3/12/2018 WRITING CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS OF DATA (Qualitative)

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WRITING CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS OF DATA (Qualitative)

List of Modules:

Module 1 - The PhD Process

Module 2 - Quantitative Research
Module 3 - Qualitative Research
Module 4 - Analysing Qualitative Data
Module 5 - Writing the Thesis

In reporting qualitative data in Chapter 4, you discuss the themes or categories

that emerged from the word, phrases and sentences you collected from
interviews, observations or document analysis.
Contents of Module 5: Writing the Thesis

Structure of the Thesis

Writing Chapter 1: "Introduction"
Writing Chapter 2: "Review of Literature"
Writing Chapter 3: "Methodology" [Quantitative]
Writing Chapter 3: "Methodology" [Qualitative]
Writing Chapter 4: "Analysis of Data" (Quantitative)
Writing Chapter 4: Analysis of Data (Qualitative)
Writing Chapter 5: "Summary, Discussion and Conclusion"
Thesis Defence
Writing Style and Language Expression
APA Format & Style
What are Examiners Looking for in a Thesis?

Chapter 4 for Qualitative Research carries different titles such as 'Analysis of Data',
'Results of Study', 'Analysis and Results' and so forth. The key words are 'analysis' and
'results' which implies that you have 'analysed' the raw data and presenting the 'results' or
what you discovered in this Chapter. The following are some possible 'mess ups' which is
not an exaggeration and does happen:

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You have spent so much time collecting and analysing data but
do a poor job of reporting the results. You may under-report
despite having collected large amounts of data. Do not sell
yourself short!
Alternatively, after collecting all the data, your presentation
of the results lack organisation and clarity. Your reader
struggles trying to figure out what the heck you have written
in this Chapter.
You may have done a good job writing Chapter 1, Chapter 2 and
Chapter 3 with such clarity and make a mess of Chapter 4. Gee,
what a waste!

It has been suggested that Chapter 4 should 'stand alone' meaning that you could ask a
friend to read it and she would what you discovered in you study without have to read
Chapters 1 to 3. How about that! Can you do that? To be able to 'stand alone', Chapter 4
should be aligned to the purpose of the study, the research questions, why the study was
important, how it connects to the underlying theories, literature review and reflective of
the conceptual framework. Chapter 4 is the culmination of your study and represents you
best thinking and how you answered the research question you had posed.
Chapter 4 Qualitative Research is less structured compared to Chapter 4 Quantitative
Research. In contrast. There is no one style for reporting the findings for Qualitative
Research and you may choose from an assortment of styles to tell your 'story' in an
organised and interesting manner. According to Wolcott (1990), "writing well is neither a
luxury nor an option .....it is absolutely essential" (p.13) for qualitative research.
Qualitative research generates rich information and deciding where to focus is very
challenging. This is what Ronald Chenail had to say:
"I believe that the data, which have been painfully collected, should "be the star" in
the relationship. By this I mean, the main focus in qualitative research is the data
itself, in all its richness, breadth, and depth. When all is said and done, the
"quality" in a qualitative research project is based upon how well you have done at
collecting quality data. So, it only seems natural that when it comes time to present
"the fruits of your labor," you should make every effort to feature the data in your
presentations"   (Presenting Qualitative Data. The Qualitative Report, 2(3). Dec.
1995).

Presenting Qualitative Data by Ronald

Chenail. The Qualitative Report. 2(3). Dec.
1995.

Read this article on the different approaches in

presenting qualitative data.

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INTRODUCTION

a. Briefly re-state the problem statement, the purpose of the study and research
questions
b. Tell the reader on the purpose of Chapter 4 and how you organised the 'story'.
c. Briefly describe the research design - whether you used ethnographic method,
case study method and so forth
d. Briefly tell about the sample you studied and data collection techniques -
whether you used observations, interviews and so forth
e. Brief explanation of how data were processed and coded, as well as how data
exemplars were chosen for presentation.
f. Explain how you established trustworthiness of data collected

Someone may ask why is there need to 'repeat' the above as it has been explained in
detail in the earlier chapters. You are not repeating but rather you are 're-stating' the key
ideas (provided an executive summary) on what you had written earlier . But WHY? The
reasons is twofold: First is to provide a context that will lead the reader towards the
findings reported in Chapter 4. Second is the fact that not all people who read you final
thesis will begin with Chapter 1. Rather they may 'skip' to Chapter 4 to read about the
findings of the study. Hence, the brief summary on the purpose, research questions,
sampling, research design and data collection techniques provides a background for the
reader to better understand and appreciate the findings reported in the 'body' of Chapter
4.

BODY

Note that 'body' is not a sub-heading but rather it is main part of Chapter 4. It is
suggested that you begin with the demographics of your subjects, informants or
participants explaining the age, gender or relevant information about the sample.
You could also present it in the form of tables.
Then you begin telling about your findings which you can organise according to
the research questions or you may approach the chapter according to the
significance of the themes or categories that emerged from analysis of the
data. There is no single way to present the findings because it depend on your
research design.
Verbatim quotes are used to support your arguments. Verbatim quotations (spoken
word) or extracts are often used interchangeably and are passages taken from interviews
(one-to-one) or focus group. Quotes are generally short while extracts are longer
passages.
Quotes demonstrate how the findings of your interpretations have arisen
from the data.
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Quotes and extracts are used to support your interpretations and

explanations - as a general rule of thumb, try to use at least two
different quotations from two different people to support each argument.
No set rules on how long quotes or extracts should, nor how many
quotes you should use.
Should quotes and extracts be ‘cleaned’? Some researchers would
argue that every hesitation, every ‘um’ and ‘er’ of a respondent should be
reported, since it has meaning. Others argue that breaks in the text may
make it difficult for the reader to follow the flow of the conversation. As a
general rule quotations and extracts should be presented in a manner
that reflects as accurately as possible the conversation that occurred,
whilst omitting unnecessary breaks and pauses in the conversation.
Is it acceptable to shorten extracts (longer passages of text)? It
is generally acceptable to shorten passages of text as long as you make it
clear what you have done. For example text followed by a number of dots
(………………) generally denotes where text has been removed or left out.
Identifiers are included in (brackets) at the end of a quote or extract.
You may give details without revealing the identity of the participant. For
"I do not like football because ................."(Male aged 43). Gender and age
is identified because your study intends to compare gender and age
preferences for football. Details about the identifier depends on the
purpose of the research.

[source: The Council's Corporate Research and Consultation Team (CRAC).

Analysing and reporting qualitative data. United Kingdom]

Anne Croden and Roy Sainsbury (2006) in study involving several qualitative
researchers identified the following reasons for using verbatim quotations in
reporting qualitative data:

just like statistical data, verbatim quotations provide evidence for

interpretation made by the researcher - i.e. shows how the findings
emerged from the data which is an 'audit trail' that strengthens
credibility (one of the components of trustworthiness). Qualitative
researchers have to work hard at justifying their findings so that is
does not appear to be unscientific or subjective.
verbatim quotations are used to explain how something happened   -
understand why people had particular views or perspectives; behaved
in a certain way, how they constructed something.
verbatim quotations to illustrate a particular theme
verbatim quotations used to deepen understanding, i.e. the strength
of their views or depth of feelings; or their passivity and lack of
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engagement
verbatim quotations used to provide a voice for informants; i.e.
empower people to give their own views or express their feelings or
beliefs
verbatim quotations to enhance readability; i.e. to provide colour,
vividness and even humour to keep the reader focused.

Ronald Chenail (1995) has an interesting way of describing how to write-up

qualitative data. He suggests maintaining a 'rhythm' when talking about your
data. By rhythm, he means creating a template for 're-presenting' your data so
that there is a recognisable pattern throughout Chapter 4 which is identified by
the reader. The following is a common way in which your findings can be
displayed:

Category / Theme

Financial Reasons for Working Abroad

Display the First Data Exemplar (quote from the transcript) as follows:
"I ended up leaving my own home, country, my family and working far away
from loved ones to make ends meet" [40 year old single mother with two
dependents]

Comment Further on the First Data Exemplar (verbatim quote) as follows:

Massive unemployment and low wages in the home country has led participants
to find new jobs.

Make Transition to Second Data Exemplar (verbatim quote) as follows:

".....there was no future for my children and jobs overseas paid better" [a
carpenter with three children]

Comment Further on the Second Data Exemplar as follows:

Highly attractive packages offered in other countries was a core reason given by
skilled people leaving their home country. Awareness of the disparity in salaries
has hastened emigration of workers.

Make Transition to the Next Data Exemplar Until the Closing of this Section

The ‘Tarzan Process’

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Chenail (1995) akins writing-up qualitative data to "the Tarzan Process,

because I think of the quotes as vines in the jungle. As I maneuver myself from
one quote to the next, I imagine myself as Tarzan swinging from one vine to
another. It's a great way to travel and a fun way to conceptualize the data re-
presentation process".
Presentation of Data

EXAMPLE # 1: Children's Ability to Discriminate Among Food Types

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The Verbatim Quotation:

'My mother says drink juice because it's healthy and she says if you don't drink
it you won't get healthy and you won't have any sweets and you'll end up
having to go to hospital if you don't eat anything like vegetables because you'll
get weak'. (Girl, age 11 years).
Explanation by the Researcher:

The interviews demonstrated that children are able to differentiate and

discriminate between different types of food effortlessly. Also their ability
to discriminate types of food and drinks was both sophisticated and
complex, incorporating positive and negative notions relating to food and its
health and social consequences.

EXAMPLE # 2: Adults Learners Opinions on Doing a Bachelors Degree

The Verbatim Quotation:

I feel better and more confident among my colleagues who are degree holders
(Robbie, age 32)
My self-esteem got better . I am now able to talk with all kinds of people more
bravely. (Zalina, age 40 years).
I am proud of myself that I can do this and has given me courage to talk with
others in my office (Swee Leong age 32')
Explanation by the Researcher:

Various statements by informants highlight the significance of self-

confidence when interacting with people attributed to pursuing a degree.
Self-confidence is interpreted as being able to do new things or doing things
better than before. Self-confidence is mostly exemplified by the ability to
communicate.

Analysing and Presenting Qualitative Data by P. Burnard, P. Gill,

K. Stewart. E. Treasure and B. Chadwick (2008). British Dental
Journal. 204(8). 429-432.

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Refer to the section on 'Writing and Presenting Qualitative Research'

where two main approaches to writing up the findings of qualitative
research are discussed - p. 432

1. Presenting ualitative Results

2. Writing-up Qualitative Research by Graham Gibbs
3. Writing Qualitative Findings Paragraphs
4. Presenting Quantitative and Qualitative Data by John Kouraklis

Maintained by John Arul Phillips

A SiteOrigin Theme

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