1.

Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP)

Etiology

PSP is an illness that may have serious and potentially fatal effects. It is caused by eating bivalve shellfish
and other molluscan shellfish that have been contaminated by toxins produced by certain species of
microscopic marine algae found in coastal waters. Lobster and crab tomalley (also called
hepatopancreas, which is the soft green substance inside the body cavity) can also accumulate the
toxins which cause PSP. The toxins that cause PSP are not destroyed by cooking.

Toxicity

Symptoms of PSP could begin within a few minutes and up to 10 hours after consumption. Symptoms of
PSP can include: A tingling sensation or numbness around the lips that gradually spreads to the face and
neck, a prickly sensation in the fingertips and toes, drowsiness, headache and dizziness, and difficulty
swallowing. In more severe cases one may also experience: Incoherent speech, a prickly sensation in the
arms and legs, stiffness and non-coordination of limbs, weakness, and a rapid pulse. Respiratory
difficulty, salivation, temporary blindness, nausea and vomiting may also occur. In extreme cases,
paralysis of respiratory muscles may lead to respiratory arrest and death within two to twelve hours
after consumption. Seriously affected people must be hospitalized and placed under respiratory care.
There is no known cure for PSP.

2. Methods used in detection of marine biotoxins

The new test uses a method called liquid chromatographic post-column oxidation (LC PCOX) to separate
fluid samples at the molecular level. This allows individual toxic compounds to be identified and
measured. This test replaces the traditional mouse bioassay (MBA) method used since the 1950s. That
test estimated the toxin levels by studying its effects on mice.

The previous method was able to help determine if shellfish were unsafe to eat. The new method allows
analysis of PSP toxin levels more precisely it can detect low levels of toxins before they become
dangerous. It also reduces testing costs by more than 50 percent.

The new paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) testing method detects which toxins are present in mussels,
clams, oysters and scallops, and at what concentration. This provides an important early warning for
potential toxic outbreaks.
 3. Natural toxins found in food animal, source and clinical symptoms

Toxin Source Symptoms

Shellfish Poisoning Ingestion of affected shellfish Symptoms similar to Alzheimer’s disease.
Domoic Acid Amnestic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP) nausea, vomiting and diarrhea,
muscle weakness, disorientation, and
memory loss.
Shellfish poisoning Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, headache,
Okadoic Acid abdominal cramps, and chills.
Shellfish Poisoning Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP) Pallor, drowsiness, slurred speech,
Brevetoxin breathing difficulty and staring.
Shellfish poisoning Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) A tingling sensation or numbness around
Saxitoxin the lips that gradually spreads to the face
and neck, a prickly sensation in the
fingertips and toes, drowsiness, headache
and dizziness, and difficulty swallowing.
In more severe cases one may also
experience: incoherent speech, a prickly
sensation in the arms and legs, stiffness
and non-coordination of limbs, weakness,
and a rapid pulse.
Tingling of lips, tongue and fingertips,
vomiting, nausea, paralysis, respiratory
failure and death.

Puffer fish poisoning Tetrodotoxin ½-4 hours: tingling and numbness of lips,
Tetraodontidae spp Neurointoxication through ingestion tongue, fingers and toes, as well as a
of fugu puffer fish lightness of the chest; sometimes
accompamied nausea, diarrhea, vomiting,
death.
Scombroid Ingestion of histamine from poorly 1-4 hours: nausea, vomiting, headache,
poisoning handled fish such as tuna, mackerel difficulty swallowing and itching of the
and barracuda skin; rarely death.
Ciguatera poisoning Reef fish toxin 1-4 hours: tingling of lips and tongue,
numbness, nausea, vomiting and
diarrhea; this is followed by headache,
vertigo, paralysis, heart palpations,
respiratory paralysis and occasionally
death.
Source: Food Alert (2008)

4. Algae bloom

Cyanobacteria is the scientific name for blue-green algae, or "pond scum." The first recognized
species were blue-green in colour, which is how the algae got their name. Species identified since range
in colour from olive-green to red. Cyanobacteria form in shallow, warm, slow-moving or still water. They
are made up of cells, which can house poisons called cyanobacterial toxins. A mass of cyanobacteria in a
body of water is called a bloom. When this mass rises to the surface of the water, it is known as surface
scum or a surface water bloom. Although the extent to which cyanobacterial blooms occur across
Canada is unknown, it is known to appear mostly in the hot summer months and is quite prevalent in
the prairies.

Cyanobacterial toxins are the naturally produced poisons stored in the cells of certain species of
cyanobacteria. These toxins fall into various categories. Some are known to attack the liver
(hepatotoxins) or the nervous system (neurotoxins); others simply irritate the skin. These toxins are
usually released into water when the cells rupture or die. Health Canada scientists are more concerned
about hepatotoxins than neurotoxins, because neurotoxins are not considered to be as widespread as
hepatotoxins in water supplies. Very few cyanobacterial toxins have actually been isolated and
characterized to date. Better methods of detection are being developed to help us learn more about
them, especially to find out which toxins is a problem in Canada and what conditions encourage their
production.

One group of toxins produced and released by cyanobacteria are called microcystins because they were
isolated from a cyanobacterium called Microcystis aeruginosa. Microcystins are the most common of
the cyanobacterial toxins found in water, as well as being the ones most often responsible for poisoning
animals and humans who come into contact with toxic blooms. Microcystins are extremely stable in
water because of their chemical structure, which means they can survive in both warm and cold water
and can tolerate radical changes in water chemistry, including pH. So far, scientists have found about 50
different kinds of microcystins. One of them, microcystin-LR, appears to be one of the microcystins most
commonly found in water supplies around the world.

The earliest reliable account of a cyanobacterial bloom dates back to the 12th century; the toxic effects
of cyanobacteria on livestock have been recognized for more than 100 years. Since cyanobacterial
bloom formation seems to be linked to nutrient-rich water bodies (for example, water that contains a
lot of phosphates from detergents and phosphate fertilizers), the problem is not likely to go away in the
near future.

The depth at which cyanobacterial blooms float depends on a number of factors. The most important of
these are light, phosphorus and nitrogen, which cyanobacteria need in order to survive. As the
availability of these elements can change quickly with the time of day and the weather, most
cyanobacteria have evolved to be able to control their buoyancy. By being able to sink and rise at will,
they are able to move to where nutrient and light levels are at their highest.

In order to activate the mechanism that allows them to move, cyanobacteria need light. At night, when
there is no light, cells are unable to adjust their buoyancy and often float to the surface, forming a
surface scum. This scum literally appears overnight and lingers until the wind and waves scatter the cells
throughout the water.
References

CFIA, (2012): Marine Toxins in Bivalve Shellfish: Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning, Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning
and Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning: Retrieved from

http://www.inspection.gc.ca/food/consumer-centre/food-safety-tips/specific-products-and-
risks/bivalve-shellfish/eng/1332275144981/1332275222849

Health Canada, (2012): Blue-Green Algae (Cyanobacteria) and their Toxins. Retrieved from
http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/water-eau/cyanobacter-eng.php

CDC, (2012): Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/hab/cyanobacteria/facts.htm