the regulation, the protection and the switching. The GCU’s for the engine driven
generators.The GCU for the APU generator generally has the same functions as the GCU for the engine driven generators. the GCU for the emergency
generator.

GCU FUNCTIONS

95
You can identify again the three main functions of regulation, protection and switching. To be able to perform all the functions the GCUneeds system
data from the AC generation and distribution and inputs from the electric control panel in the cockpit.

96
Like all other computers, the GCU needs an electrical power supply to operate. In the case of the GCU, the power supply provides power as long as
the generator runs, even if there are heavy failures like short circuits. To fulfill this task, there are two independent power sources, the normal power
supply and the backup power supply.

The normal supply uses AC power from the AC generation as long as the generator is running. The three phase AC power from the PMG part of the
generator is used as the normal power source for the GCU. This is because it is available as long as the generator is running. This AC power is
converted from AC to 28 Volts DC by an internal TR Unit.

Only if the PMG power is lost does the backup power take over. In most electrical power systems the backup power is provided directly by the
aircraft battery.

The DC power from the GCU power supply is used to supply all internal circuits of the GCU.

In addition, it supplies an external GCU power supply circuit, which provides power for the electric panel controls and the power relays. This external
circuit is protected against short circuits by a circuit breaker located on the front side of the GCU.

97
GCU POWER SUPPLY

98
VOLTAGE REGULATIONS

In this segment we will start by discussing the regulation functions of the GCU. These functions can be divided into the regulation functions for
generators working in isolated operation and the regulation functions for generators working in parallel operation.

There are two regulation functions for isolated generators available. These are the voltage and frequency regulation. The purpose of these regulation
functions is to control the corresponding generator output parameter to the specified value.

The voltage regulation controls the voltage for the AC distribution to a constant value of 115 V. This compensates for the voltage drop on the feeder
lines and inside the generator.

POINT OF REGULATION

99
For this task, the voltage regulator influences the exciter current of the generator. The exciter current is provided by the PMG via the power supply
and is influenced by the ON/OFF ratio of an electronic switch. The ratio between the ON and OFF switching state of the electronic switch is changed
when a difference between the actual voltage of the generator and a reference voltage is detected.

For example, if the actual voltage is too high the negative result of the comparison reduces the ON time of the switch and vice versa.

The actual voltage is measured at a specific point in the AC generation. If you understand the purpose of the voltage regulation, you should be able to
identify it. The specific point, where the actual voltage is measured, is named the ”point of regulation” or POR. It is located at the generator side of
the generator power relay. This location of the point of regulation allows measurement of the generator output voltage before the generator is
switched to the busses. In addition the location is as near as possible to the distribution busses, where the 115 V are needed.

As a result of this location the voltage reaches 120 volts at the generator terminals, when the generator is at 100% load. This is because the load
current produces a voltage drop on the long generator feeder lines of up to 5 V.

One point in the voltage regulation loop we have not discussed yet, is the function of the generator control relay or GCR. It is normally closed, but it
can be opened by the switching part of the GCU.

100
101
FREQUENCY REGULATION

The second regulation for isolated generators is the frequency regulation. It only exists when the frequency of the generator is not already controlled
by the speed regulation of the generator drive. A frequency regulation loop is necessary for IDG s that use an electromechanical speed control circuit
and for CSMG emergency generators.

In addition, the VSCF uses a comparable regulation loop. The closed loop circuit compares the actual frequency from the PMG output with the 400 Hz
reference frequency.Any difference in this comparison is sent to the generator drive, in order to adjust the generator input speed.

102
GENERATOR CONTROL RELAY SWITCHING FUNCTIONS

Two switching functions are performed by all GCUs: These are the switching that controls the generator control relay and the switching of the
generator power relay.

The generator control relay is normally closed, but it can be opened, or tripped, either manually or automatically, to switch off any generator output
voltage in case of a failure.

A manual trip is performed by releasing the corresponding generator pushbutton switch or by operating the fire handle or fire pushbutton on the
corresponding control panel in the cockpit.

An automatic trip is performed if a protection circuit detects any failure in the generatorsystem, this youwill see later in more detail.

A reclose of the GCR can only be performed manually by a reset of the generator pushbutton switch. This manual reset of the generator control relay
is only successful, if no open signal is present at the same time. This is because the latch circuit gives priority to the open signal.

103
104
GENERATOR POWER RELAY SWITCHING FUNCTIONS

The generator power relay is normally closed and tripped automatically. However, it can be controlled manually with the generator pushbutton
switch via the generator control relay switching. The generator power relay is automatically closed when the power ready condition of the generator
is reached. Power ready is fulfilled when the generator has no underspeed and the generator control relay is closed.

The generator power relay is automatically tripped to switch off the connection between the generator and the bus when the generator power is not
ready. This happens when the GCR is tripped or when an underspeed condition is detected by the protection circuit. The automatic trip is always
accompanied by the fault legend in the generator pushbutton on the electric panel.

If a system failure, detected by a protection circuit, was the reason for the automatic trip, this is latched. The generator can only become active again
after reset of the latch. This is only possible when the systemfault signal is no longer present and needs an additional manual action.

105
106
 Lesson 8
DC GENERATION

107
INTRODUCTION

Two different components are used for DC power generation. First, the TR units which are the normal DC power source and second the battery.
Several TR units are installed in the electrical compartment, generally one for each main DC bus. The TR unit converts the three phase 115 V AC from
the AC power distribution into 28 V DC for the DC power distribution.

TR UNIT NORMAL OPERATION

The function of the TR unit is to convert a high AC voltage to a low DC voltage. To do this, two component parts are needed. First a transformer, that
reduces the 115 V AC to about 28 V AC and second a rectifier, that converts the AC to a DC.

Two separate strings are used to transform and rectify the input voltage. In the first string the primary and secondary windings of the transformer are
connected in the same way as in a generator -- this is called a star connection.

In the second string, the secondary winding has a so called delta connection which produces a phase shift. This combination produces a nearly ideal
DC voltage without the ripples which normally remain after rectifying.

The two output parameters of the TR unit, voltage and current, are indicated on the corresponding ECAM page.

The voltage is measured directly at the output. It varies between 30 V when the load current is low and 27 V at maximum load. The output current is
measured inside the TR unit, in this example by the use of current transformers. The value is directly dependent on the current which is needed by
the connected consumers. The maximum value which is allowed depends on the type of TR unit. Thismaximum value ranges from up to 200 Amp. for
continuous operation to 1000 Amp. for a limited time of 1 second.

108
109
TR UNIT PROTECTION FUNCTION

TR units have up to two protection circuits for failure detection. First, a low current detection, which is triggered when the current drops below about
2 Amperes. This might be due to an internal failure. Second, an overheat detection, which becomes active, when the temperature near the rectifiers
exceeds an allowed value. This might happen for example, if there was an overload or short circuit. When the temperature exceeds the overheat
level, a temperature switch, also known as a bimetal switch closes. This opens the contact of an internal relay which deactivates the output of the TR
unit. The results are indicated on the corresponding page of the central warning system, here theECAM system page. When the TR unit is switched
off, the temperature drops and the bimetal switch opens again.

The TR unit can only be switched on again by a reset signal, after a successful trouble shooting on the ground. The reset is performed either via the
central maintenance computer systemor a reset push button in the electric compartment.

PROTECTION CIRCUTS

110
AIRCRAFT BATTERY

In the distribution lessons you have learned already that the aircraft battery is used to supply the emergency power in certain cases and to supply the
APU starter motor for APU start. These tasks can be performed by two different types of battery installation. One is shown in this example of a two
engine aircraft. Most aircraft use this type of battery installation. They have one two or even three batteries which work together to supply either
emergency power or the APU starter motor. The number of batteries depends mainly on the amount of electrical energy that must be stored.

BATTERY INSTALLATION

111
NICD BATTERY

All batteries in jet aircraft are of the nickel cadmium type. This battery type has many advantages over the lead acid type battery which is used in
small aircraft and cars. The two main advantages of the nickel cadmium battery are that it causes less maintenance costs and has a better
performance at low temperatures. However, special care is necessary during charge and discharge of a nickel cadmium aircraft battery to guarantee
safe and reliable operation.

The nickel cadmium battery in electrical power systems contain 20 individual cells. Normally, each individual cell produces a voltage of about 1.2 V.
Because all cells are connected in series, the complete battery has a nominal voltage of 24 V.

During charging, the voltage of an individual cell rises to 1.5 V. During discharge the voltage drops to 1.0 V when the cell is completely discharged.
The voltage in a charged battery cell is produced by the chemical reaction which occurs between two plates made of different material. These plates
are covered by an electrolyte fluid. The electrolyte fluid is a strong alkaline solution. Its level rises during charging, but its specific gravity is not
changed. If the fluid comes into contact with the aircraft structure or human skin, you must rinse it off immediately with water or an acid solution to
prevent corrosion or injury.

The vent cap can be removed to adjust the electrolyte level in the workshop. Within the vent cap is a valve which releases any gas overpressure
which is sometimes produced during charging. The positive and negative plates get a large surface area of active material, several plates of the same
polarity are connected together.

The separator is made of plastic material. It prevents a short circuit between the positive and negative plates. The separator melts at very high
temperatures and this damages the battery. The plate pack consists of negative and positive plates which store the electrical energy during charging.

Checks for good battery condition must be carried out on average every 2000 operating hours. The checks are done in the workshop and cover items
such as the storage capability and electrolyte condition. These tasks cannot be performed in the aircraft, but the line maintenance personnel must
check some important items to ensure reliable battery operation until the next workshop visit.

The first important item that the line maintenance must observe is to never overheat a battery by too many APU start attempts immediately after
each other. A battery cell overheat reduces the electrolyte level and can melt the plastic separator. This damages the battery and the cell will
probably look like this. The second important item to remember is do not discharge a battery below 22 V, because this can inverse the polarity of the
weakest cell in the battery. If this happens, the battery can’t be recharged in the aircraft. It must be replaced and recharged in the workshop. The line
maintenance personnel must also check at certain intervals that the battery is fully charged.

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BATTERY INDICATION

To allow monitoring of battery operation and to check the charging level, two battery parameters are indicated -- the voltage and the current. On this
example of an airbus aircraft you see that the voltage is displayed on the ECAM display and the electric panel and the current is shown only on the
ECAM display. The battery voltage is measured on the hot battery bus and the current is measured by a shunt located in the battery cable to ground.
A shunt is a small resistor that produces a voltage proportional to the current.

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BATTERY CHARGING PART 1

To recharge nickel cadmium batteries, two different types of charging circuit are used. One type uses the 28 V from the DC distribution, that is
provided by the TR units. The other type uses a separate battery charger unit,which produces the necessary charging current from the voltage of the
AC power distribution.

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Let us first have a look at the battery charger. It consists mainly of a TR unit which provides a DC and an output circuit, which controls the charging
current. The output circuit of the battery charger controls the charging current by two different charging methods. One method is called the constant
potential or constant voltage charging method and the second one is called the constant current charging method.

The constant current charging method allows a quick and safe charging of batteries. To provide the constant charging current, the battery charger
must increase the output voltage from 28 V up to a maximum of 36 V while the battery increases its charging level. When the battery is fully charged,
the logic of the battery charger switches over to the constant voltage charging method. This prevents an overcharge. This switching point depends
mainly on the output voltage of the battery charger. In addition the temperature of the battery can be taken into account because it influences the
charging level.

With the constant voltage charging method, the output voltage of the battery charger has a constant value of 28 V. When the battery is fully charged
it also reaches 28 V and this results in a current of nearly zero amperes. The main use of this battery charging method in the battery charger is to
compensate for the self discharge of the battery

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BATTERY CHARGING PART 2

In this segment, we are going to look at the second type of battery charging circuit. This type uses the constant voltage charging method all the time.
Instead of a battery charger, the constant voltage of the transformer rectifier units is used to deliver the charging current.

The constant voltage charging method is the easiest way of charging. The charge current is always proportional to the difference between the voltage
of the battery and the power source. When the battery is fully charged, both voltages are equal and the charging current drops to zero.

One characteristic of a nickel cadmium battery can create problems in the constant voltage charging method. This is the fact that a nickel cadmium
battery reduces the output voltage when it is overheated during charging. Can you imagine what happens in this case. When the battery output
voltage drops, the charge current increases. This generates more heat and the voltage drops further and results in an increasing current and so on.
This behaviour is called a thermal runaway and can result in the battery being totally damaged and possibly to a fire in the aircraft. Therefore, this
dangerous situation must be prevented. One method to prevent a thermal runaway in the constant voltage charging method is the installation of a
battery charge limiter, BCL in short. The BCL permanently monitors the charge current. When the current is increasing, indicating the start of a
thermal runaway, the battery contactor opens immediately. This function is latched and needs a manual reset from the electric control panel.

In addition to the thermal runaway protection, the battery charge limiter also has some more functions. For instance it switches off the battery
contactor when the battery is fully charged or during discharge on the ground when the battery voltage drops below 23 V.

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BATTERY CHARGING PART 3

To prevent the risk of a thermal runaway, in the battery charging circuit which uses a battery charger a temperature switch is installed either inside or
outside the battery. This bimetal switch closes when 60OC is exceeded and switches off the battery charger. When the temperature drops below the
switching point again operation resumes automatically. The relay at the input of the battery charger also opens during the APU start.

BATTERY PROTECTION

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 Lesson 9
GROUND POWER

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INTRODUCTION

Normally, one external power source or one APU generator is sufficient to supply all the consumers needs on the ground. In our example of the two
engine airbus, both power sources can be switched to the whole network. Either the APU generator or external power can supply the complete
electrical power distribution. External power should be used for environmental and economic reasons. On modern airbus aircraft, external power has
automatic priority for ground supply.

2 ENGINE AIRBUS GROUND POWER

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EXTERNAL POWER CONNECTION

In this segment you will learn the steps which are necessary to supply a parked aircraft with external power. When all tasks to secure the aircraft
position with wheel chocks and to statically ground the aircraft have been completed, you can then connect an external power source. There are two
types of external power source:

The first type shown here is the fixed station which is mainly used in or near to the maintenance hangar and the second type is a movable cart. This
type is used, for example, on the apron where a fixed station is not available.

The plug of the external power source must be connected to the aircraft external power receptacle. The receptacle is always located in the nose
wheel area. The receptacle consists of four thick pins to provide the connection for the three electrical power phases A,B and C and for the common
neutral connection. In addition two shorter and thinner pins are used to control the connection. The plug of the external power connection contains
the sockets which match to the receptacle pins. Push the plug completely onto the receptacle pins. This prevents the arcing and overheating which
can be generated due to an incomplete electrical connection.

In some aircraft types, in addition, you must install a cable holding strap which supports the cable weight. Ok, the connection has been made. In the
next segment we see how the switching is performed.

EXTERNAL POWER AVAILIABILITY

When the connection is made the external power source must be switched on. When the on pushbutton is pressed, the power relay energizes and
the three phase electrical power is provided to the aircraft receptacle. From here, the power is transferred to the ground power control unit or GPCU.
The GPCU is located in the electrical compartment of the aircraft.

A small TR unit inside the GPCU, converts the three phase AC to 28 V DC. The DC is sent back to the external power source via one of the two small
pins. This pin is designated as pin E. The DC holds the power relay energized, even when the ”on” pushbutton is released. This latch, which operates
via the short receptacle pin, ensures that if the connection is not performed completely, an external power source cannot be permanently switched
on. In addition, the DC returns to the ground power control unit via the second short pin, designated as pin F. This illuminates the external power
connected --or, as it is also named -- the ”available” light when the quality of the external power is good. Good external power quality means that the
voltage and the frequency are inside the allowed limits and that the phase sequence is good.

In addition to the light on the external power panel, the green available legend in the external power control pushbutton in the cockpit also lights.
These two indications show you, that external power is now available with correct parameters. It is not necessary and on some aircraft not even
possible to read the exact voltage and frequency, before external power is switched on. But a lot of other preconditions must be fullfilled before we
are allowed to switch on the power, this will be explained in the next segment.

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EXTERNAL POWER ACTIVATION

When external power is available, you have to perform several checks before you are allowed to switch on the power. These checks are shown in a
check list and must be followed carefully. This ensures that all systems arein a defined switching state to prevent unexpected and even dangerous
situations. Here you see a generalized checklist which shows all of the important tasks that have to be performed. Now you have the chance to find
out more about the pre conditions. After external power activation, all electrical power system switches must be in their normal position to ensure
normal supply. In some aircraft, the batteries must be in off and are switched on later.

Make sure that the hydraulic systems cannot be pressurized.Therefore, the electric and air driven pumps must be switched off. However, the engine
pump switches must be on because the engines are not running and the valve is deenergized in this situation.

To prevent a dangerous movement of flight controls or landing gear, check that all control handles are in the correct position. The handle positions
must agree with the actual positions of the surface and gear.

The first condition prevents an activation of the engine start sequence and of the ignition. The second item ensures, that all fuel pumps are switched
off --this reduces the electrical load and increases the pump lifetime. The air conditioningsystem must be switched off to prevent an inadvertent
pressurisation of the aircraft. The equipment cooling must start operating when the electrical equipment is switched on. This is to prevent an
overheat of the electronic components located in the cockpit and electrical compartment. The guarded oxygen switch prevents an accidental release
of the oxygen masks in the cabin. All electrical heating systems must be switched off on the ground. This is because the equipment can overheat and
be damaged if there is no airflow. The windshield wipers must be switched off to prevent them scratching the surface of a dry window.

All external lights, especially the high power landing and taxi lights must be switched off. The main reason for this is that they can be damaged if
there is no airflow. The lights can also blind personnel in the vicinity of the lights. In addition a simultaneous activation of all external lights can shut
down the external power source due to the high starting power consumption.

The emergency exit light switch must stay in off during the whole of the ground time. In the ARM position, the emergency exit lights come on
automatically and discharge their individual batteries, if electrical power is switched off for any reason.

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The next checklist is used to energize the external power. We have just completed the first item ”prior to energizing electrical network”. Please note
that each aircraft type has its own list of preconditions. Our checklist was just an example. When the external power pushbutton is pressed, the
external power contactor energizes and the three phase AC power is transferred to the distribution. In addition the blue ON light in the external
power pushbutton illuminates and the available light goes off.

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This direct activation of the external power contactor is only possible, if no other power source is switched on -- as for instance in our example of the
dark aircraft. If another power source, such as the APU generator, is already supplying the network, it must first be switched off by the power source
interlock circuit, before the external power contactor can close. Please press the external power pushbutton again to see how this happens. In the
first step the closed power relay gets a trip signal that opens the contacts. Then the external power close signal continues to the next power relay to
check its switching state. If the other relays are already open the signal continues to the external power contactor which closes, like in this example.
The interlock circuit shown here is just an example because the real one is very aircraft type specific.

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EXTERNAL POWER DEACTIVATION

In this segment we are going to see what has to be observed before we deenergize the electrical circuits. Before we are allowed to deenergize the
electrical circuits, we must follow a checklist like this one.

First, all electrical loads should be at a minimum because this saves the contacts of the external power relay.

The next items remind you of the the consumers which must be switched off. These consumers automatically transfer over to battery power when
normal AC power is lost and this would discharge their own or the main aircraft battery.This must be prevented. You are going to learn more about
these consumers in the corresponding unit.

Finally, the main battery and emergency power switches must also be switched off.

When external power is no longer needed, the external power source can be disconnected from the aircraft. This is indicated by the external power
not in use light on the panel near the receptacle.

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GROUND SERVICE POWER 1

Instead of supplying the whole network, external power can also be used to supply just the equipment for cleaning and loading or unloading of the
aircraft such as lights, vacuum cleaner outlets and cargo loading components. This equipment is connected to ground service busses. The ground
service busses are normally supplied by the normal power distribution. However these busses can be switched directly to the ground power source
by a ground service or maintenance bus switch. This switch is usually located in the cabin near the entrance door.

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The ground service power can be activated whenever external power is available. The switching can be performed without any preconditions,
because the aircraft systems will notbe supplied. When the ground service switch, which in this example is called the maintenance bus switch, is
moved to the on position, it is magnetically latched for as long as external power is available.

The same signal energizes the ground service relay and connects the ground service bus to the external power source. When the complete electrical
powersystem is supplied by external power, the maintenance bus switch remains in ON until external power is disconnected.

GROUND SERVICE SWITCH

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When the external power not in use light on the receptacle panel illuminates, the external power plug can be removed from the receptacle. This
breaks the DC power from the receptacle pin E which then deenergizes the power relay inside the external power source. This ensures that the
power relay always opens the electrical circuit before the four main connector pins break the contact to the plug.

EXTERNAL POWER NOT IN USE

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 Lesson 10
SIMULATION

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NORMAL OPERATION 2 ENGINE AIRCRAFT

We have just entered this aircraft. All AC power sources are switched off. Only the hot battery busses are supplied. Let us assume that you have
already performed all the checklist items which are necessary prior to the activation of electrical power.

First the batteries are now switched on. When the complete network is supplied the ECAM display is available. This allows you to check all
parameters of the distribution. When both ground power sources, the APU generator and external power, are available on this aircraft type the
external power source has priority for supply.

FAILURE SIMULATION 2 ENGINE AIRCRAFT

In this segment we will see the effect of different failure situations on the schematic, on the ECAM display and on the panel. The first simulated
failure is a low oil pressure condition in IDG number one. The load of generator number two can be reduced and all galleys can be made available
again if the APU generator takes over the load of generator number.

In the next example AC bus number 1 is lost. As a result the essential busses are also lost and the ECAM display is no longer powered.

The next 2 failures do not need any pilot action. The first example is, a TR unit number one fault. The switching is performed automatically. You can
monitor the effect on the distribution.

The most dramatic failure in the electrical power distribution is the loss of all AC power sources during flight. This is known as the emergency
configuration. When this happens the batteries and the static inverter supply the emergency power distribution for about five seconds and then the
emergency generator automatically takes over. This is also a completely automatic function. It’s only in the event of the emergency generator not
taking over that the MANual ON push button on the emergency electrical power panel must be pressed by the pilot.

To ensure that the emergency power supply works reliably, an emergency generator test must be performed on ground on a regular basis. After
carrying out some preconditions, like activation of hydraulic power, the test is started by pressing the corresponding PB on the panel. The test is
terminated when you release the pushbutton again.

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