IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. IA-13, NO.
4, JULY/AUGUST 1977
Inverters for Uninterruptible Power Supplies
ROBERT CHAUPRADE
Abstract-The synthesis of the principal types of inverters that are
best suited for static uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) is sought.
From this synthesis a range of apparatus is evolved that will satisfy
present and future needs. For each point of this range new solutions
are indicated; their development is tied with the technological evolution
of the components. The reliability and redundancy aspects of uninter-
ruptible power supplies are also considered.
INTRODUCTION
THE CONTINUING growth of data processing requires
better and better performing systems with ever higher rates
of availability, especially in the case of real time work. To
achieve these objectives it is certainly necessary to have
very reliable and elaborate data processing equipment, but
also to have very high quality power supplies. Besides
computers, other critical loads such as medical instrumentation,
telecommunication systems, emergency lighting circuits,
auxiliary, monitoring, or protection circuits, etc., also require
uninterruptible power supplies (UPS).
The modern version of these interfaces, located between
the power supply network and the load, is static and since
"energy storage" can only be obtained in the form of dc, the
use of dc/ac converters, i.e., of inverters, comes naturally. The
design of the inverters varies in accordance with the rating,
the number of phases, the requested performances, the required
rate of availability, and with other particular desired character-
istics. Obviously, the design changes with the progress
accomplished in power semiconductors (thyristors, transistors)
and in integrated control circuits.
I. REMINDER OF.THE PRINCIPLE OF THE UPS'S
The three basic concepts which come under consideration
are the continuity of energy supply, the quality of the voltage
wave, and the rate of availability (reliability). In view of the
events that can take place in the network, reliable as it may be,
the continuity of energy supply can be insured only through
storage of a sufficient quantity of energy to overcome voltage
dips (usually called microinterruptions), or current failures
estimated to last a few minutes. Obviously, this implies,
for example, the use of a battery. The concept of quality
of voltage wave expresses a degree of stability and of harmonic
neutralization, implying total independence from the network
which is, frequently, polluted by other uses. Finally, the rate
of availability implies the use of reliable elements, suited for
Paper TOD-75-74, approved by the Static Power Converter Com-
mittee of the IEEE Industry Applications Society for publication in
this TRANSACTIONS. Manuscript released for publication October 20,
1975.
The author is with the Industrial Systems Engineering Division,
Jeumont-Schneider, 77430 Champagne-sur-Seine, France.
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281
redundancy and requiring little or no maintenance, and taking,
in any case, not more than a few hours of repair time.
Different solutions can be considered, but today there is
no longer any doubt left that the static solution best satisfies
the three imperatives described above. This leads, naturally, to
the diagram in Fig. 1, comprising in its simplest version three
functions, i.e., three elements: ac/dc converter (rectifier-
charger), intermediate dc stage (battery), and dc/ac converter
(inverter). With the network operative, energy is transmitted
to the load through the rectifier and the inverter, while the
battery remains in the "floating" state. When the network
fails (for a short or for a more prolonged period) the rectifier
becomes inoperative and the battery supplies energy to the
load through the inverter. When the network recovers, the
rectifier resumes its operation: it transmits, again, energy to
the inverter and in addition recharges the battery. As one
can see, the interfacing provided by such a power supply
protects the load from any event happening on the network.
In the following we shall only consider the inverter.
II. FUNCTIONS CARRIED OUT BY THE INVERTER
The functions that must be performed by inverters used in
static UPS's are to
* convert dc into ac;
* provide an output voltage free of harmonics (total
harmonic distortion (THD) less than 5 percent;
* maintain stable voltage in spite of variations of the
load, of its power factor and of the battery voltage
(steady-state accuracy to the order of 2 to 3 percent);
* maintain stable frequency (accuracy better than 1
percent);
* keep voltage transients within limits compatible with
the computer or, in a broader sense, with the load
system (transient accuracy to the order of 8 to 10
percent with recovery of the steady-state accuracy
within a hundred of ms);
* ensure selectivity of the protections;
* provide a high degree of safety of operation.
In summary, conversion, filtering, regulation, protection are
the principal functions of the inverters, which, in addition,
must possess good reliability. These functions are performed
by the following subassemblies (see Fig. 2).
A) The first is one dc to ac conversion module: single-phase
or multiphase. The basic components are thyristors, operating
in this case, in the mode of forced blocking. In the case of low
ratings to the order of a few kilovoltamperes, transistors may
be preferable.
B) The electronic control and regulating circuits are time
base or frequency control, gate pulse generators (transistors or
thyristors), voltage and phase regulators, and current limiters.
 282 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. IA-1 3, NO. 4, JULY/AUGUST 1977
Rectifier - Charger- Battery - Tnverter
Network
Network
e
Fig. 2. Inverter diagram for static UPS.
C) Another is the starting and stopping sequence, the static
monitoring relays of the battery voltage, the sequence relative
to a specific application.
D) A fourth is the filtering of the dc voltage by capacitors
offering a low resistance path to the current harmonics from
the converter module (in other words, they have with respect
to the latter a very low source impedance).
E) The filtering of the output ac voltage to obtain a sine
wave is another such subassembly. The structure of the filters
depends upon the application, but more upon the converter
output wave. Depending upon the selected principle the wave
is rectangular, "stepped" or "slotted," or it consists of pulses
with no low-order harmonics. Depending upon the lowest
order of the harmonic, the filter is designed as a low-pass or as
a bandpass filter. The filters always consist of reactive elements
(inductances and capacitors) so as not to affect significantly
the efficiency of the installation.
F) The matching of the output voltage with a standard
value and the electrical isolation between the load and the
battery are accomplished by a transformer.
G) In certain cases inverters can have an intrinsic current
limitation.
III. SELECTION OF THE CIRCUITS AS A FUNCTION OF
THE RATING
Today, the requested ratings cover a range from several
hundred voltamperes to a thousand kilovoltamperes, perhaps
even more. It is evident that such a wide range of ratings calls
for a large variety of solutions. However, for reasons of mastery
of techniques on one hand, and for economical reasons on
the other hand, the number of solutions must be restricted. To
meet the demands, i.e., to optimize the solutions of the
considered problems on the technical and on the economic
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F osiU
I =
Fig. 1.- DiagTam of static UPS.
plane, it is necessary to standardize subassemblies by using
technologies adequate for ranges of ratings. Under these
conditions great flexibility can be achieved, inside these ranges
by acting, for example, on the supply voltage (practically at
constant current) or on the number of elements (multiphase
circuits).
Such an approach to the problem makes it possible to
satisfy best the needs of the user (repetitive equipment implies
easy maintenance and expansions) and of the manufacture
(repetitive equipment implies quality and economic lines of
products).
A. Ratings of Less Than 10 kVA
These generally imply single-phase and, more exceptionally,
three-phase inverters. Two solutions are possible.
1) Thyristor Inverters: For economic reasons, mostly,
circuits with two thyristors are used. Under these conditions
only two-pole characteristics are possible, i.e., the output
voltage is rectangular and has an instantaneous value +kE or
-kE (E being the voltage of the dc source and k a coefficient
function of the circuit).
Filtering and output voltage regulation are performed,
most frequently, by a ferroresonant magnetic regulator (FRR)
placed on the output side of the converter; in addition to the
indicated functions it provides limitation of the converter
output current in case of a short circuit on the load. Fig. 3
shows the circuit of this type of inverter and the corresponding
wave shapes.1
Characteristics: The dc input voltage can vary from 100
to 125 V. The output voltage is maintained at 220 V ± 3
percent at a frequency equal to 50 Hz ± 0.5 percent (or 60 Hz).
' The principle of this circuit is described in the Revue Generale
d'Electricite, vol. 78, no. 11, p. 1046, Nov. 1969.
CHAUPRADE: INVERTERS FOR POWER SUPPLIES 283

±
DZ1

Th2

Fig. 5. Single-phase transistor inverter.

The power factor of the load can vary from 0.5 to 1.0. The

1~~~~~
THD is on the order of 5 percent and the efficiency of 65
(a) percent. Fig. 4 shows a 7.5-kVA unit.
Advantages: Main functions are accomplished by a small
number of elements, hence, high reliability; dc/ac converter is
simple; electronic control circuitry is also simple; FRR is
current limiting by design (or inherently); paralleling of several
units is relatively simple. This solution is economical for
ratings of less than 10 kVA or even 15 kVA.
Drawbacks: These inverters are difficult to make for
ratings higher than 15 kVA: their cost increases very rapidly
with the rating. The current limitation is not adjustable and
comes very close to the rated current: 130 to 150 percent of
I, The ceiling of limitation is affected by the supply voltage.
Consequently the FRR's will not permit one to take transient
overloads, such as the starting of a motor, unless the peak load
rating of the inverter is considerably higher than the one of the
(b) motor (5 to 6 times). The regulation cannot be adjusted, either
Fig. 3. (a) Schematic diagram of a center-tap single-phase inverter for steady-state or for transient conditions. However, adjust-
with ferroresonant regulator. (b) Output voltage upstream and ment by tap changing is possible. The transient performances
downstream of the FRR. are relatively modest with regard to load variations, but they
are good with regard to input voltage variations. The FRR's
are sensitive to load power factor variations. The THD is
reaching the permissible limit of current requirements (<5
percent under load, 7 percent at no load). The FRR's can be
incompatible with nonlinear loads or with phase controlled
converters (magnetic amplifiers, thyristors, triacs, etc.). It
is difficult to make three-phase inverters: the delta connection
must be excluded, and with the wye or Scott connection the
load must be well-balanced (the phase shift between input
and output is extremely variable).
2) Transistor Inverters: The progress, which has recently
been achieved in the field of transistors, makes it possible
today to make transistor inverters up to about 10 kVA. This
solution makes it possible to decrease the weight of the power
circuit since transistors do not require auxiliary blocking
circuits. By using a bridge connection (see Fig. 5) controlled
in accordance with the principle of pulsewidth modulation
(PWM) for the adjustment of the output voltage, one can
gainfully replace the ferroresonant regulator by a filter.
The relative simplicity of the latter becomes the more
Fig. 4. 7.5-kVA center-tap single-phase inverter. pronounced as the compensation of the harmonics by PWM
becomes more elaborate.

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 284 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. IA-l 3, NO. 4, JULY/AUGUST 1977
y 4E
I
I
Tr
I Urms
E
l_I
I i
Tr2
I
I *
600 Hlz
Chopper Inve rter
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 6. Pulsewidth modulation chopper-inverter type single-phase
circuit.
The theoretical solutions are numerous and lead to very
different results: beginning with "prechopping," which
eliminates harmonics 3 and 5 and ending with the system of
18 pulses per cycle, which eliminates all the harmonics of the
lesser than 17 order. The number of pulses can be variable or
constant as a function of the adjustment and the pulses can
be symmetrical or not with respect to the ir/2 axis (while
respecting the voltage-time area symmetry).
The depth of pulse modulation is achieved by variation of
the modulation control voltage of frequency f (for example,
50 Hz) which is superimposed upon the carrier wave of a
frequency higher than f in the ratio of the desired number of
pulses. This ratio is called modulation index m. The inter-
sections of these two voltages determine the instants of
commutation of the controlled power elements. The carrier
wave is usually triangular; the modulation voltage can be
rectangular, trapezoidal, or sinusoidal.
To summarize, one should seek the best possible compromise
between efficiency and complexity on one hand; affected by
the number of commutations (pulses) per cycle and the rate
of harmonic distorsion on the other hand. That is, the incidence
upon the filter and upon the transient performances actually
improves with the number of pulses. As an example, one can
select the diagram of Fig. 6. On this circuit, the control is such
that one half-bridge operates at 600 Hz and provides the
chopping function, while the other operates at 50 Hz as an
inverter. With this circuit, optimal neutralization of harmonics
is achieved when pulses are symmetrical, in groups of three,
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with respect to 1/2. The rms output voltage is
6
sin x -
(cos {x2i 1 }-cos x2i)
({2i- 1} + k sin x2i)
x2i -
12
xT
x2i -I=- Q(2i -1I}-k sin x2i -1)sin x2i -1,
12
where k is the ratio of the crest value of the sawtooth wave
assumed equal to one and the crest value of the sine wave
y =
k * sinx.
Fig. 7 shows the amplitude of the fundamental and the
harmonics 9, 11, and 13. One should note that harmonic 9
cancels out when the pulses become symmetrical with respect
to the upper or lower crests of the sawtooth wave. This
condition can be achieved by replacing the control sine wave
with a stepped wave shape.
Characteristics: Depending upon the application, a
48- or 120-V supply voltage can be chosen (possibly higher).
The output voltage can be maintained constant within ±2
percent with a THD <3 percent. The efficiency can be 75 to
80 percent.
Advantages: The power circuit is simple: there are no
auxiliary blocking circuits. The pulsewidth modulation makes
it possible to neutralize harmonics of lesser orders, i.e., to have
a low impedance filter and, consequently, to achieve transient
characteristics (for example AU 6< 10 percent for AP < 60
percent. The dimensions are smaller than in the case of
thyristors (see Fig. 8). Today this solution is economical and
reliable for ratings of less than 10 kVA.
Drawbacks: At the present time the rating is limited to
a few kilovoltamperes. To increase the rating it becomes
necessary to parallel several transistors, hence, decreased
reliability. The protection of power transistors is more difficult
than that of thyristors. The electronic control circuits required
for the pulsewidth modulation are relatively complicated. The
PWM increases losses and decreases the input voltage/output
voltage ratio.
To summarize, transistor inverters are presently in the
development stage although they are destined to become the
most extensively used type of inverters in this range of ratings.
As for the inverter, the battery charger can be made with
transistors and diodes.
Remark: The bridge of Fig. 5 with asymmetric control
(wave without flat portion, without PWM) and with a four-
element filter can be used, as in the case of thyristor inverters
described in the next section.
B. Single-Phase Inverters Rated Above IO kVA
1) Bridge Inverters (of the type without auxiliary thyristors):
In general they have circuits with four thyristors with asym-
metric control resulting in three-pole characteristics, making
the output voltage control possible. Each half-bridge provides
a rectangular voltage, but when one half-bridge is phase-shifted
CHAUPRADE: INVERTERS FOR POWER SUPPLIES 285

An aIFr- = 1
nE (cos nf X2i - 1- COS n *x2i)
i
0,8

0,7 n = 1

0,6

0,5

0.4

0.3

n = 11

0,2

0,1

0,1 0,3 0,4 O,s 0,6 0,7 0,8 0.9

Fig. 7. Harmonic analysis of a chopper-inverter type single-phase inverter.

-.. %4i0...
;. -;s ga.K ;:E: :. ~+

Fig. 8. 5-kVA three-phase transistor inverter.

with respect to the other, the sum of the voltages of the two (a)
half-converters provides a rectangular wave with no flat
portion. The circuit of this type of inverter is shown in Fig. 9.
By shifting the phase control of Th12 and Th22 with respect
to that of Th, and Th2 one can adjust at will the rms value
of the fundamental voltage, which is the only one of interest,
since the filter provided after the converter eliminates all
harmonics.
Let us recall that (b)

Fig. 9. Schematic diagram of single-phase bridge type inverter. (a)

UABTmS = -E
iT
cos a. Schematic diagram. (b) Output voltage upstream and downstream
of the filter.

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 286 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. IA-13,
100
60 {
50
40
30
10
0 10 20
Fig. 10. Amplitude of sine wave components reduced to fundamental component f(a).
The filter consists of a) a series resonant element L3-C3
tuned to the frequency of the fundamental wave, so as to
provide an unrestrained path to the fundamental current wave,
i.e., with low voltage drop and phase shift, while at the same
time presenting high impedance to the harmonic currents; b) a
matching and isolation transformer TR; and c) a parallel
element L4-C4 that completes filtering. A current limiting
feature can be added at the level of the filter by placing it in
parallel with C3. The principle of the latter is to detune the
series element of the filter so as to increase its impedance.
Characteristics: With the present thyristors, the stand-
ardized elementary ratings of single-phase bridges vary between
10 and 100 kVA. For static UPS's ofhigherrating, several
inverters mounted in parallel are used. The supply voltage can
be selected between 200 and 500 V, depending upon the
required rating. The output voltage is, in general, 220 V
regulated within ±1 percent: the THD is less than 3 percent,
and the frequency is guaranteed within ±0.5 percent. The
power factor of the load can vary between 0.5 and 0.9. The
efficiency is on the order of 80 percent.
Advantages: The electronic control provides great
stability to the output voltage with respect to the variations of
the battery and of the load, including variations of the power
factor. The output voltage of the inverter can be adjusted in
the field so as to compensate the possible voltage drops in the
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NO. 4, JULY/AUGUST 1977
I.
n _
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
distribution line. The distortion rate can be 5 percent or less
for all conditions of load and of input voltage if the filter is
correctly designed. Current limitation can be adjusted in such
a manner that the inverter will take overloads (starting of a
motor). This solution is relatively economical up to 70 kVA.
The efficiency is better than 80 percent.
Drawbacks: The filter is large in size since it must
eliminate harmonics of orders 3, 5, etc., which exist in a
rectangular wave (see Fig. 10). The size of the filter affects the
transient performances; the voltage drop or overshoot can
reach 40 percent in the most unfavorable cases during
switching in or out of the load. For AU + 10 percent, - 8
percent AP is to the order of 30 percent. In the case of certain
types of loads, such as motors and ferroresonant regulators,
the transient impedance of the filter makes it necessary to
limit power steps to a fraction of the rated power to avoid
instabilities of the output voltage. The filter negatively affects
the economics, the weight, and the outline dimensions.
2) Inverters with Pulsewidth Modulation: By using the
principle described in Section III-A2 and by replacing transistors
with thyristors, one can make single-phase inverters having
outputs in the range of 10 to 60 kVA. We have seen that
modulation of the pulsewidth implies that the inverter operates
at a frequency above base frequency. The frequency of
commutation of the thyristors is equal to fm, where m is the
CHAUPRADE: INVERTERS FOR POWER SUPPLIES 287

E/2

E/2

(a)
u C

.Th 1 D4 * Th 1 * D4 , * Thl1 Fig. 12. Diagram of three-phase Scott connected inverter.

(b)

_N_--
10
0 --

1 3 tt
i4
(c)
Fig. 11. (a) Schematic diagram of half-bridge auxiliary thyristor type.
(b) Operation. (c) Commutation.

modulation index. This is the reason why recourse must be

sought in the circuit with auxiliary thyristors (Fig. 11) which
have shorter commutation times (approximately 200 ,us) than
the circuit without auxiliary thyristors (approximately I ms).
The pulse inverters make it possible to decrease the output Phase I liase j Neutral
filter impedance (see Section III-A2) bringing about a notice-
Fig. 13. Diagram of three-phase wye connected inverter.
able improvement in transient characteristics (AU = +10
percent, - 8 percent for AP < 60 percent) and a decrease in
weight and volume. On the negative side, increase of the
frequency of commutation causes additional losses that
affect efficiency, and in addition, chopping the voltage wave
decreases the ratio between the input voltage and the output
voltage of the converters. Hence, for the same size of thyristors (a)
the output of an elementary bridge is smaller.
C. Three-Phase Inverters Rated Less Than 30 kVA
In this range of ratings, the demand for three-phase units is
small. However, it is possible to make transistor inverters. (b)
Obviously it is possible to change the PWM circuit of Fig. 6 Fig. 14. Transient conditions of 60-kVA three-phase wye connected
inverter. (a) Load pickup, AP = 30 percent, AU = 8.5 percent. (b)
into a three-phase circuit. One can also use three single-phase Dropping of load AP = 30 percent, AU = 8 percent.
bridges, having three-pole characteristics, wye connected, and
provided with a four-element filter. Finally, to obtain a higher
rating, one can seek solution in the polygonal connection of n transformer outputs (see Fig. 12). The performances are
single-phase transistor inverters, such as the ones we shall similar to those of single-phase units described in Section III-B1.
describe in paragraph Section III-El for large thyristor units. The advantage of this solution is that economical transient
performances are similar to those of a wye connection (see
D. Three-Phase Inverters Rated Between 30 and 100 kVA following paragraph).
Four solutions deserve a closer look: Scott connection, 2) Wye Connection: It consists of a group of three single-
wye connection, zig-zag connection, and PWM inverters. phase inverters with controls shifted by 1200. The transformer
1) Scott Connection: Two single-phase inverters are used ouputs are wye connected to avoid dc harmonic current
with control circuits shifted by 900 and with Scott connected circulation (Fig. 13). This solution is adequate for unbalanced

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 288 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. IA-1 3, NO. 4, JULY/AUGUST 1977

obtain a THD <5 percent (see Figs. 15(c) and 16) and a
Inv
_ t VI AU< 10 percent for a z.1P close to 45 percent.
°° /U
a l
4) PWM Inverter: By combining three single-phase PWM
circuits, see Section III-B2, one can obtain a three-phase circuit.
However, today, this solution is of no interest by comparison
Imv. 2_I with the three-phase zig-zag solution. The possible gain on
v1
transient performances is small in comparison with the
V2
increase of the number of power components (commutation
Inv. 3 ' v3 losses, smaller input-voltage/output-voltage ratio) and of
120°' V V3 control circuits required by this type of inverter.
(a) E. Inverters Rated Above 100 kVA
For this range, the solutions 1), 2), and 3) of Section 1II-D
()2 can be extrapolated. However, this leads to a prohibitive
filter size, and it becomes preferable to use inverters having
polygonal or antiharmonic circuits. We feel that two solutions
(1,) are of interest.
1) Inverters with Multiple Phase-Shifted Bridges: The
association of several single-phase bridges with phase-shifted
FT
v IL_
rjPeC
~V-: controls and with properly added output voltages provides a
resultant voltage with a so-called "stepped" wave which
closely approximates a sine wave.
The selection of the number of bridges n can be determined,
either from the rating required by the user (rating p of one
elementary bridge being given, the available output is P=p n),
or it can be determined from the desired rate of distortion.
To describe the principle of these inverters, we shall consider
the example of a three-phase inverter comprising six elementary
bridges (see Fig. 17). We could just as well have selected a
different number of bridges (4, 8, 9, 12, etc.,) but we shall see
that six is a good choice with regard to the above-mentioned
criteria. The elementary converters are single-phase bridges
such as those described in Section III-B. The control circuits of
\
the six bridges are shifted, one with respect to the other, by 30
VlN (Ul, VIN) 30o
= V2 + vl
electric degrees (ir/6), as shown in Fig. 17. Each bridge has
=

V2N = V3 -v, V3N1 (U2. V2N) = 90'
v3M --V2 - V3
Wt3, V3N) = 150°
(c)
Fig. 15. Three-phase zig-zag circuit. (a) Schematic diagram. (b) Vector
diagram. (c) Output voltage upstream and downstream of filter.
loads since each phase has its own phase and amplitude
regulator. However, transient conditions are also affected by
the impedance of the series filter. The oscillograms of Fig. 14
show the transient behavior of this type of inverter (for AU +
10 percent, 8 percent AP 6 30 percent). Similar to the
- various coupling transformers. One can demonstrate by
single-phase bridge or to Scott connected inverters, this
solution makes the intrinsic output current limitation possible
and, consequently, can take short circuits on the load. The
harmonic analysis is the same as in Fig. 10, except that,
obviously, there is no harmonic 3 present.
3) Zig-Zag Connection: This connection consists of three
single-phase bridges shifted, one with respect to the other, by
600 and coupled together by three transformers according to
Fig. 15. Voltages are the result of composition of two single-
phase voltages shifted by 600, according to the diagram. The
phase-to-neutral and phase-to-phase voltages have, by design,
no third harmonics. Thus a three-element filter can be used to
an output transformer with multiple secondaries, coupled
according to an original method which we shall describe later.
The quality of the output wave depends essentially upon two
conditions. One is a phase relationship condition according to
which each bridge must be shifted by a phase angle of 30 ± 1
with respect to the preceding one. The other is a condition
for the amplitude of the elementary voltages according to
which their addition must neutralize the harmonics of lower
order of the output voltage. The latter consideration raises
the problem of selection of the transformation ratios of the
calculation that these ratios must be
1, 1/V3, 2/VT.
We shall justify these numbers by a simpler method and by
referring to Fig. 18.
If we assume that each bridge is fired at an angle ae close
to 900, then for bridge 1, taken as an example, the output
voltage will be as shown on Fig. 18(a). Now let us plot the
voltages of each bridge superimposed upon the sine wave
(Fig. 18(b)). We can see that the points of intersection on
the sine wave determine the optimal transformation ratios

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 CHAUPRADE: INVERTERS FOR POWER SUPPLIES 289

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90a
Fig. 16. Amplitude of sine wave components reduced to fundamental component 6 (a).

3Q0~ ~ ~~0

600 600

1201 1200

150 1 1500

(a) (b)
Fig. 17. Principle of inverter with six phase-shifted bridges. (a) Schematic diagram. (b) Simple and resultant voltages.

2U%
U6 '- 73-
us. -uo U1 U0

U4
U3 0

a 90 a l 1 I

(a) (b)
Fig. 18. (a) Output voltage of bridge (on the primary side) in dotted line for a = 00, in solid line for a = 900, secondary
voltage of bridge U1 UO = kE. (b) Determination of transformation ratios relative to various transformers.

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 290 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. IA-1 3 NO. 4, JULY/AUGUST 1977
The participation of the bridges in the three phases is the
s uQ
,,3 following:
U4= °

Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

U5= -
U0
U2= U0/3 U6 = Uol/N3 U43= UO/X3
Ui = Uo U5 =UO U3 = UO
U6 = -2UO/,3 U4 = 2Uo/3 U2 = -2Uo/V/3
U5=- Uo U3 = Uo U = Uo
U4 = -Uo/ 3 u2 U003
= u u/3.

The vector representation of the fundamental voltages appears

in Fig. 19(a); in Fig. 19(b) the voltage of an elementary bridge
and the phase-to-phase output voltage for two values of a are
shown. Fig. 20 shows the connection diagram of the six
t,12 - u-
- bridge plus transformer assemblies.
v7i The Fourier harmonic analysis proves that the rms value of
(a)
the fundamental wave, in the case of six bridges, is equal to
the following: as shown on Fig. 19(a), the fundamental voltage
i P_ d_ is given by

_ / 22\
,r 0-- v- *
-
* cos a * sin o tt
( + + X)
- --t g wI
<n st
k

24UO
cc 22.5 C
-4U0 *cos a sin cot
- - ,_ _L _
e '

and
24UO co
VrMs --

for a value of a comprised between C) and 750. Above this value

7.5 0
(b)
Fig. 19. (a) Vector composition of fundamental voltages. (b) Output
voltage of bridge (upper plot) and phase-to-phase output voltage
before filtering as function of a.
corresponding to the closest approximation of the desired
wave shape.
If we take 1 for the "600 point", we have l/3and 2/V3
for the two other points. Voltage (V1) of phase 1, which is
shown, consists of the sum of five voltages: bridges 1, 2, 4, 5,
and 6; the voltage of bridge 3 must not appear in the considered
phase since it would be located at the zero point of the sine
wave, as it can be seen from the figure. The same reasoning
would show that in the case of phase 2, bridges 2, 3, 4, 5,
and 6 participate in the composition of the voltage wave and
in the case of phase 3 bridges 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6.
The amplitude of the output voltage of the elementary
bridges (on the transformer primary) is equal to the crest
amplitude of the battery voltage E. If UO is the voltage
corresponding to the relative ratio 1 and if k is the primary-
secondary transformation ratio, we have
E comprised between 0.8 and I. The THD is less than 3 percent
UO = - = Ui.
k and efficiency is close to 90 percent.
the shape of the voltage becomes interrupted. However, one
should note that in the case of UPS's this mode of operation
would occur only under conditions of current limitation. For
this type of inverter, the first harmonics are of the order
2n ± 1, i.e., in the case of six bridges of the orders 11 and 13,
as shown by the diagram of Fig. 21, which must be compared
with Fig. 10 (without harmonic 3) and with Fig. 16.
Characteristics: This type of inverter makes it possible
to obtain relatively large ratings and provides great flexibility
of adaptation. For example, with the ORSEC series (trademark
of Jeumont-Schneider for static uninterruptible power
supplies), model 6035 (six bridges of the 35-kVA type) we
obtain 100 kVA with a rated battery voltage of 290 V and
130 kVA with 390 V, 160 kVA and 200 kVA with 475 V.
Above this range one can obtain 300 kVA with one model
9035, 400 kVA with one model 6070, and 600 kVA with one
model 9070 (with 70 kVA bridges). The supply voltage can be
selected between 200 and 500 V. The output voltage can be
380 V with 50 Hz ± 0.5 percent or 208 V with 60 Hz ± 0.5
percent, with a steady-state accuracy of ±1 percent and
transient instantaneous deviations of not more than +10
percent, -8 percent for AP < 60 percent, with a power factor

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CHAUPRADE: INVERTERS FOR POWER SUPPLIES 291

3 2

Fig. 20. Configuration of six single-phase bridges with phase-shifted control.

Harmonics as a %
of the fundamental

Lo.
'/
.1 ,\N /
20o
*"
>1/
3o0
"\
40'
'\/

50
\!
'7

60 70y
IV
X,'Xj

Bc,
N.-I
90.
a
-
one half
of the zero
voltage portion
Fig. 21. Harmonic analysis of six bridges shifted by 300 as function angle a.

Advantages: The grouping of several bridges, character-
istic of this circuit, makes it possible to achieve large ratings
without paralleling. The coupling of elementary transformers
neutralizes harmonics up to the order 2n ± 1, resulting in a
very noticeable decrease of filter size.
The smaller filter size, by comparison with more conven-
tional three-phase inverters, improves the transient conditions,
the behavior of the inverter with nonlinear loads, and the
efflciency. The oscillograms of Fig. 22 show the behavior
of these inverters under transient conditions. They can be
compared with those of Fig. 14. The harmonic neutralization
obtained with this circuit considerably limits the volume of
the filter reduced to L series elements (which can be part of
the coupling transformer) +LC parallel elements. One should
add that this circuit achieves cancellation of harmonics by
opposition of harmonic voltages of the same order but not by
providing short-circuit paths, as is the case of other inverters,
in particular, of those in which a wye connected transformer
is associated in series with a delta connected transformer:
under these conditions harmonic currents are absorbed by the
windings and by the iron cores, thus increasing the losses
somewhat.
This inverter has intrinsic redundancy. Indeed, the loss of
one elementary bridge does not cause failure of the complete
inverter but simply a reduction of the output equal to P/n,
an unbalance of the output voltages, and an increase of the
THD. Fig. 23 -shows the output voltages during failure of an
elementary converter. This natural redundancy can be used, in
spite of the narrow tolerances with regard to amplitude and
phase of the output voltage, during the transfer time to
another source of supply.
Drawbacks: To the large number of advantages one
can oppose the relative complexity due to the number of
elementary converters and to the associated control and,

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292 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. IA-13, NO. 4, JULY/AUGUST 1977

0° 1200 2400
E
I

(a)
(a)
E

(b)
(b) VAN
Fig. 22. Output voltage transient conditions of type 6035 inverter
E1 n
2E

3U_
with six phase shifted bridges, P = 200 kVA. (a) AP = 0 to 25 per- 3
cent of Pn. (b) AP = 0 toPnJ.

LI LULiH
(c)
MMMMOM
Fig. 25. Three-phase PWM inverter. (a) Schematic diagram. (b) VAB
voltage. (c) VAX voltage.

perhaps, the volume and the weight of the coupling trans-

formers. This solution is not economical for ratings below
Fig. 23. Output voltage of inverter with six phase-shifted bridges 100 kVA, at least not in the case of thyristors.
during fault im one bridge (natural redundancy). 2) PWM Inverters With Polygonal Connection: We have
seen in Section III-D4 that the three-phase PWM circuit offers
little interest because of the frequency of modulation which
must be used if one desires to neutralize low-order harmonics.
E/2 On the other hand, if pulsewidth modulation of modulation
index three, corresponding to very acceptable commutation
frequencies, is combined with the polygonal connection,
E/2
one obtains a good solution.
The principle consists in using two assemblies, each
(a) comprising three times the elementary circuit of Fig. 24,
controlled according to the diagram shown in Fig. 24(b). With
this circuit, voltage VAO has the form shown in Fig. 24(c)
-7A
tip
/\ and is expressed by
V 2E l-2{-l}P sinna s
V VI VAO XTn=-n=n sinnnx,

(b) with n = 2p + 1.
The three elementary circuits are phase-shifted by 27r/3
,2a. (see Fig. 25). The phase-to-phase voltage can be expressed
5/2~ by
-
E/i I Il VAB =-2 (I 2{-11} sin noe
IT/2 T/2 2s n={ cn
(C)
Fig. 24. Pulsewidth modulation inverter. (a) Basic schematic diagram.
(b) Principle of index three PWM. (c) VAO voltage.
* 2 sir cos n7r6 )

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CHAUPRADE: INVERTERS FOR POWER SUPPLIES
Inv. 1 nv. 2
l O'
k/3 k
(a)
T
9., . *,* **X**
t.t F*.,.-.*
,+. p.. , .++.1*;*,f
(b)
Fig. 26. ~'Polygonal PWM" inverter. (a) Connection diagram. (b)
Phase-to-phase output voltage for tWo values of c>.
and the phase-to-neutral voltage by
°°4E /' flT
VAN= V1 = jl( -2sin sno
n=l 3irn 6
nir
- 2 sin n ot sin -+ cos-Jsin nx.
6 3/
If two voltages such as VAB and VAN are added by using
transformers with an appropriate transformation ratio and if
these two voltages are in phase, then a harmonic-free voltage
is obtained up to order 11. The corresponding connection
diagram is shown in Fig. 26(a). One can note that one of the
transformers is wye/wye connected and has a transformation
ratio k/4/, while the second is delta/wye connected and
has a transformation ratio k, but since the inverters are phase-
shifted by 30°, VAB and VAN are in phase. The resultant,
fundamental output voltage is
UINrms E.k f 1 -2 sina)K
7T
Obviously, it is possible to use other connections to obtain the
same result. Figure 26(b) shows the output voltage before
filtering.
Characteristics: The results are similar to those obtained
with the multiple-bridge polygonal connection of the preceding
paragraph, however, with lesser flexibility in the selection of
the progression of ratings and also with a smaller maximum
rating with the same size of thyristors.
F. 400-Hz Inverters
Certain models of computers and military data processing
and transmissions require power supply frequencies of 400 Hz
(or close to 400 Hz). The rules are not very different from
those used for 50-Hz or 60-Hz inverters. However, for thyristor
solutions, the circuit wvith so-called auxiliary thyristors is
selected, by preference (see Fig. 11) because of its good
commutation ability. With 400 Hz, pulsewidth modulation
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293
leads to commutation frequencies above 1000 Hz, causing
considerable losses. Hence, it is preferable to use asymmetrical
300
control (rectangular wave without flat portion) and a four-
element filter, which is obviously smaller than in the case of
50 Hz or 60 Hz. Transistors are still the best solution for
small ratings, and polygonal connections for large ratings.
IV. RELIABILITY AND REDUNDANCY
N
A. Reliability
When a user decides to acquire a UPS, it means that he
desires to have a source of energy of superior quality to that of
an industrial network. Thus reliability should imply not only
probability, but also quality of operation, i.e., not only
stoppage or breakdown, but also exceeding, even for an instant,
the tolerances of one or of several required characteristics
should be considered as a failure.
It is equally true to say that reliability can be manufactured
as that it can be calculated. To achieve a determined goal (for
example, a 25 000-h mean time between failures (MTBF) for
a 200-kVA inverter) one must set up considerable manufac-
turing and quality control facilities. See the symbolic diagram
of Fig. 27.
The problems that arise for obtaining of a high degree of
nrr\ reliability are numerous and occur at all levels. They consist of
* defining the objective of reliability before designing;
* calculating circuits and establishing parameters of the
components;
* standardizing components which meet the requirements;
* verifying that the objective is met on the prototype by
tests;
* providing a receiving control of the components;
* controlling manufacturing at all levels;
* performing production line testing of subassemblies and
assemblies before shipment;
* controlling reliability in operation by centralizing
information provided by the followup services;
* finally, investigating the effects of reliability on
maintenance.
Equally important as the rate of failure is the consideration
of the mean time to repair (MTTR). This factor depends, to a
large degree, upon the modular concept: the accessibility and
the ease of locating failures by the use of testing plugs and of
instruction manuals. In short, much credit should go to
maintenance aids. Beyond these conceptual principles, the user
should think of the simplicity of maintenance, i.e., of the
aptitude of his installation of being maintained, by training
personnel, and by keeping an adequate reserve of spare parts.
Reliability expresses in mathematical terms the probability
that a device will survive a stated mission time. Since a UPS
system does not have a finite mission time, but is rather in
a state of continuous demand, the concept of the rate of
availability (or of nonavailability) seems preferable.
B. Redundancy
Whatever the precautions taken, a 100 percent reliability
will never be attained, especially in permanent operation.
 294 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. IA-13, NO. 4, JULY/AUGUST 1977
Comnoonent s

Statement Design of the material

of the
problem

elia-
i 1ity

Fig. 27. Diagram symbolizing "manufacture of reliability."

Therefore, in this case, it is necessary to provide redundant

systems. Several solutions are possible, in fact it is a compromise
which must take into account: on one hand the required
output and rate of availability and, on the other, the economi-
cal factors.
1) Sequential Redundancy or Emergency Operation on the
Network: To ensure proper operation it is necessary to a)
synchronize the inverter with the network when the latter is
operational, it is obvious that this solution is possible only if
the inverter frequency is equal to the network frequency;
Fig. 28. Static contactors. b) have the network voltage remain within the tolerances,
+10,-8 percent with respect to a rated value equal to the
inverter voltage; and c) use static contactors.
The synchronization of the inverter is accomplished at the
pilot oscillator level. When the inverter operates alone its
_. 'A. frequency is self-determined, but in the presence of the
network (or of another source) it takes the frequency and the
phase angle of the latter.
Static contractors consist of groups of two "back-to-back"
or "reverse-parallel" mounted thyristors (Fig. 28). Each
Fig. 29. Transfer of load ftom inverter to network. thyristor will let through a half-cycle that corresponds to its
conduction time and will have high impedance during the
following half-cycle. Thyristors 1 and 2 are fired simultaneously
and so are thyristors 3 and 4. This circuit lends itself well to
the use of an emergency power supply replacing the first
(oscillograms of Fig. 29). The load current and voltage remain
practically undisturbed. The static contactors can have natural
or forced commutation. In most cases natural commutation is
satisfactory.
The inverter failure detection can be made at the level of
the rectangular converter output voltage or at the level of a
Fig. 30. Transfer of load from network to inverter. microswitch of a fuse; in both cases the output signal instantly
closes the static contactor on the network side and opens the
one on the inverter side by applying or by suppressing gate
pulses. The oscillogram of Fig. 29 shows the inverter to
network transfer.
The network-to-inverter return transfer (after repair of the
latter) will cause more disturbance of the output voltage
amplitude when the internal impedance of the inverter is
larger (see Fig. 30). It should be noted that the instant of
network-to-inverter return transfer can be selected, while in
Fig. 31. Progressive transfer from network to inverter. the preceding case it was random. These transient conditions

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CHAUPRADE: INVERTERS FOR POWER SUPPLIES 295
Network

g Charger

,1

Fig. 32. 400 kVA three-phase static contractor.

kiMWf
(b)
flIHth
Fig. 34. 350-kVA UPS with parallel redundancy. (a) Schematic dia-
gram of four 120-kVA inverters in parallel (3 + I redundancy). (b)
Phase to phase voltage on critical bus bars during inverter fault.

can be attenuated or even eliminated by using a progressive

return, such that for a few cycles both static contactors are
closed. By acting upon the inverter voltage phase at the phase
regulator level one can make the inverter pick up the load
progressively (see Fig. 31). This operation can be manual or
automatic.
When the network is used as an emergency power supply it
is desirable to have the lowest possible inverter MTTR. Fig. 32
shows a set of static contactors of 400 kVA. With the described
circuit, the transfer to the network can also be made for
other reasons than the inverter fault. Two cases can be
mentioned.
Loads
a) The load circuit comprises several feeders, i.e., several
(a) critical loads, and the short-circuit of one load must not affect
the other loads. With the rating of the inverter being moderate,
one can have the load transferred to the network until the fault
is cleared. Obviously, an adequate fuse must be provided on
each feeder. Figure 33(a) shows the corresponding circuit and
33(b) shows the corresponding performance.
b) The load circuit comprises a nonlinear load, for example,
(b) a motor, drawing peak currents which can cause a A V exceeding
the tolerance. It is then more economical to use the transfer
to the network than to increase excessively the inverter
rating. The oscillogram in Fig. 33(c) shows the automatic
-=- X II I A I
transfer during starting of a motor. The return transfer to the
inverter is made when the current decreases below the transfer
threshold.
2) Redundancy by Paralleling: The principle is to subdiyide
(c) the installed power into several elementary units of rating p
Fig. 33. (a) Use of network as back-up in case of abnormally high
and to add one unit for redundancy
overloads. (b) Transfer to the network for clearing short-circuit on
feeder from inverter. (c) Transfer to network for starting of motor. P=p(n- 1).

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 296 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTIRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. IA-1 3, NO. 4, JULY/AUGUST 1977

TABLE I
Transient Conditions
U/U = + 10% -i8%
T
kVA Rating Single Phase Three Phase Natural
Short
1 to 0 to 0 to P/P P/P A P/P Circuit
Inverter Type 10 t 10 to 10 to 300 to
to 00 to300 t
|100 t 300 to < 30% < 45% < 60% Strength

Transient Technology X X

Thyristor Technology 4 4- + 4 4

Center Tap Inverter

+ FRR

Bridge Asym. Control

4-Element Filter
(Scott Wye Connection)
Bridge Asym. Control
3-Element Filter
(Zig-Zag Connection)
PWM-

Polygonal PMW Circuit

2 Three-Phase Bridges _
Polygonal Connection
Multibridges, Single E i-
Phase Shifted
Sequential Redundancy A A A A

Parallel Redundancy V

The fact of having one surplus unit implies a certain number of parallel redundancy, the question of optimum selection of
assumptions: a) the failure of a unit should not cause failures the per unit rating arises insofar as alternate solutions are
on other units; b) the total load should not exceed the total possible.
capacity with one unit less; c) the redundancy must be The formula that makes it possible to estimate the overall
homogeneous, equal common points must be avoided (single increase of the average interval between failures, is the
pilot oscillator for example); d) the repair time (MTTR) of the following
unit that failed must be compatible with the MTBF per unit (a
ratio of 1 to 50 or, of at least 1 to 100). To make inverters mo(p/X + 2n - 1)
operate well in parallel it is necessary to balance properly the M1 --

real and the reactive power, i.e., each inverter circuit must
have the same transmittance.
The two most difficult conditions to achieve are the
redundancy at the level of the pilot oscillators and their
synchronization, and the isolation of the faulty unit. At the
level of the pilot oscillators, two solutions are possible: a) a
redundant master oscillator and n slave oscillators; the master
oscillator should consist of at least three elementary oscillators
undergoing continuous auctioneering or b) no master oscillator;
the n oscillators are coupled through an impedance so that if
one of them fails, there is no interaction with the others.
At the power level, protective measures will make it
possible to isolate the faulty unit without exceeding the
tolerances of the critical bus bar, i.e., of the load. The oscillo-
gram of Fig. 34 shows the disturbance recorded on a static
UPS of 350 kVA, consisting of four inverters of 120 kVA,
during fault on one of them. The isolation of the faulty unit
can be achieved by fast-acting fuses, by a high-speed breaker,
or by a static contactor.
We have described only the inverter redundancy, but one
may also be required to provide redundancy of the rectifier-
battery charger. During the study of an installation with
n(n-1)
where
mO MTBF per unit,
ml resultant MTBF,
1/X ino, MTBF,
I/n MTTR,
n total number of installed units.
One can see that if n is small by comparison with M/X, and if
p1/ is larger than 100, then the gain (ml/mo) can be very
large. The per-unit rating is obviously >P/(n - 1), P being
the total required rating. Normally the price increases when
n increases even if standardized subassemblies are used.
In general, imperatives with regard to transient conditions
restrict the selection of n. The transition from P/n to P/(n -1)
causes an output change, which should not produce a voltage
change in excess of the established limit. Usually, the limit is
n > 3. Moreover, if the number of units in parallel increases,
certain load balancing problems become more difficult. In
practice, one does not exceed n = 6, usually the optimal values
are n = 4 or n = 5.

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. IA-I 3, NO. 4, JULY/AUGUST 1977
As an example, with p/A = 500 (MTBF = 10 000, MTTR =
20) we have
ml = 10 000 (500 + 7)/4 X 3 = 420 000 h, for n = 4,
i.e., a residual fault rate (RFR) = 10 000/420 000 = 2.4
percent/yr,
ml'= 10 000 (500 + 9)/5 X 4 = 250 000
(RFR = 4 percent), for n = 5,
ml r = 10 000 (500 + 11)/6 X 5 = 170 000
(RFR = 5.9 percent) for n = 6.
It should be noted that the ratio ,/)\ decreases relatively rapidly
when the complexity and the number of components increase.
Thus one should seek the best compromise between the excess
of installed rating (excess units) and the rate of availability of
the installation.
CONCLUSIONS
In making the summary, we can state that for small ratings
the future is with transistors, for medium and large ratings
thyristors are best, the best results are obtained with inverters
Corrosion and Grounding Systems
SUNDAR RAJAN, SENIOR MEMBER, IEEE, AND SRJNIVASA
Abstract-Corrosion that occurs in the presence of dissimilar metals
in the same electrolyte, or same metal in different electrolytes, or in
different concentrations of the same electrolyte, has caused numerous
problems in operating electric systems. This corrosion is the result of
a potential difference existing between two surfaces which forces an
electric current to flow. This effect is often ignored or overlooked in
electrical grounding design, with the premise that electrical system pro-
tection will be hampered by the incorporation of corrosion protection.
By careful design, however, both sets of requirements can be met. Some
of the principles that determine corrosion and how these conditions
exist in underground systems of cement plants are reviewed. The
principles of grounding design are analyzed and suggestions to improve
the design to minimize corrosion are discussed.
INTRODUCTION
IN CEMENT PLANTS there are extensive underground pipe
installations serving a number of functions, including distri-
bution of water, gas, fuel, etc. The National Electrical Code
Paper 10-75-63, approved by the Cement Industry Committee of
the IEEE Industry Applications Society for presentation at the 1975
IEEE Cement Industry Technical Conference, Montreal, PQ, Canada,
May 5-8. Manuscript released for publication June 29, 1976.
The authors are witlh Kaiser Engineers, Inc., Oakland, CA 94666.
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297
with polygonal circuits, and the pulsewidth modulation can
provide notable advantages in certain cases. Table I is a concise
summary of the solutions described in the text, depicting only
the present situation. Inverters are bound to progress in many
fields, and they will evolve according to the needs and, also, to
the considerable development in the field of semiconductors.
At the present time, in the domain of power semiconductors,
the greatest development efforts are directed toward high-
speed devices: they are directed mainly toward the reduction
of commutation time and toward the improvement of transient
characteristics (di/dt, dv/dt). These characteristics are essential
for forced-commutation converters such as UPS inverters.
Robert Chauprade was born in Perigord,
France, in August 1935. He received the Ph.D.
degree in electronic physics from the University
2 of Toulouse, Toulouse, France.
Since 1959, he has been a Member of the Re-
search and Development staff of the Jeumont-
i Schneider Company ahd has contributed to the
R. development of thyristor converters of all
types. He is author of many technical papers
and his research work has been covered by
several patents: Dr. Chauprade is presently
Chief Engineer at the Industrial Systems Engineering Division of
Jeumont-Schneider at Champagne-sur-Seine, France, where he is head
of the Power Electronics Department.
I. VENUGOPALAN, MEMBER, IEEE
(NEC) recommends that these extensive contact areas of pipes
be used for grounding purposes. While this type of grounding
is sufficient for homes and lower voltage distribution systems,
it is inadequate for large cement plants. The required ground-
ing is accomplished by means of man-made grounds, and the
material almost invariably used for this application is copper.
Also, for safety purposes, all metallic structures within a plant
are tied down to this grounding network. In most cases, these
structures include all underground pipelines, building steel,
buried tanks, etc. Because of the nobility of copper, this
grounding causes the development of corrosion, and in due
course, underground structures made of steel or iron connected
to copper lose their integrity. This paper examines this pheno-
menon and recommends methods to minimize corrosion ef-
fects.
This paper will also discuss the fundamentals of corrosion
from basic principles and attempt to portray the phenomenon
as it relates to grounding schemes. After analyzing the
methods of detecting the presence of corrosion, the paper
describes detailed procedures for designing a gtounding system
for a cement plant. The paper concludes with recommenda-
tions for a safe grounding design for cement plants.